solid state automotive lidar: physics principles, design
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๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 1
Solid State Automotive LiDAR: Physics Principles,
Design Challenges, and New Developments
Slawomir Piatek
New Jersey Institute of Technology &
Hamamatsu Photonics, Bridgewater, NJ
06.2. 2020
2๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
โ LiDAR Concepts: ToF & FMCW
โ Light Sources & Beam Steering
โ Solid State (Flash) LiDAR
Index
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LiDAR Concepts
4๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
Basic Layout of Time of Flight LiDAR
start pulse
stop pulse
laser
target
photodetector
timer
beam steering
system
Distance d = ฮ๐ก โ ๐/2
Measure the time of flight ฮ๐ก
5๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
FMCW LiDAR: Heterodyne Mixing
tunable
laser
BS
M
receiving optics
collimator
PD
returned light
M
M
M
M
to target
optical mixing
occurs on the
detector
frequency
shifter
electronics
Legend:
๐๐ฟ๐ โ Local oscillator frequency
๐๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก โ Offset frequency added by the frequency shifter, ~10 โ 100 MHz
๐๐๐ โ Power oscillator frequency of transmitted light
๐๐ โ Frequency of returned light; ฮf due to distance and Dopplerโs effect
These are instantaneous values
๐๐ฟ๐
๐๐๐ = ๐๐ฟ๐ + ๐๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก
๐๐ = ๐๐ฟ๐ + ๐๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก + ฮ๐
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Example of Frequency Modulation: Double Linear Ramp
time
frequency
T ~ 10โs ฮผs โ 1 ms, B ~ 100โs MHz โ 10โs GHz
0time
frequency
๐ต๐0 ๐0๐๐๐๐ฅ ๐๐๐๐ฅ
0 ๐ 2๐
๐0
๐๐๐๐ฅ
๐ 2๐
7๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
Frequency Shift in FMCW LiDAR
time
local oscillator
received wave
๐ =๐ ๐๐ต1 + ๐๐ต2 ๐
8๐ต๐ฃ๐ =
๐ ๐๐ต2 โ ๐๐ต14๐0
๐ฟ๐ =๐
2๐ต๐ฟ๐ฃ๐ =
๐
๐0๐
ฮ๐ก
๐๐ต1
๐๐ท
๐๐ต2
๐
๐ต
๐0
๐(๐ก)
๐๐๐๐ฅ
8๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
Heterodyne Optical Mixing
PDBS
fa
fLO
measure thisamplification!
๐ธ๐ก๐๐ก2 = ๐ธ๐ + ๐ธ๐ฟ๐
2 = ๐ด๐ cos 2๐๐๐๐ก + ๐๐ + ๐ด๐ฟ๐ cos 2๐๐๐ฟ๐ + ๐๐ฟ๐2
๐ธ๐ก๐๐ก2 = ๐ธ๐
2 + ๐ธ๐ฟ๐2 + ๐ด๐๐ด๐ฟ๐ cos 2๐ ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐ ๐ก + ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐
๐๐ ๐๐ = ๐๐ + ๐๐ฟ๐ + 2 ๐๐๐๐ฟ๐ cos 2๐ ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐ ๐ก + ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐
๐๐ ๐๐ =๐๐๐๐ ๐๐
โ๐= ๐๐ + ๐๐ฟ๐ + 2 ๐๐๐๐ฟ๐ cos 2๐ ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐ ๐ก + ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐
ฮ๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐๐ฟ๐ โ ๐๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก
ฮ๐ gives ๐ and ๐ฃ๐
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Comparison Between ToF & FMCW Concepts
ToF FMCW
Pros
Easy optical layout
Easy distance calculation
Any wavelength of light can be used Pros
Optical amplification of the returned signal
Photon shot noise detection possible
Immunity to background and interference
Cons
Large detection bandwidth โincreased noise
Weak returned signal
Susceptible to background and
interference Cons
Complex optical layout
Expensive tunable laser with a long
coherence length needed
Complex distance and velocity calculation
Gives both distance and radial velocity
of the target
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Light Sources & Beam Steering
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Light Sources
ToF FMCW
High peak power: ~ 100 W
Short-duration pulses: ~ few ns
Repetition period: ~ ms - ฮผs
Wavelength: NIR, e.g., 905 nm, 1550 nm
Tunable output frequency
Coherence length ๐ฟ > 2๐๐๐๐ฅ
Stable phase
some light source offerings by Hamamatsu
12๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
905 or 1550?
905 nm 1550 nm
Figure from Matson et al. 1983
Solar irradiance at sea level
๐๐ต @ 905 nm > ๐๐ต @ 1550 nm S
pect
ral i
rrad
ianc
e ฮผ
W c
m-2
nm-1
Wavelength [nm]
Solar background at 905 nm is higher than at 1550 nm
13๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
905 or 1550?
H2O absorption @ 1550 nm > (100ร) @ 905 nm
From Wojtanowski et al. 2014
Wavelength [nm]
Ab
so
rptio
n c
oe
ffic
ien
t o
f w
ate
r [c
m-1
]
Reference: โComparison of 905 nm and 1550 nm semiconductor laser rangefindersโ performance deterioration due to adverse
environmental conditions,โ Wojtanowski et al. 2014
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905 or 1550?
1550 nm
- Requires IR (non-silicon) photodetectors
+ Best eye safety
905 nm
+ Lower background
+ Better transmission in atmosphere
+ Silicon-based photodetector
+ Coherence length ๐ฟ โ๐2
๐ต
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Mechanical Beam Steering: Rotating Platform
๐
Each laser is matched with its own detector Scan direction
Horizontal sweep
Vertical sweep
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Mechanical Beam Steering: Galvo Mirrors
ฯ
ฯ
Laser
๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ scan
Rotating Galvo mirrors are another example of a mechanical beam steering.
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Beam Steering: Optical Phase Array
Laser
Amplitude & phase
control unit
Beam in the far field
Amplitude and phase of the light emitted by
each pixel (emitter) can be controlled
electronically.
Optical phased array is an example of a solid state or โno moving partsโ beam steering.
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OPA Emitter and Receiver
Light feed for
emission
Local oscillator
light for optical
amplification
emitted beam detected beam
Control unit
Current output
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LiDAR Based on OPA Emitter and Receiver
First prototype of a FMCW LiDAR that uses
optical phased arrays for beam steering and
light detection.
The figure is from โCoherent solid-state LIDAR with silicon
photonic optical phased arraysโ by Poulton et al. 2017
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Beam Steering: Flash and Structured Light
Array of lasers such as
VCSELs
Laser and pulse
expander
Divergent pulse of light
โ Wider the angle, smaller the surface brightness
โ For a Gaussian beam, the surface brightness is
not uniform
โ Lateral resolution limited by the 2D sensor
โ Beams have the same intensity
โ Lateral resolution limited by the angular
separation between the beams
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Solid State (Flash) LiDAR
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Basic Layout of ToF Flash LiDAR
projector
to the target๐๐
๐๐
focal plane array
control unit
๐
The emission FOV, ๐๐, should be matched with the detection FOV, ๐๐.
2D detector
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Focal Plane Distance Measurement
Focal plane
image of the scene
detector array
A single โpixelโ in the 2D detector determines distance to a single element of the scene.
24๐ซ Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
Distance Resolution
๐ฟ๐ =๐
2๐ต
๐ฟ๐
๐ต~1
๐๐ โ pulse duration
For ๐ = 5 ns, ๐ฟ๐ โ 0.75 m โ ๐ต โ 200 MHz
(distance resolution)
Better distance resolution requires pulses of even shorter duration. The limitation is in the laser
technology (parasitic inductance).
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Distance Uncertainty
๐๐2~
๐ฟ๐ 2
๐/๐=
๐2
4๐ต2๐/๐
๐
๐๐
๐
(distance uncertainty)
1. The larger the ๐
๐, the smaller the uncertainty, all else being the same
2. Photodetector and electronic time jitters also contribute to the uncertainty.
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Photon Budget: Single Photodetector
TX
๐ ๐ = ๐0๐๐ด0๐๐2
๐0๐โ2๐พ๐
๐ ๐ โ Peak power received
๐0 โ Peak power transmitted
๐ โ Target reflectivity
๐ด0 โ Aperture area of the receiver
๐0 โ Receiving optics transmission
๐พ โ Atmospheric extinction coefficient
Lambertian reflection
Laser spot smaller than the target
Normal incidence
๐พ is constant
Assumptions:
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Photon Budget: Single Photodetector
๐ ๐ = ๐0๐๐ด0๐๐2
๐0๐โ2๐พ๐
Example: ๐0 = 100 W, ๐ = 0.1, ๐ด0 = 3.14 ร 10โ4 m2, ๐0 = 0.5, ๐พ = 0.5 km-1
for ๐ = ๐๐๐ m, ๐ท = ๐๐ nW
Reference: โComparison of 905 nm and 1550 nm semiconductor laser rangefindersโ performance deterioration due to adverse
environmental conditions,โ Wojtanowski et al. 2014
1. Atmospheric extinction ๐พ depends on weather conditions and wavelength. Its value can range
from about 4 km-1 to about 0.1 km-1 at 905 nm.
2. For a square 5-ns pulse (๐ = 905 nm), the number of emitted photons is ~2.3 ร 1012 and the
number of received is ~1 ร 103.
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Photon Budget: Flash
TX
RX
There is a tradeoff between spatial resolution and ๐
๐.
๐ด
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Photon Budget: Flash
๐ ๐ = ๐0๐๐๐2
ฮ2๐ด0๐๐2
๐0๐โ2๐๐พ
(received peak power per pixel)
๐๐ โ angular subtense (field of view) of a pixel
ฮ โ angular field of view of the pulse projector (pulse divergence)
Reference: โComparison of flash lidar detector options,โ McManamon et al. 2017
Note that ๐๐ โช ฮ, so if the pulse peak power is the same, the amount of light received by a single
pixel is proportional to ๐๐2
ฮ2for a given distance ๐.
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Photodetection (Single Element)
TIA PD
Trigger
circuit
Pulse of light
Optical bandpass filter
Focal plane
To timerFOV
โ Active area of the photodetector, focal length of the lens, and placement of the optical bandpass
filter determine the photodetectorโs field of view.
โ Avalanche photodiode or silicon photomultiplier are commonly used photodetectors.
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Noise in Transimpedance Amplifier
โ
+
๐ฃ๐
๐ ๐น
๐ถ๐
๐๐ฝ
๐ถ๐๐๐๐
๐๐
๐๐๐๐โ
๐ = ๐ ๐๐๐๐||๐ ๐๐
๐ถ๐ก + ๐ถ๐๐
๐ฃ๐ = ๐๐2 1 +
๐ ๐น๐
2
+4๐2
3ฮ๐ 2๐ถ๐
2๐ ๐2 + ๐ ๐
2๐๐2 + 4๐๐๐ ๐
1/2
ฮ๐ 1/2
๐ถ๐ = ๐ถ๐ก + ๐ถ๐ + ๐ถ๐๐ + ๐ถ๐
๐๐ = ๐๐2 + ๐๐ฝ
2 + ๐๐2 + ๐๐โ
2
All else being equal, noise increases with terminal capacitance of the photodetector.
(total capacitance)
noise output
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Bandwidth and Stability of Transimpedance Amplifier
โ
+
๐ฃ๐๐ข๐ก
๐ ๐น
๐ถ๐
Simplified equivalent circuit of a photodetector
connected to an uncompensated TIA
๐ผ
๐ฃ๐๐ข๐ก = ๐ผโ๐ ๐
1 +1
๐ด๐๐๐ฝ
๐ด๐๐ โ Open loop gain of TIA
๐ฝ ๐๐ =1
1 + ๐๐๐ ๐น๐ถ๐
where ๐ถ๐ = ๐ถ๐ + ๐ถ๐๐
1
๐ฝ(๐๐)= 1 + ๐๐๐ ๐น๐ถ๐
๐๐น ๐๐ ๐๐บ๐ต๐๐
Gain peaking and
oscillations occur around
this frequency
๐๐บ๐ต๐๐ โ Unity gain bandwidth of the op-amp
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Bandwidth and Stability of Transimpedance Amplifier
Simplified equivalent circuit of a compensated
photodiode connected to an uncompensated TIA
๐ถ๐น
๐๐น ๐๐ ๐๐บ๐ต๐๐
๐๐น =1
2๐๐ ๐น ๐ถ๐ + ๐ถ๐น๐๐ =
1
2๐๐ ๐น๐ถ๐น
๐ถ๐น =1
4๐๐ ๐น๐๐บ๐ต๐๐1 + 1 + 8๐๐ ๐น๐ถ๐๐๐บ๐ต๐๐
(Optimal value of the compensating capacitor)
โ
+
๐ฃ๐๐ข๐ก
๐ ๐น
๐ถ๐๐ผ
๐ฝ ๐๐ =1 + ๐๐๐ ๐น๐ถ๐น
1 + ๐๐๐ ๐น(๐ถ๐+๐ถ๐น)
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Importance of Noise and Bandwidth
time
High bandwidth โ higher noise but high fidelity
trigger level
trigger time
time
Low bandwidth โ lower noise and lower fidelitytrigger level
trigger time
flat top
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Importance of Excess Noise (F)
time
Sig
nal
Fixed trigger level
Constant fraction trigger
Waveform 1
Waveform 2
Fixed trigger level gives different round-trip-times, ฮ๐ก1 โ ฮ๐ก2 โ
Constant-fraction trigger gives the same round-trip-times, ฮ๐ก1 = ฮ๐ก2 โ
ฮ๐ก1 = ฮ๐ก2
ฮ๐ก1 ฮ๐ก2
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Takeaway
Analog photodetection in ToF LiDAR, especially in flash LiDAR, is very challenging.
Is there anything else we can do?
What about a statistical measurement using SPAD?
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Single-Photon Avalanche Photodiode (SPAD)
steady state
transient
quench
recharge
๐ ๐ must be large enough to ensure quenching
quasi-stable โreadyโ
state
(Quench resistor)
(Load resistor)
๐ ๐
๐๐ต๐ผ๐ด๐
๐ ๐
๐๐๐ด๐ท
๐ ๐ โซ ๐ ๐
๐ผ๐๐๐ด๐ท
๐๐ต๐ผ๐ด๐๐ ๐
๐๐ต๐ท ๐๐ต๐ผ๐ด๐ ๐๐๐๐ด๐ท
๐ฃ๐
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Measuring Distance with a Single SPAD
t = 0
time
timer
targetSPAD
laser
Puls
e e
mis
sio
n
๐ก = ๐
ฮ๐ก =2๐
๐
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Measuring Distance with a Single SPAD
time
๐ก = 0 ๐ก = ๐ฮ๐ก =
2๐
๐
Multiple pulse illumination provides distance information to the target. The information comes
from a histogram of trigger times.
Histogram of trigger times
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SPAD Arrays
Micro-bumps
ASIC
(application-specific integrated circuit)
Photodetector array
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Detection Techniques with a SPAD Array
Time gating:
๐ก = 0 ๐ก = ๐
Time window
Only the events in the pre-defined time window are counted. The choice of the time window
depends on the expected knowledge of the target distance.
Pixel 1
Pixel 2
Pixel 3
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Detection Techniques with a SPAD Array
Temporal and spatial correlation:
๐ก = 0 ๐ก = ๐๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก1
Event not counted: temporal
correlation but no spatial
correlation.
Pixel 1
Pixel 2
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Detection Techniques with a SPAD Array
Temporal and spatial correlation:
๐ก = 0 ๐ก = ๐๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก2
Event not counted: spatial correlation but
no temporal correlation.
๐ก = ๐ก2
Pixel 1
Pixel 2
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Detection Techniques with a SPAD Array
Temporal and spatial correlation:
๐ก = 0 ๐ก = ๐๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก1
๐ก = ๐ก1
Event counted: spatial correlation but
no temporal correlation.
Pixel 1
Pixel 2
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SPAD Pixel for Correlated Detection
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SPAD Pixel for Correlated Detection
Pulse
coincidence
detection
Signal photon
Background photon
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Comments
1. This technique can be used both in a scanning and flash LiDAR.
2. In a scanning LiDAR, an OPA array is well-suited for beam steering.
3. The greatest advantage is a reduced sensitivity to the background light.
4. Additional advantages: less affected by gain variations, sensitivity in IR (using non-silicon
structures), compatible with CMOS-based ASICs.
5. Challenges: SPAD arrays can exhibit crosstalk and high dark count rates.
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Hamamatsu Assists LiDAR Companies
Photodetectors (Silicon or InGaAs, PIN, APD, SiPM, SPAD and more) for all LiDAR concepts
Light sources (PLDs or VCSELs) for selected LiDAR concepts
Custom integrated optical assemblies, from front-end electronics to complete ASICs
Support automotive grade qualifications (AEC, ISO and more)
Full customization of photodetectors, light sources, and optical assemblies
Because of our wide offering of optical components, Hamamatsu is unbiased
when recommending the correct detector and/or light source to each unique
LiDAR concept (customer) in the market.
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Photodetectors for LiDARS (850 nm โ 940 nm)
Si PIN photodiode Si APD
High Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain = 1
High Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain ~ 100
SPPC (or SPAD)
Low Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain ~ 105 to 106
MPPC (or SiPM)
Low Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain ~ 105 to 106
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Photodetectors for LiDARS (1550 nm)
InGaAs APD
Wavelength [nm]
Photo
sensitiv
ity [A
/W]
High Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain ~10-20
Wavelength [nm]
Photo
sensitiv
ity [A
/W]
InGaAs PIN PD
High Photosensitivity;
Internal Gain โ 1
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Closing Remarks
1. Two distinct LiDAR systems, ToF and FMCW, are actively researched
2. Each system presents a unique set of engineering challenges
3. Beam steering and photodetection are the two most outstanding challenges
4. Flash LiDAR together with a SPAD-based statistical detection is a new avenue of research
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Thank you
Thank you for listening
Contact information:
piatek@njit.edu
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