thayer terrorism radicalization through social networks
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Explaining Clean Skins:
The Dynamics of Small Group Social Networks
and the London Bombers
Carlyle A. Thayer
Professor of Politics
Director, UNSW Defence Studies Forum
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Australian Defence Force Academy
c.thayer@adfa.edu.au
Paper to Workshop on
Sacrificial Devotion in Comparative Perspective:
Tamil Tigers and Beyond
Sponsored by
Department of Anthropology
University of Adelaide
Adelaide, South Australia
December 5-7, 2005
mailto:c.thayer@adfa.edu.aumailto:c.thayer@adfa.edu.au -
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ExplainingCleanSkins:TheDynamicsofSmallGroupSocial
NetworksandtheLondonBombers
CarlyleA.Thayer*
AbstractIntheaftermathoftheJuly7th2005Londonbombings,therewasintensespeculationby
media commentators and security analysts about the degree to which al Qaeda was
responsible.Whenthe identitiesofthebomberswasknown,mediacommentatorsand
security analysts then turned their attention to explaining how socalled clean skins
couldberecruitedintotheglobaljihad.Mainstreamanalysistendedtofocusontheroles
ofbrainwashingandamastermindbehindthesesuicideattacks.
This paper offers an alternate approach to understanding how clean skinsbecome
suicide bombers. This paper utilizes social network theory which stresses the
importance of social background (socioeconomic status, education, faith as youth,
occupation,andfamilystatus).Socialnetworktheoryarguesthatsocialbondspredating
formalrecruitmentintotheglobaljihadarethecrucialelementoftheprocess.
Themainvenueforjoiningglobaljihadconsistsofgroupsoffriends(abunchofguys)
that spontaneously assemble in mosques. According to forensic psychiatrist Marc
Sagemen, author of Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvaniaPress,2004),joining theglobaljihad isa threeprongedprocessofsocial
affiliation (social bonding) involving membership in smallworld groups based on
friendship,
kinship
and
discipleship.
Over
time
members
of
these
cliques
experience
a
progressive intensification of their beliefs and faith leading them to embrace the
ideologyofglobaljihad.Thenextstageinvolvesanencounterbythesmallgroupwitha
link to thejihad. The final stage involves intense training and voluntary recruitment
usually markedby a formal ceremony (swearing an oath of loyalty). Social network
theorythusrejectstheargumentthatindividualsbecometerroristsbecauseoftopdown
recruitmentandbrainwashing.
TheLondonBombingsInearlyJuly2005,ShahzadTanweerrentedaNissanMicrafromalocalagency.
OnJuly
7
thhe
drove
two
of
his
friends
to
ahouse
in
the
Burley
area
of
Leeds
to
pick up a number of explosive devices. This group wasjoinedby the fourth
*ProfessorofPolitics,PostgraduateCourseworkCoordinatorandDirector,UNSWDefence
StudiesForum,SchoolofHumanitiesandSocialSciences,UniversityCollege,TheUniversityof
NewSouthWalesattheAustralianDefenceForceAcademy,Canberra.
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bomber in his carand they then drove to Luton inBedfordshire, parked their
cars in the railway station and took a Thameslink train to Kings Cross in
London.Theretheysplitup.
MohammedSidiqueKhanexplodedadeviceontheEdgwareRoadsubway,killingatleastsevenpersons.
ShahzadTanweerdetonatedanexplosivedeviceontheCircleLinebetweenLiverpoolStreetandAldgatekillingatleastsevenpersons.
Germaine Lindsay set off an explosive device near Kings Cross Stationkillingatleast26persons.
HasbibHussainfoundhisassignedNorthernlinedisrupted.Heleftthesceneand made frantic mobile phone calls to the otherbombers;but these calls
wentunanswered.Almostanhourafterthefirstattacks,hesetofhisbomb
ontheNo.30businTavistockSquare,killingatleastthirteenpeople.
AftertheJuly7bombings,policefound16otherexplosivedevicesinTanweers
rentalcarattheLutonrailwaystationcarpark.Severalofthedevicesconsisted
ofplasticbottlesturnedintonailbombswithadetonatorattachedtoanelectric
cableandweredesignedtobecarriedinarucksack.Theexplosivedevisesused
in the London bombings probably weighed 4.5 kilograms each and were
composedoftriacetonetriperoxide(TATP).Britishforensicexpertscharacterized
the London bombs as crude homemade devices. A police official stated,
Everything that we have suggests that these could have been made with
knowledgein
this
country.
These
are
the
type
of
devices
you
can
make
yourself
withinformationyoucouldacquirefromtheInternet,orotherextremisttraining
manuals.1
The July 7 London bombings prompted immediate speculation by counter
terrorism specialists and media commentators that al Qaeda was responsible.
David MartinJones, an Australian academic, wrote, the alQaeda in Europe
groupthatclaimedresponsibilityfortheattacksskillfullyplannedandexecuted
theoperation.2TheLondonbombingswereimmediatelycomparedtotheMarch
2004attacksinMadrid.Whoelsecouldhavecarriedoutsynchronizedattacksof
1RaymondBonner,StephenGreyandDonVanNatta,BritishInquiryShiftsAwayFromForeign
AidforPlots,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.2DavidMartinJones,SchizophreniathatdogsUKswaronterrorism,TheAustralianFinancialReview,July13,2005,63.
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thisnature?AlQaedawasnotindecline,theyargued,andtheJuly7thbombings
wereproof.
When the identityof thebomberswasdiscoveredmediaattention tookanew
direction.Allfourofthebomberswere cleanskinsor lilywhites,thatis,they
were unknown to police and security authorities.3 Family relatives speculated
that Tanweer must havebeenbrainwashedby an extremist religious teacher.
Media commentator Cameron Stewart, for example, stressed the emotional
vulnerabilityoftheyoungerbomberstoanoldermentor.Stewartalsosuggested
that Tanweer mighthavebeen indoctrinatedby radicalized imams whileon a
visittoPakistaninlate2004/early2005.CameronalsoarguedthatMuslimswho
seektobecomesuicidebombersarerarelyabletocarryouttheirplanswithout
access toawellconnectedmastermindwhocanprovide themwithexplosives
andreinforcetheirwillingnesstodieforIslam.4
Britishpolicegavepriority to identifying thesupportnetwork includingbombmakerandmasterplanner thathadenabledtheseattackstotakeplace.Asofthis
writing,policehavenotindicatedanysuccessinthisendeavour.
Asevidencewasassessed,analystsbecamemore introspective.AlQaeda, they
concluded,wasno longerthehighlycapableterroristorganization itoncewas.
WhenalJazeeratelevisionbroadcastavideotapecontainingthelasttestimonyof
MohammedSidiqueKhanandacommentarybyAymanalZawahri,alQaedas
numbertwo,officialswerequicktopointoutthatthisdidnotconclusivelyprove
alQaedawasbehindthe7/7attacksinLondon.
Astheprofilesofthefourbombersindicates,allwerehomegrown.Accordingto
severalanalysts,thisrepresentedBritainsworstnightmarebecausehomegrown
terroristsaresohardtodetect.The7/7attackswerealsothefirstterroristsuicide
bombingstobecarriedoutintheUnitedKingdomandtheyseeminglyspawned
asecondroundofcopycatbombingsonJuly21.
3Theuseofthetermcleanskinsmaybefoundin:MartinChulov,UndertheRadar,TheAustralian,July14,2005,14;JohnSteeleandDouglasJehl,Homegrownmayhem,TheAustralianFinancial
Review,
July
14,
2005,
61;
Peter
Wilson,
Britains
home
grown
enemy,
The
Australian,
July14,2005,1;andDanielMcGroryandMichaelEvans,Bombersleaderidentifiedbypolice,
TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July15,2005,1and9.LilywhitewasatermusedduringtheIRAbombingsforterroristswithnoknownconnectionstomilitants,see:HowPolice
TracedtheSuspectsTrail,TheEconomistreprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,28andDanielMcGrory,BritianshomegrownenemyCallthatcrackedthecase,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July14,2005,12.4CameronStewart,Enemywithin,TheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,19and28.
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Thispaperwillapplysocialnetwork theory toexplain thephenomenonof the
emergenceofhomegrowncleanskinterroristsinBritain.Thistheoryhaswider
applicability,includingtoAustralia.Twocaveatsareinorder.First,thisresearch
isanoffshootoftheauthorsmaininterestintheemergenceofnewterrorismin
SoutheastAsia.
Second,
this
paper
must
be
viewed
as
only
apreliminary
analysis
untilBritishsecurityofficialsreleasefurtherdetailsoftheirinvestigation.
SocialNetworkTheoryMarcSagemanprovidesperhapsoneof themost insightfulaccounts intowhy
individualsbecometerroristsbasedonhisstudyasaforensicpsychiatristofthe
biographiesofnearly400 individualswhoweremembersofwhathetermsthe
globalSalafijihad.5Sageman considers threemainexplanatoryapproaches to
the study of why individualsjoin terrorist groups: (1) socialbackground, (2)
common
psychological
make
up,
and
(3)
situational
factors.
Sageman
evaluates
thestrengthsandweaknessesofeachapproach.He thenconstructsatheoryof
social networks to explain the dependent variable of why individualsbecome
terrorists. Sagemans study makes clear that the global jihad movement is
historicallyuniquewhencomparedwithotherterroristgroups.
Socialbackground. In termsofgeographicalorigin,of172persons inSagemansfirststudy,twothirdscamefromsixcountries:SaudiArabia(N=31),Egypt(24),
France(18),Algeria(15),Morocco(14)andIndonesia(12).Sagemanssecondand
largerstudyrevealed that mostof the terrorists in thesamplecome fromcore
Arab
countries,
immigrant
communities
in
the
West,
Indonesia
or
Malaysia.
6
In his first study, Sageman identified four large geographical clusters if the
patternofinteractionamongindividualterroristsisusedtodiscriminateamong
thesample:
CentralStaff(alQaedaleadership),32members; CoreArabStates(SaudiArabia,Egypt,Yemen,Kuwait),66members;
5MarcSageman,UnderstandingTerrorNetworks(Philadelphia:UniversityPennsylvaniaPress,2004)considersthebackgroundsof172terrorists.Thisdatasetwasexpandedtoabout400inhis
laterstudy,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,TheJournalofInternationalSecurityAffairs,8,2005,7990.Fordetailsonthedemographicbackgroundsofsuicideterroristsconsult:RobertA.
Pape,DyingtoWin:TheStrategicLogicofSuicideTerrorism(NewYork:RandomHouse,2005),199216.
6Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.
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MaghrebAfrica(Algeria,MoroccoandTunisiaandwellasmigrantsfromthesecountrieslivinginFrance),53members;and
Southeast Asia (Jemaah Islamiyah [JI] members from Indonesia andMalaysia),21members.7
Sageman included five variables in his analysis of socialbackground factors:
socioeconomicstatus,education,faithasyouth,occupation,andfamilystatus.
Intermsofsocioeconomicstatus,theSoutheastAsiaclustermaybeclassifiedas
solidly middle class. The Central and Core Arab clusters are similar and are
skewed toward the middle and upper classes; while the Maghreb cluster is
evenlydividedbetweenlowerandmiddleclasses.
The172membersofSagemanssamplecamefromrelativelywelltodofamilies
andweremuchbettereducated than thepopulationat large in thedeveloping
world. Over sixty percent had at least some college education. They were abettereducatedgroupthantheirparents.Asizeableproportionhadexperience
livingabroadintheMiddleEastandtheWest.Theywereabletospeakseveral
languages.TheCentralStaffclusterwasthebesteducated.Eightyeightpercent
had completed a college or tertiary education and twenty percent held
doctorates.
The majority of Sagemans sample attended secular schools; only seventeen
percent had Islamic primary and secondary educational backgrounds. It is
significant to note that the Southeast Asia cluster was drawn mainly from
religious
studies,
while
terrorists
in
the
other
clusters
undertook
science,
engineeringorcomputersciencecourses.OfthosewhohadanIslamiceducation,
halfwerefromIndonesia.The Indonesiannetworkstandsoutamongtheother
clusters with such a high percentage of its members the product of Islamic
education.
Threequarters of Sagemans sample canbe classified as professional (medical
doctors,architects,teachersorpreachers)orhadsemiskilledoccupations(police,
military,mechanics,civilservice,smallbusiness,students).Theremainingone
7Indonesians form the majority of the members of the Southeast Asia cluster (12 of 21); other
membersinclude:Malaysia(3),SingaporeandthePhilippines(2each),andAustraliaandKuwait
(1each).Mostof themembersofJIwere formerstudentsand/orstaffat twoboardingschools,
Pondok Ngruki in Indonesia and Pesentren Luqmanul Hakiem in Malaysia, foundedby the
groups leaders. The Southeast Asia cluster is also the second oldest (formed in 1993), and
developed in the 1990s when the leaders ofJI were exiled in Malaysia.JI did not embark on
terrorismuntilafteritsleadersreturnedtoIndonesiain1999.
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quarter of the sample was classified as unskilled workers; here the Maghreb
Arabspredominated.
Sagemans followup study confirmedhisearlier findings: [i]n termsof socio
economicbackground,threefourthscomefromupperandmiddleclassfamilies.
Far from coming frombroken families, they grewup in caring intact families,
mildlyreligiousandconcernedabouttheircommunities.Intermsofeducation,
over 60 percent have some college education. Most are in the technical fields,
suchasengineering,architecture,computers,medicine,andbusiness8
In terms of faith as youth, thirteen of sixteen Central Staff were considered
religious as children. The Southeast Asia cluster exhibited a similarly high
pattern due to theboarding school experience of its members. The Core Arab
cluster also showed early religious commitment. The Maghreb cluster was an
exception; its members were brought up in a secular school environment.
Sagemans second study found that [a]bout half of the sample grew up asreligious children,but only 13 percent of the sample, almost all of them in
SoutheastAsia,wereeducated inIslamistboardingschoolsormadrassas.9The
entiresampleofsecondgenerationEuropeanswenttosecularschools.Aboutten
percentoftheentiresamplewereCatholicswhoconvertedtoIslam.
In terms of family or marital status, seventythree percent of the sample was
married.AlloftheCentralStaffandSoutheastAsianleadersweremarried(data
availableon37).Theseindividualswereencouragedbytheirsocialnetworksto
marry theircolleaguessistersanddaughters.These ingroupmarriages forged
closereligiousandpoliticalrelationshipsandthuscontributedtothesecurityofthe group.10 Sagemans followup study reached the same findings: [t]here
fourths are married and the majority have children.11 This marital profile is
uniquetotheglobalSalafijihad;mostotherterroristswereunmarried.
Psychological explanations. Sageman considered and rejected a variety ofpsychological explanations as factors explaining why individuals became
terrorists.12 His first sample was relatively small as sufficient information was
8Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.
9Ibid.
10SeethediscussioninJemaahIslamiyahinSouthEastAsia:DamagedButStillDangerous,AsiaReportNo.63,JakartaandBrussels:InternationalCrisisGroup,August23,2003,2729.
11Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.
12Thesefactorsincluded:mentalillness,terroristpersonality,pathologicalnarcissism,paranoia
andauthoritarianpersonality.
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availableononlytencasesoutof172.Inhislaterstudy,Sagemencouldonlyfind
dataonaboutonethirdofthetotal.Thesedatarevealedlessthaneightpercent
showedevidenceofaconductdisorder.Therestofthisgroupseemstohavehad
normalchildhoodwithoutanyevidenceofgettingintroublewiththelaw.13
Situationalfactors. Sageman considers five variables as part of this explanatoryapproach:age,placeofrecruitment,faith,employment,andrelativedeprivation.
The average age when a person joined thejihad14 tobecome a terrorist was
25.69 years. The Southeast Asian cluster had the highestmeanage onjoining,
29.35 years, followedby the Central Staff whose average onjoining was 27.9
years.
Seventypercentof the terrorist leadershipsamplejoined thejihad inacountry
other thanwhere theyhadgrownup.Theywereexpatriatesaway fromhome
and familyworkers,refugees,studentsand fightersagainsttheSovietUnion.
The Central Staff members converted to global jihad while in the Sudan.IndonesianmembersofJIjoinedwhilelivinginMalaysia.Withtheexceptionof
theSoutheastAsiansandtheSaudis,mostotherterroristleadersjoinedthejihad
intheWestFrance,GermanyortheUnitedKingdom.
Inasignificantfinding,Sagemandiscoveredthattherewasadecidedshiftinthe
degree of devotion to Islam in adulthood (greater than religious devotion as
youths)byindividualspriortotheirbecomingmujahedin.Ninetysevenpercent
of his terrorist sample adopted Salafi Islambeforejoining thejihad through
exposureatmosqueswherereligiousleadersespousedthediscourseofjihad.
Next,Sagemanconsideredthevariablerelativedeprivation.Thebiographicdata
indicatedthatjustbeforejoiningthejihad,futureterroristssufferedfromsocial
isolation, spiritual emptiness and underemployment (lack of a fulltimejob).
Thesebecameasourceofgrievanceandfrustration.Sagemanconcludedthathis
datasupportedrelativedeprivationasanecessarybutnotsufficientexplanation
ofwhytheindividualsinhissampleturnedtoterrorism.
Finally,Sagemanconsideredsituationalcircumstancesatthetimeofjoiningthe
jihadasavariableinexplainingwhyindividualsdecidedtojointheglobaljihad.
Sageman found that most terroristsjoined thejihad through friendship and
kinshipbonds and that the decision tojoin thejihad was a collective not an
13Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.
14Sagemandefinesjointhejihadasanindividualsdecision(aspartofagroup)togo
somewherefortrainingAfghanistan,thePhilippines,MalaysiaorIndonesia.
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individual decision. In his words, [t]hese were not individualbut collective
decision. These preexisting friendship bonds accounted for all the students
joiningthejihad15Inotherwords,[j]oiningthisviolentsocialmovementwas
abottomup activity.After9/11and theelimination of terrorist sanctuaries in
Afghanistan,anew
pattern
emerged.
Now,
writes
Sagemen,
volunteers
join
the
movementandperformoperationswithoutbeingtrainedorformallyjoiningthe
oldalQaeda.16
Sagemans study discounts the role of religious fanaticism in post9/11 new
terrorism. Sageman argues that young men drifted toward local mosques
because theywere looking forMuslim friends,and thatswhereMuslimshang
out. And this is where pure chance might have contributed to their
radicalization.Therewasadipinreligiositywhengroupsoffriendsformedbut
within a short time, there was a dramatic shift in devotion to their faith. But
socialbonds
predated
any
ideological
commitment.
There
was
no
evidence
of
brainwashing:thefutureterroristssimplyacquiredthecommonbeliefsoftheir
friends.17
Insummary,Sagemanarguesthatjoiningthejihadwasathreeprongedprocess
of social affiliation (social bonding) involving membership in smallworld
groupsbased on friendship,kinship18anddiscipleship. Over timemembers of
thesecliquesexperiencedaprogressive intensificationof theirbeliefsand faith
leadingthemtoembracetheglobalSalafijihadideology.Thenextstageinvolved
anencounterbythesmallgroupwithalinktothejihad.Thefinalstageinvolved
intense
training
and
voluntary
recruitment
usually
markedby
a
formal
ceremony(swearinganoathofloyalty).
Sagemans findings reject the arguments that individuals become terrorists
because of top down recruitment andbrainwashing. In his view, socialbonds
predatingformalrecruitmentintothejihadarethecrucialelementoftheprocess.
Groupsof friends thatspontaneouslyassemble inmosquesconstitute themain
vectorforjoiningthejihad.
15Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,84.
16Ibid,85.
17Ibid.
18Forexample,AliGhufron,histhreeyoungerbrothersandthenextdoorneighbourwereall
involvedinthe2002Balibombings.
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ProfileoftheSuicideBombersMohammadSidiqueKhan,30.KhanwasborninPakistan.Heoriginallylivedandgrew up in Beeston. He attended Matthew Murray High School. When his
parents moved to Nottingham, he remained in Beeston to attend Leeds
University. He met his wife at university and was the father of two children.
KhanisreportedtohavevisitedPakistanafewtimesforshortvisits.19
In2002,hewasemployedasa teachingassistant inBeestonsHillsidePrimary
School forchildrenwith learningdisabilitiesand forchildrenofnewlyarrived
immigrant families. His most recent job was in an Islamic bookshop. Khan
attended the Muslim Association mosque on Stratford Street in Beeston with
TanweerandHussain.
Khan recently moved to Dewsbury. He and his wife separated in late in 2004
around
the
time
she
fell
pregnant
with
their
second
child.
Reportedly
they
continually argued over his growing religious fervour. His wife supported
womensrightsandopposedMuslimextremism.20
In2004,KhanwasthesubjectofaroutineterroristthreatassessmentbyMI5.He
wasjudgednottobeathreattonationalsecurity.21KhanandTanweertraveled
toPakistantogetherinNovember2004.KhanregularlyvisitedTanweeratChak
villageandbothlaterattendedanIslamicstudiescourseatamadrassa.
Accordingtoreports,KhanandTanweermetaknownalQaedaactivistwhowas
laterjailedforbombingachurch.22PakistaniintelligencereportedthatKhanalso
met with al Qaeda operative Mohammed Yasin (aka Ustad Osama), anexplosivesspecialistwiththemilitantgroup,HarkateJihad.23InFebruary2005
KhanandTanweerleftPakistantogetherandreturnedtoLeeds.
19JohnSteeleandDouglasJehl,Homegrownmayhem,TheAustralianFinancialReview,July14,2005,61.
20Familiesspeakofshock,disbeliefonlearningofthesecretdoublelives,TheCanberraTimes,July18,2005,6andPeterWilson,Focusonsuspectshometurf,TheAustralian,July15,2005,9.21DavidLeppard,AttackerwasjudgedbyMI5tobenothreat,TheSundayTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July18,2005,12andElaineSciolinoandDonVanNatta,JuneReportLedBritaintoLowerItsTerrorAlert,TheNewYorkTimes,July19,2005.22DanielMcGroryandZahidHussain,Militantlongedforsuicidemission,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July2324,2005,14.23GlennFrankel,BritishPursueLinkBetween2Setsofbombers,TheWashingtonPost,July25,2005,A1.
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ShahzadTanweer,aged22.ShahzadsfathermigratedfromtheFaisalabadregionofPakistanandsettledintheLeedsarea.Shahzadsfatherownedandoperated
theSouthSeasFisheries,afishandchipsshop.Previouslyheownedabutchery
and a curry takeaway. He was respected locally as abusinessman. Shahzads
mothermakes
clothes
at
the
family
home.
ShahzadTanweerwasborninBradfordonDecember15,1982andthenmoved
first to Beeston in 1984 and then to Colwyn Roads, Leeds five years later. He
livedwithhisparentsandthreeyoungersiblingsinahouseconvertedfromtwo
semidetachedterracehouses.Hissisterwenttouniversityandmanagesashoe
shop.
He attended Wortley High School where he was an excellent student and
outstanding athlete in several sports (cricket, track and field, and soccer). He
attended Leeds Metropolitan University and studied sports science and took
martialartsclasses.LastseasonhiscricketteamwonitsdivisioninaLeedswidecompetition for PakistaniBritish players. He had aspirations to play county
cricket. Also,hewasonebeltaway fromablackbeltwhen, about sixmonths
before thebombing, he suddenly stopped attending classes. And hebecame a
lessregularparticipantofpickupgamesofsoccerandcricketatanearbypark.24
Occasionallyheworkedinhisfathersfishandchipsshop.
Tanweers family went to the Hardy Street mosque in Beeston,but Tanweer
attended theBengalimosqueand theMuslimAssociationmosqueonStratford
Street inBeeston.MohammadSidiqueKhanandHasibHussainalsoprayedat
the Stratford Street mosque. Tanweer frequented the Hamara Youth AccessPoint,adropincentreforteenagers.
In2004,Tanweerwasarrestedfordisorderlyconductbutwascautionedandnot
charged.TanweerdroppedoutofhissportsciencecourseatLeedsMetropolitan
Universityatendof2004..Hetoldhisparentsthathewantedtojoinagroupof
friends fromhis localmosqueona twomonthsvisit toareligiousschoolnear
Lahore.25 He promisedhis perplexed parents he would pick up his studies on
return.HereportedlytookpartinthehajbeforetravelingtoPakistan.Hearrived
thereonNovember19,2004inthecompanyofMohammadSidiqueKhan.
24PeterWilson,Anyonecouldbeaterrorist,TheAustralian,July14,2005,1and2.25DanielMcGroryandZahidHussein,BombersschooledinhateonvisittoLahore,TheAustralian,July15,2005,8.
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While inPakistanTanweervisitedhis relatives in the village ofChakNo.477
nearFaisalabad.OnpreviousvisitstoChak,Tanweerwouldplaycricketwithhis
cousins. But this trip he was more subdued and remained secluded in his
grandfathershouse.Onhismostrecenttriphewasoutspokeninexpressinghis
viewsregarding
Muslim
oppression
at
the
hands
of
the
West.
The
treatment
of
Muslim prisoners at Guantanamo Bay particularly rankled. He confided to a
cousinhisadmirationofOsamabinLadenandhisdesiretobeaholywarriorto
avengethewayMuslimswerebeingtreated.26
Tanweer and Khan reportedly met a known al Qaeda activist who was later
jailed inPeshawarforterroristoffenses.Theylaterattendedatwoweekcourse
inIslamicstudiesatJamiaManzoorulIslammadrassainMuridike.
Tanweer and Khan left Pakistan on February 8, 2005 and returned to Leeds.
According to his uncle, Bashir Ahmed, He came home after three months
becausehedidnt like thepeople there.Tanweer resumedhis studies;healsoexhibitedanewfoundreligiosity.Hestartedattendingmosquethreetimesaday
sometimes in the companyofHussain. InJune,TanweerandKhanwentona
whitewaterraftingtriptoWales.
HasibHussain,aged19.HussainsfamilyoriginatedfromPakistan.Hisfatherisafactory worker and Hussain had three siblings. The family lives in a four
bedroom redbrick house in innerLeeds suburb of Holbeck, where Hussain
spent his entire life.His family often went toBeeston forgrocery shopping at
halalbutchersandtoattendmosque.
Hussain attended Matthew Murray High Schoolbut not at the same time as
Khan.Hehadatroubledadolescenceandsmokedmarijuana.After9/11Hussain,
aged14,passedoutflyerssayingjusticehasbeendone.Friendssayhewentoff
therailsand leftschool in2003withoutgraduating.Inanefforttoinstillsome
discipline, his father sent him to Pakistan, Hussan underwent a change and
returned more devoutly religious. His olderbrother expressed concern when
HussainjoinedaMuslimgroup,grewabeard,andstartedwearingawhiterobe.
Hussain,KhanandTanweerprayedtogetherattheMuslimAssociationmosque
onStratfordStreet.
In2004Hussainwasarrestedforshopliftingandwascautionedbutnotcharged.
InJuly2004HussainreturnedtoPakistanandremainedthereuntilAugust2005
26DanielMcGroryandZahidHussain,Militantlongedforsuicidemission,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July2324,2005,14.
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whenhereturnedtoLeeds.HisvisitoverlappedwiththatofKhanandTanweer
buttherearenoreportsthatthethreemetup.
Jermaine(Jamal)Lindsay,late20s(somereportssay19).MuchlessisknownatthisstageaboutLindsaysbiographicaldetailsandhis relationshipswith theother
threeLondonbombers.27 HewasborninJamaicaandgrewupinHudderfield.
HeconvertedtoIslamandchangedhisnametoJamal.LindsayattendedIslamic
religiousclassesafterschool.HiswifeiswhiteandconvertedtoIslamtwoyears
ago.ReportedlyhevisitedAfghanistanin2001andretunedahardlineMuslim.
Lindsayhadafifteenmontholddaughteratthetimeofhissuicide.
A short time before the London bombings Lindsay moved to Aylesbury in
Bukinghamshireandlivedinarentedredbricksemidetachedhouse.Duringhis
short stay,his familydidnotmixwith the restof theMuslim community.He
was reportedly seen in Leeds in the company of the otherbombers. There is
speculationhemayhavemettheotherbombersduringatriptoamadrassa inPakistan.28OnJuly7,Khan,TanweerandHussaindrovebycartoAylseburyto
meetupwithLindsayandthenproceededtotheLuttonrailstationtotakethe
traintoLondon.
U.S. officials claim Lindsay was on a terrorist watch list and MI5 failed to
monitorhisactivities.29IntelligenceconnectsLindsaytoabombfactoryinLeeds
areawherematerialswerestoredtomakeexplosivedevices.Allegedly,healso
hadlinkswithcriminalactivityintheLuttonarea.
SocialNetworkTheoryandtheLondonBombers30AfterthepartitionofIndiaandPakistanin1947,therewasamajormigrationof
PakistanistotheUnitedKingdom.Thenewarrivalsworkedinthetextilemiles
ofnorthernEngland.ThemajoritycamefromKashmir,otherscamefromGujarat
27DetailsaboutLindsayhavebeenculledfrom:DanielMcGroryandMichaelEvans,Bombers
leaderidentifiedbypolice,TheAustralian,July15,2005,1and9;AdamFresco,SeanONeillandStewartTendler,Familymannamedasfourthbomber,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheWeekendAustralian,July1617,2005,10;and(LondonthreeinPakistantogether,TheTimes[London]
reprinted
in
TheAustralian,July19,2005,10.
28LondonthreeinPakistantogether,TheTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July19,2005,10.
29DavidLeppard,AttackerwasjudgedbyMI5tobenothreat,TheSundayTimes[London]reprintedinTheAustralian,July18,2005,12.30ThissectiondrawsheavilyonandisacloseparaphraseofAmyWaldmansexcellent,Seething
UneaseShapedBritishBombersNewfoundZeal,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.
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and Punjab provinces. Britains new arrivals experienced minimal integration
intowidersocietyduetosuchfactorsasethnicity,language,cultureandreligion.
TheyformedinsularcommunitiesbasedontheiridentityasMuslimsandFriday
prayersatthemosquebecameamajorfocalpoint.ThesuburbofBeestonHillisa
gatheringplace
for
Leeds
Muslim
community
due
to
its
concentration
of
Asian
groceryshops,halalbutcheriesandmosques.
In late 1980s, most mills and factories in northern England were shut down.
Pakistanimillworkerseitherretiredormovedintosuchnewoccupationsastaxi
drivers or shop keepers. South Asians prospered more than whites which
generated some resentment. According to the 2002 census, Beeston comprised
77%whitesand18%Asian.Almosthalfthepopulation isunderthirtyyearsof
age. Young men divided into white and Asian gangs, and a racist milieu
pervadedthestreets.Generally,inthelanguageofsocialwelfareworkers,young
Asianmen
were
NEET
Not
in
Education,
Employment
or
Training.
31But,
according to one account, secondgeneration young Asian men were more
directionlessthandeprived.32
ThefamiliesofthethreeLondonbombersKhan,TanweerandHussaincame
from the Punjab. These families were not faced with staggering poverty and
unemployment.Theiroffspringwerethefirstgenerationtobeeducatedentirely
inBritain.TheyachievedEnglishlanguage fluencyandbecameadeptatusing
the Internet. Some had expectations of taking over the familybusiness. Khan,
TanweerandHussiangrewupinBeestonwheretheirliveswerecomparatively
easy.Khan,
Tanweer
and
Hussian
were
afforded
access
to
secondary
and
even
tertiaryeducation.Thetrioattendedthesamesmallneighbourhoodmosqueon
Stratford Street. Generally, they hung out together playing pickup soccer in
CrossPlattsParkandsocialcricket.
Theirbeliefs and identities straddled their parents traditional values and the
workingclass culture around them. They were alienated from their parents
rural South Asian culture which they viewed as backward. They also felt
alienated from mainstream British society. The Beeston school system made
almost no accommodation to the presence of secondgeneration Asian young
31AccordingtoastudyproducedbyWhitehall,Islamicextremismwasbeingdrivenbyhigh
levelsofdeprivationinMuslimcommunities.MuslimsintheUnitedKingdomwerethreetimes
aslikelytobeunemployed,with43percenthavenoeducationalqualificationsandmorethan
halfclassedaseconomically inaction;AlQaidarecruitsaffluentstudents,TheSundayTimes(London)reprintedinTheAustralian,July11,2005,13.32Ibid.
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men.TheylearnedlittleaboutPakistanorIslam.Theywereexpectedtobecome
British.InBeestonthismeanttattooing,drinking,pitbulls,anddrugs.According
tooneinvestigativejournalist,TheydontknowwhethertheyreMuslim,British
orboth.33
Theneighbourhoodswereroughandhardnesswasessential.34Islamprovided
awayoutofaimlessness,addiction,andviolence.At firstKhan thenTanweer
andHussainbecamereligious.This triodefinitelyswamagainstthetide.Khan
andTanweerbecameactive increatinganetworkoforganizationsdesigned to
lure Asian youths off the streets through sports, outings and educational
activities. For example, Khan availed himself of a grant from the Leeds City
CounciltoequipagymonbehalfoftheSouthLeedsAsianYouthAssociation.
Khan, Tanweer and Hussain came to Islam like converts who questioned
everythingandacceptednothing.AsbornagainMuslimsthisgroupoffriends
developedanewsocialconservatismthatdistancedthemselvesfromtheirpeers.Sometimes they came in conflict with their parents who, as shopkeepers, sold
cigarettes,bacon, tinned pork and girlie magazines, goods they considered a
violationoftheir faith.TheyrejectedtheIslamoftheirparents.Khansawtheir
religiousadaptationtolifeinBritainashavingcontaminatedIslam.
The trio stopped praying at their parents mosque;but used its gym to warn
otheryouthagainst thetypeofIslambeingpracticedupstairs.Theyattendeda
Deobandi mosque where the imam preached a more rigid orthodox school of
Islamthatadvocatedaliteralapproachtoreligion.Khanandhisfriendssoonleft
theDeobandimosqueinfrustrationandcontemptforitsimam.35ForthemIslamwaspoliticshatredpftheWestduetotheoppressionofMuslimsinKashmir,
Kosovo,andIraq.
The London bombers gravitated towards an extreme form of Islam, called
Salafism, that was rapidly spreading through the Internet, university societies
and Islamicbookshops.Salafismdemandedareturnto Islam in itsearlyyears.
AllotherformsofIslamwererejectedasimpure.Salafismprovidedunequivocal
answers.Ittaughtthattheummahwasonecommunity,ifonepartoftheummah
33Ibid.
34Ibid.andTamaraJones,AmongtheYoungofMultiethnicLeeds,AHardeningHatred,TheWashingtonPost,July20,2005,A14.35AmyWaldman,SeethingUneaseShapedBritishBombersNewfoundZeal,TheNewYorkTimes,July31,2005.
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suffered the rest wouldbe in pain as well. Therefore, Salafi Muslisms had an
obligationtoundertakephysicaljihadundercertainconditions.
In sum, the London bombers did it themselves in Beeston. They were not
recruited,indoctrinatedorbrainwashed.Theymighthavegatheredataderelict
house on Stratford Street for small group discussions.36 After they left the
mosque they gravitated to the Iqra Learning Centre.37 There they formed
discussiongroupsandstudycircles.TheypostedpoliticaltractsontheInternet
andproducedDVDswhichtheycirculatedinIslamicbookshops.Thesematerials
were as much political as religious. A central theme was that the West was
wagingacrusadeagainst Islam.Materialproducedanddistributedby the Iqra
Learning Centre juxtaposed images from the Crusades with war mutilated
Muslims.
MarcSagemanpositsthattheprocessofjoiningtheglobalSalafijihadisathree
pronged process of social affiliation involving membership in smallworldgroupsbasedonfriendship,kinshipanddiscipleshipbyindividualswhoseage
averagesnearly26.38Theaccountpresented in thispaperprovidespreliminary
support for his theoryof social networks. Mohammed Sidique Khan,Shahzad
TanweerandHasibHussainwereagedbetween19and30.Theiraverageage,
fallingbetween22and24,isslightlylowerthanaverage.
This group of friends formed social affiliationsbased on their identities as
British Muslims who grew up in the Leeds suburb of Beeston. Although it is
unknownwhenthey firstmet, it isknownthattheywent to thesamemosque,
played social sports together and interacted in a local youth association. ThebiographiesoftheLondonbombersprovidedetailsthatdocumenttheirpassage
throughthefirstofSagemansthreeprongedprocess.Duringthisstagethetrio
experiencedaprogressiveintensificationoftheirreligiousbeliefsthateventually
ledthemtoembracetheideologyofglobaljihad.Thiswasgraphicallyillustrated
inKhanstestimonialvideoairedafterhisdeath(seeAppendixA).Khanstated,
Your democratically elected governments continuously perpetuate atrocities
against my people all over the world. And your support of them makes you
directlyresponsible,justasIamdirectlyresponsibleforprotectingandavenging
myMuslim
brothers
and
sisters.
36PeterWilson,Focusonsuspectshometurf,TheAustralian,July15,2005,9.37Ibid.
38Sageman,TheNormalityofGlobalJihadiTerrorism,op.cit.,80.
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There ismuch lessdirectevidenceofhow the trio transitioned to stage two. It
seems reasonably clear that Khan and Tanweer (and possibly Hussain)
establishedadirectlinktotheglobaljihadthroughtheir2004visittoPakistan,if
notearlier.Pakistaniintelligenceandotherreportssuggesttheymayhavemade
contact
with
the
militant
organizations
LashkareTayyaba
and
Jaish
e
Mohammed,and/orothermilitantssuchasZeeshanSiddique.
So far there is no public evidence to suggest that the Londonbombers were
voluntarilyinvolvedinintenseterroristtypetrainingoverseasorparticipatedin
aformalswearing inceremony.Khansvideotestimonialdoessuggest,butnot
conclusively,somelinkwithanalQaedaaffiliatedmilitantgrouporindividual.
ConclusionsThe London suicide bombings of July 2, 2005 has resulted in a rethink by
security and intelligence analysts about the factors that shape homegrownterrorism and terrorist support networks. Increasingly, analysts arebecoming
skepticalabout topdownmodels thatemphasize theroleof foreignactors in
the recruitment and indoctrination/brainwashing of the new generation of
terrorists.39Australiansecurityofficialsconcluded,forexample,thattheLondon
bombers were a selfcontained cell working without sanction from terror
masters.40
AlQaeda,forexample,isnolongerperceivedasthekeyorganizationalplayer.A
senior Australian official stated that the London attacks were probably
independentofalQaeda.41ButalQaedaismhasbecomeapotentideologyandOsamabinLaden isnowperceivedby thenewgenerationasmoreofan icon
than leader. One senior counter terrorism official has concluded, Al Qaeda is
finished.But there isAlQaedism.This isapowerful ideology thatdrives local
groups todowhat theythinkOsamabinLadenwants.42Accordingtoanother
analysis,FromBalitoMadridtoLondon,itseemsincreasinglylikelythatyoung
39SeetheremarksbyPierredeBousquet,directorofD.S.T.,Francesdomesticintelligenceservice
quotedin
Elaine
Sciolino,
Europe
Meets
the
New
Face
of
Terrorism,
TheNewYorkTimes,August1,2005.
40MartinChulov,Policeblindsidesbyselfcontainedcells,TheAustralian,July11,2005,2.41MartinChulov,Bombergrouplikelytobeindependent,TheWeekendAustralian,July910,2005,4.
42ElaineSciolinoandDonVanNatta,SearchingforFootprints:BombingsLinkDoubted,TheNewYorkTimes,July25,2005.
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menwhodidnottrainwithbinLaden inAfghanistanandhavenoestablished
place inthealQaidahierarchyarecommittingattacksoftheirownconception
underthealQaidabanner.43
Socialnetworktheoryhelpstoexplaintheriseofhomegrowngroupsthatform
spontaneously frombelow. Social network theory stresses the importance of
socialbondsamongofgroupsoffriends(abunchofguys)thatpredateformal
recruitmentintotheglobaljihadasthecrucialelementofthisprocess.
ThedatapresentedinthispaperprovidessupportforSagemansthreepronged
social network theory. It is clear that a process of social bonding based on
friendship helped to create a small world group. Kingship and discipleship
playednodiscernablepart,buttheroleofKhan,theoldest,asmentorshouldbe
noted.TheBeeston trioexperiencedaprogressive intensificationof faith in the
period from 2003 that led them as a group to embrace the ideology of global
jihad. It is still unclear when and how Lindsaybecame associated with thisgroup.
Authoritativedetailsaboutthesecondpronginthisprocessestablishingalink
toglobaljihadislacking.ButpubliclyavailableevidencepointstoPakistanat
the likelymeetingplacebetweenmembersof theBeeston trioandmembersof
extremist Muslim groups. It is not known where Khan made his testimonial
video. Lindsay may have had independent connections to the globaljihad as
resultofhisunconfirmedvisittoAfghanistanin2001.Thereisnoevidencethat
the four London bombers underwent any form of intense training and
recruitment. Social network theory thus rejects the argument that individualsbecometerroristsbecauseoftopdownrecruitmentandbrainwashing.According
to British authorities the youths path to terrorism may have stemmed from
internetjourneystheyembarkedonthemselves.44
43IanBremmer,Openingnewfranchisesoffear:Blairsfrontline,TheWeekendAustralian,July910,2005,22.Forasimilaranalysisquotingwesternintelligenceagencies,see:GeoffKitney,Local
terroristcellsseenasrisingthreat,TheWeekendAustralianFinancialReview,August67,2005.44MartinChulov,UndertheRadar,TheAustralian,July14,2005,14.
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AppendixAFull Text of Videotape of Mohammad Sidique Khan broadcastby alJazeera
Television
BBC News, September 4, 2005: The full text of the videotape of MohammadSidique Khan, one of the four 7July [suicide]bombers, which was aired on
ArabictelevisionchannelalJazeeraandinwhichheexplainshismotives.
Textbegins:
Imgoingtokeepthisshortandtothepointbecauseitsallbeensaidbeforeby
farmoreeloquentpeoplethanme.
Andourwordshavenoimpactuponyou,thereforeImgoingtotalktoyouina
languagethatyouunderstand.
Ourwordsaredeaduntilwegivethemlifewithourblood.
Im sureby now themedias painted a suitable picture ofme, thispredictable
propaganda machine will naturally try to put a spin on things to suit the
governmentandtoscarethemassesintoconformingtotheirpowerandwealth
obsessedagendas.
Iandthousandslikemeareforsakingeverythingforwhatwebelieve.
Ourdrivingmotivationdoesntcomefromtangiblecommoditiesthatthisworld
hastooffer.
Ourreligion is Islam obedienceto theonetrueGod,Allah,andfollowingthefootsteps of the final prophet and messenger Muhammad... This is how our
ethicalstancesaredictated.
Your democratically elected governments continuously perpetuate atrocities
against my people all over the world. And your support of them makes you
directlyresponsible,justasIamdirectlyresponsibleforprotectingandavenging
myMuslimbrothersandsisters.
Untilwefeelsecurity,youwillbeourtargets.Anduntilyoustopthebombing,
gassing,imprisonmentandtortureofmypeoplewewillnotstopthisfight.
We are at war and I am a soldier. Now you too will taste the reality of this
situation.
Asecondpartofthetapewaslessclear,buthecouldbeheardsaying:
Imyself,Imyself,Imakedua(pray)toAllah...toraisemeamongstthosewhomI
love like theprophets, themessengers, themartyrsand todaysheroes likeour
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beloved Sheikh Osama Bin Laden, Dr Ayman alZawahri and Abu Musab al
Zarqawiandall theotherbrothersand sisters thatare fighting in the...of this
cause.
WiththisIleaveyoutomakeupyourownmindsandIaskyoutomakeduato
Allahalmighty toaccept thework frommeandmybrothersandenterus into
gardensofparadise.
Source:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//1/hi/uk/4206800.stm.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/4206800.stm -
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