sex education and family planning in the united states
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Sex Education and Family Planning 1
Sex Education and Family Planning in the United States: Political Hindrance of Public Health
and Economic Goals
Sarah Compton
Applied Anthropology 3210-001
August 22, 2012
Dr. Sheilah Clarke Ekong
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Sex Education and Family Planning in the United States: Political Hindrance of Public Health
and Economic Goals
Currently, in the United States, issues of sex education and family planning are discussed
in the realms of political strategy, emotion and religion-based morality. This is especially
apparent here, in the spring of an election year. Our news is full of political sound-bites like
Republican presidential candidate, Mitt Romney, saying that he would stop all funding of
Planned Parenthood to help balance the federal budget, and House Democratic Leader Nancy
Pelosi announcing that Republicans have declared Waron Women. These catchy headlines
have replaced most, if not all, scientifically, and economically accurate discussions about sex
education and family planning in the United States legislature and media. This practice has led to
the United States having a rate of unintended pregnancies* that is much higher than most of the
countries in the developed world.
An analysis such as this is important because citizens, public health officials, economists,
and politicians, alike, have marked American reproductive practices as problematic. Among the
objectives set forth in Healthy People 2020 are decreases in unintended pregnancies, decreases in
abortion rates, and increases in the use of contraceptives among sexually active individuals
(healthypeople.gov). The United States sees approximately 1.6 million births as a result of
unintended pregnancies annually. Of these, 64% are covered under Medicaid, meaning the
pregnancy and the first year of medical care for the child is publicly funded. This results in over
$11 billion annually. [6] Since low-income women have the highest instances of unintended
pregnancies and are less likely to end an unintended pregnancy with abortion, the figure of $11
billion is a conservative figure. Many women who give birth due to an unintended pregnancy
also qualify for, and receive other types of publicly funded social support like WIC programs,
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food stamps, and welfare. So, the real public cost of unintended births is drastically higher than
$11 billion annually. [5]
It is apparent that matters of sex education and family planning expand broadly to touch
nearly every facet of cultural existence. The application of an anthropological method of analysis
could help to put this issue into a perspective across the board, and provide a structure for
discussion in the legislative realm that allows for meaningful progress towards the goals outlined
in Healthy People 2020.
Situating the Issues in a Historical Context
The Historical Trends and Effects of Sex Education
Sex education in the United States has gone through many changes in the last few
centuries. The methods and content focused upon in each era reflect the concerns of the times.
Sex education changes in regard to social movements, wars, public health issues, and many other
culture-bound stimuli.
In the mid 19th
century, the great concern of sex education was masturbation. Self-
pollution, as Sylvester Graham called it, was considered, even by medical professionals, to be
detrimental to ones health and vitality. Sex education manuals usually consisted of nutrition
information and messages promoting bodily discipline. [42]
Urbanization in the early 20th century and World War I fueled an interest in formal
education aimed at avoiding syphilis and gonorrhea. The Chamberlain-Kahn Act of 1918 was the
first federal legislation pertaining to sex education. This act allotted money to educate soldiers on
venereal diseases.
The American Hygiene Association, founded in 1914 as part of the Progressive-
era social purity movement, helped teach soldiers about sexual hygiene
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throughout the war. Instructors used a machine called the stereomotorgraph to
show soldiers microscopic slides of syphilis and gonorrhea organisms, as well as
symptoms of the diseases on the body of an actual soldier [42].
This military education inspired similar education in schools. The Sun newspaper of New York
reported in 1914 that sex education was, in fact, being taught in schools. Dr. Maurice A.
Bigelow, a professor of biology at Columbia at the time, said, 75 to 90 percent of the instruction
we are advocating is already included in courses in New York schools . . . unobtrusively through
nature study in elementary schools, the biological courses of high schools and colleges and the
general hygiene courses everywhere[39]. He also noted that there were no courses
distinguished as specifically sex oriented because of the negative connotations of the term
sex as a result of the white slavery crimes that were in the news in the 19th and early 20th
centuries.[39] Advocacy continued, however, and 20 to 40 percent of high schools all over the
country by the 1920s. Films, pamphlets, and classic literature were used to teach about virtue,
sexual hygiene, and to discourage masturbation. [42]
Sex education continued to grow in America over the next 3 decades, but met with great
resistance during the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Sex educators aimed at providing
value-neutral education on topics such as hygiene, contraceptives, masturbation, teenage
pregnancy, and homosexuality (R. Lovelace, personal communication, April 23, 2012). It was at
that time that sex education was introduced to the political arena. Anti-sex-education propaganda
was introduced during this time with rumors of sex education teachers having sex in classrooms,
encouraging homosexuality, praising promiscuity, and making young people easy recruits for
Marxists. Parents and religious groups began protesting sex-education in public schools. [42]
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The 1980s witnessed the rise of HIV/AIDS. This pandemic created mandates for AIDS
education in every state (although some of this education took place outside of general sex-ed)
by the 1990s. It was during the 1990s that religious conservatives began to push for abstinence-
only education. The Welfare Reform Act of 1996 allotted tens of millions of dollars worth of
provisions for abstinence-only programs. [42]
The Historical Trends and Effects of Contraception
For the purposes of this review, I will begin the history of contraception in the United
States when the subject began to get national attention in the 1910s. It was during this time that
the idea of eugenics was being popularized. Early on, Margaret Sanger, the first real crusader in
the birth control movement, allied herself with the eugenics movement. Sanger had long fought
for, and was even jailed for equal education pertaining to contraception. The New-York Tribune
reported in 1920, The middle and upper classes, says Sanger, have in one way or another
come to measurable sophistication about birth control. That is adequately proved by their small
families. It is the unresourceful poor, on whom large families press most cruelly, who must come
to their knowledge legitimately.and it is for the right to legitimise this knowledge that she
pleads[32]. Sangers allegiance with the eugenics movement, however, bred distrust of birth
control in poor and non-white populations. Headlines such as Woman Favors Race Suicide,
were in newspapers, especially outside of large urban centers, all over the country [37].
Chronicling America, a website sponsored equally by the National Endowment for the
Humanities and The Library of Congress was invaluable source in finding digitized copies of
historic newspapers to see the nations take on the early years of these movements
(http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov).
Historical Trends and Effects of Induced Abortion
http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/ -
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Abortion methods have been known since ancient times. In the oldest known medical
texts (2737-2696 B.C.), Chinese Emperor Shen Nung provided specific information about
aborting pregnancies [28]. Egyptians, Romans, and, indeed, Hippocrates described several
methods of abortion. The rise of Christianity lessened discussions, but abortions were still
performed, usually by midwives. [28]
In the Western world, the 17th through 19th centuries saw great advances in gynecology,
which included safer methods of abortion. These advances were not only put to use, but were
commonly advertisedby an array of providers as a willingness to help with female problems,
and potions and pills that would bring on the menses[28]. During this time, abortions
performed before quickening were virtually unregulated. It was not until 1850 that a wide-
spread anti-abortion campaign began in the United States, and by the 1880, every state had
legislation banning abortions. [28]
Abortions remained illegal in the United States for nearly a century. Because records
could not be kept, it is not known how many illegal abortions took place during that century,
although, according to one study cited by Rachel Benson Gold of the Guttmacher Institute, in
1967, approximately 829,000 illegal or self-induced abortions occurred in the United States. [24]
Thousands of women died, or were seriously injured as a result of illegal abortions. In
fact, 2,700 death certificates in 1930 listed this as the official cause of death [24]. Antibiotics
brought down the number of deaths drastically. Fewer than 200 abortion-related deaths occurred
in 1965, but because of overall lower maternal mortality rates, these deaths still accounted for
17% of maternity-related deaths [24]. Motivated by sympathetic doctors, the American Medical
Association reversed its former condemnation of abortion, and urged decriminalization in 1970,
and in 1973, essentially as a result of the activism of the medical community and feminist
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groups, the Supreme Court decision,Roe v. Wade, made it illegal for any state to ban abortion
[28].
Methodology
In a conscious effort to avoid discussions based on subjective statements on morality, I
chose to base my analysis on the objectives set forth in Healthy People 2020. Experts from
multiple federal agencies created draft objectives, which were then made available for public
comment and reviewed by the Federal Interagency Workgroup. A specific set of selection
criteria was used to select all the final objectives. Specifics regarding the development and
selection of objectives for Healthy People 2020 are available at HealthyPeople.gov. [2]
The family planning goals of Healthy People 2020 are as follows:
I. Increase the proportion of pregnancies that are intended
II. Reduce the proportion of females experiencing pregnancy despite the use of a reversible
contraception method
III. Increase the proportion of publicly funded family planning clinics that offer the full-rangeof FDA-approved methods of contraception, including emergency contraception, onsite
IV. Increase the proportion of health insurance plans that cover contraceptive supplies and
services
V. Reduce the proportion of pregnancies conceived within 18 months of a previous birth
VI. Increase the proportion of females or their partners at risk of unintended pregnancy who
used contraception at most recent sexual intercourse Increase the proportion of females or
their partners at risk of unintended pregnancy who used contraception at most recent
sexual intercourse
VII. Increase the proportion of sexually active persons who received reproductive health
services
VIII. Reduce pregnancy rates among adolescent females
IX. Increase the proportion of adolescents aged 17 years and under who have never had
sexual intercourse
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X. Increase the proportion of sexually active persons aged 15 to 19 years who use condoms
to both effectively prevent pregnancy and provide barrier protection against disease
XI. Increase the proportion of adolescents who received formal instruction on reproductive
health topics before they were 18 years old
XII. Increase the proportion of adolescents who talked to a parent or guardian about
reproductive health topics before they were 18 years old
XIII. Increase the number of States that set the income eligibility level for Medicaid-covered
family planning services to at least the same level used to determine eligibility for
Medicaid-covered, pregnancy-related care Increase the number of States that set the
income eligibility level for Medicaid-covered family planning services to at least the
same level used to determine eligibility for Medicaid-covered, pregnancy-related care
XIV. Increase the proportion of females in need of publicly supported contraceptive services
and supplies who receive those services and supplies Increase the proportion of females
in need of publicly supported contraceptive services and supplies who receive those
services and supplies
Using Healthy People 2020 as my framework, I collected and reviewed secondary
sources obtained from the library databases of University of MissouriSt. Louis and the
Guttmacher Institute**
, and the CDC. I based my selection of sources on the validity of the
evidence presented. To determine validity, I concentrated on empirical data that had remained
consistent despite different methodologies and/or had been consistently reproduced.
Findings
Sex Education
The Era of Abstinence Only Education in United States Policy. Since 1997, over half
a billion dollars has been spent in federal funding for Abstinence-Only Education (AOE)
programs in the United States. In section 510 of the Social Security Act of 1996, $50 million
annually over 5 years starting in fiscal year 1998 was guaranteed to states that accepted the
grants for abstinence-only programs. States could not provide any information that was
inconsistent with the federal definition of abstinence-only education. See box below. [43]
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Table 1: From "Abstinence Promotion and Teen Family Planning: The Misguided Drive for Equal Funding," by Cynthia
Dailard in The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy, February 2002, Vol. 5, No. 1
THE FEDERAL DEFINITION OF ABSTINENCE-ONLY EDUCATION
According to federal law, an eligible abstinence education program is one that:
A) has as its exclusive purpose, teaching the social, physiological, and health gains to be realized by abstaining from sexual
activity;
B) teaches abstinence from sexual activity outside marriage as the expected standard for all school age children;
C) teaches that abstinence from sexual activity is the only certain way to avoid out-of-wedlock pregnancy, sexually
transmitted diseases, and other associated health problems;
D) teaches that a mutually faithful monogamous relationship in context of marriage is the expected standard of human
sexual activity;
E) teaches that sexual activity outside of the context of marriage is likely to have harmful psychological and physical effects;
F) teaches that bearing children out-of-wedlock is likely to have harmful consequences for the child, the child's parents, and
society;
G) teaches young people how to reject sexual advances and how alcohol and drug use increases vulnerability to sexual
advances; and
H) teaches the importance of attaining self-sufficiency before engaging in sexual activity.
Source:U.S. Social Security Act, Sec. 510(b)(2).
Another $10 million dollars annually was funneled into AOE programs through the
Adolescent Family Life Act of 1981, which congress had updated in 1997 to mandate
compliance with the section 510 programs. Another program of AOE funded through the
maternal and child health block grants Special Projects of Regional and National Significance
(SPRANS) further increased federal spending and by 2005, the annual budget was $105 million.
SPRANS differed in that it bypassed state approval by funding community- and faith-based
programs directly, specifically targeted 12-18 year old adolescents, and insisted that no program
benefiting from SPRANS funding could offer any education that was not consistent with section
510, even if those services were provided with funds outside of the SPRANS grants. [43]
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Analysis of AOE. Although relatively few studies of AOE have been performed
scientifically, Mathematica Policy Research (MPR) did two rigorous studies evaluating the
effects of AOE programs. Results of both these studies concluded that the programs had no
effect on adolescent sexual behavior. Adolescents who participated in the programs showed no
difference in age of first sexual intercourse, abstinence in the past 12 months, or
contraceptive/condom use. Another study that focused specifically on the abstinence program
Postponing Sexual Involvement, had the same results of finding normative adolescent sexual
behavior, but also showed statistically significant increases in pregnancies and STDs. [44]
Transitioning to Comprehensive Sex Education (CSE). Shortly after taking office in
2009, President Obama initiated an effort to shift funds from AOE programs to comprehensive,
medically accurate education programs. The Community Based Abstinence Education program
was replaced by a $114 million effort to prevent teen pregnancy through comprehensive
education in the Consolidating Appropriations Act. Through healthcare reform, a five-year
Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP) was created. It is similar to section 510 in
that a certain curriculum must be followed for guaranteed grants. PREPs stated purpose is to
educate adolescents on both abstinence and contraception and prepare them for adulthood with
the teaching of such subjects as healthy relationships, financial literacy, parent-child
communication and decision-making[41]. This will make another $55 million in state grants
and $10 million in public and private grants available for building comprehensive programs.
Congress did, however, choose to keep section 510 funds available for AOE education at the
state level. [41]
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Analysis of CSE. 32 studies were conducted with experimental design and thorough
statistical analysis. Encouraging results were comparatively astonishing, and held true among a
vast array of settings, communities and cultures in the United States. 47% of [CSE]
programs delayed the initiation of sex and none hastened it, while 29% reduced the frequency
of sex or increased the return to abstinence, and none increased the frequency of sex. 46%
reduced the number of sexual partners[44]
The three most promising of these programs are designed as voluntary courses that take
place on Saturdays, and have been replicated over 100 times (combined) and all programs have
shown positive results. Programs implemented in classrooms, however, have shown less
promise. The author of the study attributed it to censorship within the schools that did not allow
for some of the activities involving condoms, as well as the fact that the courses were not
voluntary. [44]
Effects of Family Planning
The consistent use of contraceptives prevents pregnancy. Two-thirds of U.S. women who
are at risk for an unintended pregnancy consistently use contraceptives. This group of women
contributes less than 5% to the annual unintended pregnancies while women who do not use
contraception are only 16% of the at-risk population, yet they carry more than half of the
unintended pregnancies. Also, states that expanded their contraceptive care programs saw
dramatic changes. For instance, in Arkansas, repeat births dropped by 84% in the women
enrolled in the expansion in only four years. [6]
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Figure 1: From "Wise Investment: Reducing the Steep Costs to Medicaid of Unintended Pregnancy in the United States,"
by Rachel Benson Gold. Copyright Guttmacher Institute 1996-2012
Contraceptive services lower not only the proportion of unintended pregnancy while
raising the proportion of intended pregnancies, they also drastically lower the abortion rate. The
lowest abortion rates in the world are associated with a broad range of easily accessible
contraceptive services, widespread contraceptive use, and legal abortion on expansive grounds.
The Netherlands have widely available free contraceptive services and free, safe, legal abortions,
and they only have an abortion rate of 9 per 1000 women. The United States, on the other hand,
has restrictions on family planning and abortion services and has an abortion rate of
approximately 19 per 1000 women. [6]
Public Funding of Family Planning and Reproductive Healthcare
United States Legislation Pertaining to Public Funding of Family Planning. In 1970,
Title X of the Public Health Service Act was enacted. It is the only federal grant program
dedicated solely to family planning and preventative reproductive healthcare services. Title X
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provides funding to over 4,500 community-based clinics. Services of these clinics include
education, counseling, breast and pelvic examinations, breast and cervical cancer screenings,
STD education, counseling, testing and referral, and pregnancy diagnosis and referral. Title X
grants cannot, however, be issued to any clinic that offers abortion as a method of family
planning. The history and scope of Title X is available at HHS.gov from the Office of Population
Affairs of the Department of Health and Human Services.
In fiscal year 2010, Title X accounted for 10% of public expenditures for family
planning. It has been estimated that the services provided at Title X-funded centers saved the
United States $3.4 billion dollars that would have otherwise been shouldered by Medicaid for
unintended births. That is $3.74 saved for every Title X dollar spent on clinic services. [3]
Medicaid, a federal-state insurance program reimburses providers for family planning
care for enrolled individuals. 90% of these costs are absorbed by the federal government, while
the state is responsible for 10%. [10] The Hyde Amendment of 1977 disallows federal funding to
be used for abortions except in cases of rape, incest, or life endangerment. All states Medicaid
programs are required to provide for abortions that at least meet the federal standards.
Mississippi is in violation of the federal law, as it only allows state funding in the case of life
endangerment. Some states will also use Medicaid funding to cover all or most medically
necessary abortions either through court order or voluntarily. [27] Many states have also
expanded Medicaid coverage specifically for family planning services. 24 states now allow
women at or around 200% the federal poverty level (the same for Medicaid eligibility during
pregnancy) to use Medicaid funds for reproductive and preventative care. Medicaid spent
approximately $1.8 billion in family planning services in 2010 (75% of total expenditure). [10]
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States-only sources contribute to 12-13% of total family planning expenditures annually
(about $294 million in 2010), as well as smaller contributions from other federal sources (such as
CDC programs and block-grants) that make up 3%. The total expenditure for family planning
programs in 2010 was $2.37 billion. [10]
Figure 2: From "Facts on Publicly Funded Contraceptive Services in the United States," by The Guttmacher Institute,
March 2012. Copyright 1996-2012 Guttmacher Institute
Impact of Publicly Funded Family Planning. Publicly funded family planning services
helped avoid 1.94 million unintended pregnancies in 2006. These would have likely ended in
860,000 unintended births and 810,000 abortions (the remaining would have likely ended in
miscarriage). [10] In Frost, Finer, and Tapaless article in theJournal of Healthcare for the Poor
and Underserved, they compared the costs of family planning programs to the Medicaid costs
averted and found that for every $1 spent on these programs yields $4.02 in savings. [11] If this
rule is applied to the amount that was spent on family planning in 2010, it amounts to a savings
of $9.53 billion.
Family Planning Restriction Legislation in the United States.
Financial Restrictions. At the state level, there are many restrictions on family planning
services in many states. Some states have either failed to require insurance companies to cover
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all FDA approved methods of contraception, or allowed restrictions based on employers values
or religious beliefs or affiliation. 2 states that mandate contraceptive coverage from insurance
companies exclude emergency contraception from that mandate. [13]
Many states have placed restrictions on funding availability for abortion providers or
their affiliates. This is done in a variety of ways. Some states have restricted insurance coverage.
In some states it is prohibited entirely, others prohibit insurance plans that will be part of the
exchanges in 2014 to cover abortion services. While others prohibit insurance coverage except in
cases of life endangerment, fetal impairment, and/or rape or incest. Most states also have
restrictions for the public funding of abortions, centers that perform abortions, and even affiliates
that provide abortion counseling services and referrals. [25][26][27]
Restrictions like these place obstacles in the way of low-income women that want and
need family planning services. This results in more unintended pregnancies and births in low-
income women than in any other income-based category. [18]
MoralRestrictions. Many states have enacted laws to block or make access to
contraceptive services and abortions more difficult. Here are some of the most common: Some
states require parental consent for minors to obtain contraceptive services, abortion counseling
and referral, and abortions. 46 states allow some healthcare providers to refuse to provide
abortions, 18 states allow some healthcare providers to refuse to provide sterilization services,
and 13 states allow some healthcare providers to refuse to provide contraceptive services [7].
Others require waiting periods and counseling services to obtain an abortion. Informed consent
laws require doctors to provide the patient with information that is often authored by the state,
and that includes medically inaccurate information (eg. abortions are linked to breast cancer and
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are psychologically harmful, or that a fetus of 20 weeks gestation has the ability to perceive
pain). Some states have gestational restrictions on abortion (i.e. an abortion cannot be performed
after x amount of weeks).
Conclusion
While the United States has worthy goals when it comes to family planning, many laws
are passed that bring us further away from those goals. Scientifically and statistically accurate
data needs to be considered when discussing public policy pertaining to sex education and family
planning services. This is not to say that conscience does not have a place. Conscience has its
place as long as it is the conscience of the masses, and it does not exist completely outside of
reality.
Comprehensive sex education has been shown time and again to positively affect
adolescent sexual behaviors. It, however, has not been as effective when it is involuntary and
during school hours. This finding alone allows for a platform on which to begin building a
compromise. It seems that a federal-state funded voluntary program that took place on Saturdays
at public schools and community centers would solve the problem of offending proponents of
abstinence-only education. They could simply not send their children, and discourage their older
adolescents from attending. Granted, a small percentage of the funding would come from AOE
supporters (remember, 87% of parents want CSE), but all can never be satisfied when it comes to
funding. If federal and state funding were never used because a small percentage of a population
didnt agree with the program, we wouldnt have public schools, interstates, WIC, or anything
else that is publicly funded.
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Increasing the knowledge of young people is the first step in achieving the goals set forth
by Healthy People 2020. Through medically accurate knowledge, young people can find out the
value of protecting themselves, how to protect themselves, and how to identify and get the
services they require. Real psychological lessons can help to teach adolescents what relationships
are, and help them to objectively gauge their own maturity and readiness for sexual activity.
Moral lessons can be taught at home, through religious services, or private community centers.
Moral ideals, especially those pertaining to sex, differ drastically between generations,
neighborhoods, faiths, and other cultural identifiers. Adolescents will likely benefit from those
lessons even more if they know that they have all the information available to them, and they are
confident they have made an informed choice to behave within their own cultural standards.
Family planning services must also be considered within the realm of medical accuracy
and examples of systems that have lead other countries to the places we want to be in 8 years
should be considered. The Health Care Reform Act of 2010 is a step in the right direction. The
federal government has seen that accessible preventative care is the common thread that
countries achieving the goals of the United States share. The Health Care Reform Act will make
more methods of contraception available to more people. Hopefully, states will continue to
expand their family planning programs to encourage this. President Obama has also made a
concession for religious employers that allow them to refuse to pay for contraceptives for their
employees. These employees will have their contraceptive services subsidized by the state.
Although this certainly creates an obstacle for many people seeking these services, it shows
willingness for compromise.
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Willingness to compromise with the same goal in mind is a promising starting point. This
holds true, I think, even with abortion; the one issue that the two sides can seemingly never meet
on. The tug-of-war politics has made little or no change in the United States rate of abortion, or
since 1973, its legal status. I think that nearly everyone from both sides of the discussion can
agree that lessening the need for abortions is a worthy cause. When we look at the evidence,
prevention is what lessens that need, not criminalizing. Criminalizing abortion only puts women
at risk. It is apparent throughout the ages and all over the globe, individuals will do whatever it
takes to end an unwanted pregnancy. Laws protecting the provision of safe abortions ensures that
women will not end up losing their lives or suffering from lasting complications that further
drain health care funds.
Since there are examples all over Western Europe of systems that accomplish our
collective goals, they should be used as models or at least foundations that we can then begin to
recreate and build from. Working accessibility and science into our health care and education
standards will very likely result in the same outcomes it has in the countries of Western Europe
which will get us to (or at least much nearer to) accomplishing the goals of Healthy People 2020.
Adding restrictions and obstacles will likely do the opposite. If we emulate the restrictive laws of
the countries we attempt to aid in the developing world, we will likely find ourselves farther
from our goals and experiencing a profound economic crisis.
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References
ABOUT SOURCES:
[1] About the Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved May 3, 2012, from:http://www.guttmacher.org/about/index.html
[2] Healthy People 2020: Objective Development and Selection Process. Retrieved May 3, 2012, from:
http://healthypeople.gov/2020/about/objectiveDevelopment.aspx
FAMILY PLANNING :
[3] Boonstra, H.D. (2008). The impact of government programs on reproductive health disparities: Three case studies. Guttmacher
Policy Review. 11(3). Retrieved April 22, 2012, from Guttmacher Institute database:
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/11/3/gpr110306.pdf
[4] Cohen, S.A. (2011). The numbers tell the story: The reach and impact of Title X. Guttmacher Policy Review. 14(2). Retrieved April 22,
2012, from Guttmacher Institute database:http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/14/2/gpr140220.html
[5] Facts on unintended pregnancy in the United States. (2012). In Brief: Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from Guttmacher Institute
database:http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-Unintended-Pregnancy-US.html#6
[6] Gold, R.B. (2011). Wise investment: Reducing the steep cost to Medicaid of unintended pregnancy in the United States. Guttmacher
Policy Review. 14(3). Retrieved April 22, 2012, from Guttmacher Institute database:
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/14/3/gpr140306.html
[7] Guttmacher Institute. (2012). Refusing to provide health services. State policies in brief as of April 1, 2012: New York: Guttmacher
Institute. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from the Guttmacher Institute database: http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_RPHS.pdf
[8] Sonfield A., Alrich C., & Gold R.B., (2008). Public funding for family planning, sterilization and abortion services, FY 19802006,
Occasional Report No. 38. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from Guttmacher Institute database:
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/2008/01/28/or38.pdf
Contraception:
[9] CDC. Health Promotions Statistics Branch, Office of Analysis and Epidemiology, National Center for Health Statistics. (2011). Final
review: Healthy people 2010: Family planning 9. Retrieved from:
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Induced Abortion:
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HISTORICAL MEDIA:
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SEX ED
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Endnotes
*An unintended pregnancy refers to a pregnancy that was either unwanted (did not want to become pregnant then
or any time in the future) or mistimed (did not want to become pregnant at that time, but did want to become
pregnant at some point in the future).
White Slavery refers to sex trafficking in Europe and the United States, in which young girls (usually 13 to 17
years old) were lured with love at first sight, and promises of wealth and marriage, only to be raped, and sold into
prostitution rings.
Eugenics: a science that deals with the improvement (as by control of human mating) of hereditary qualities of a
race or breed.
Quickening: When the movement of a fetus is perceived by the mother.
** The Guttmacher Institute produces resources pertaining to sexual and reproductive health. In 2009, they were
designated an Official Collaborating Center by the World Health Organization and its regional office, the Pan
American Health Organization. [1]
Sex education in the United States is considered either Abstinence-Only, or comprehensive (sometimes referredto as Abstinence-Plus). Abstinence-Only education presents abstinence until marriage as the only option forstudents. Comprehensive sex education presents abstinence as the preferred choice, but also provides information ona variety of other subjects, like contraception and disease prevention.
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