september 151. 2 in chapter 14: 14.1 data 14.2 scatterplots 14.3 correlation 14.4 regression

Apr 19, 2023 1

Chapter 14: Chapter 14: Correlation and RegressionCorrelation and Regression

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In Chapter 14:

14.1 Data

14.2 Scatterplots

14.3 Correlation

14.4 Regression

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14.1 Data• Quantitative response variable Y (“dependent

variable”)• Quantitative explanatory variable X

(“independent variable”)• Historically important public health data set used

to illustrate techniques (Doll, 1955)– n = 11 countries– Explanatory variable = per capita cigarette

consumption in 1930 (CIG1930) – Response variable = lung cancer mortality per

100,000 (LUNGCA)

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Data, cont.

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§14.2 ScatterplotBivariate (xi, yi) points plotted as scatter plot.

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Inspect scatterplot’s

• Form: Can the relation be described with a straight or some other type of line?

• Direction: Do points tend trend upward or downward?

• Strength of association: Do point adhere closely to an imaginary trend line?

• Outliers (in any): Are there any striking deviations from the overall pattern?

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Judging Correlational Strength• Correlational strength refers

to the degree to which points adhere to a trend line

• The eye is not a good judge of strength.

• The top plot appears to show a weaker correlation than the bottom plot. However, these are plots of the same data sets. (The perception of a difference is an artifact of axes scaling.)

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§14.3. Correlation• Correlation coefficient r quantifies linear

relationship with a number between −1 and 1.• When all points fall on a line with an upward

slope, r = 1. When all data points fall on a line with a downward slope, r = −1

• When data points trend upward, r is positive; when data points trend downward, r is negative.

• The closer r is to 1 or −1, the stronger the correlation.

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Examples of correlations

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Calculating r• Formula

Correlation coefficient tracks the degree to which X and Y “go together.”

• Recall that z scores quantify the amount a value lies above or below its mean in standard deviations units.

• When z scores for X and Y track in the same direction, their products are positive and r is positive (and vice versa).

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Calculating r, Example

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Calculating rIn practice, we rely on computers and calculators to calculate r. I encourage my students to use these tools whenever possible.

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Calculating rSPSS output for Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate using the illustrative data:

Correlations

1 .737**

.010

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.737** 1

.010

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Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Cig Consuption percapita, 1930

Lung Cancer Mortalityper 100000, 1950

CigConsuptionper capita,

1930

Lung CancerMortality per100000, 1950

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.

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Interpretation of r1. Direction. The sign of r indicates the direction

of the association: positive (r > 0), negative (r < 0), or no association (r ≈ 0).

2. Strength. The closer r is to 1 or −1, the stronger the association.

3. Coefficient of determination. The square of the correlation coefficient (r2) is called the coefficient of determination. This statistic quantifies the proportion of the variance in Y [mathematically] “explained” by X. For the illustrative data, r = 0.737 and r2 = 0.54. Therefore, 54% of the variance in Y is explained by X.

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Notes, cont. 4. Reversible relationship. With correlation, it

does not matter whether variable X or Y is specified as the explanatory variable; calculations come out the same either way. [This will not be true for regression.]

5. Outliers. Outliers can have

a profound effect on r. This

figure has an r of 0.82 that is

fully accounted for by the

single outlier.

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Notes, cont.

6. Linear relations only. Correlation applies only to linear relationships This figure shows a strong non-linear relationship, yet r = 0.00.

7. Correlation does not necessarily mean causation. Beware lurking variables (next slide).

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Confounded CorrelationA near perfect negative correlation (r = −.987) was seen between cholera mortality and elevation above sea level during a 19th century epidemic.

We now know that cholera is transmitted by water. The observed relationship between cholera and elevation was confounded by the lurking variable proximity to polluted water.

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Hypothesis Test

We conduct the hypothesis test to guard against identifying too many random correlations.

Random selection from a random scatter can result in an apparent correlation

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Hypothesis TestA. Hypotheses. Let ρ represent the population

correlation coefficient. H0: ρ = 0 vs. Ha: ρ ≠ 0 (two-sided)[or Ha: ρ > 0 (right-sided) or Ha: ρ < 0 (left-sided)]

B. Test statistic

C. P-value. Convert tstat to P-value with software or Table C.

2

2

1 where

2

stat

ndf

n

rSE

SE

rt r

r

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Hypothesis Test – Illustrative Example

A. H0: ρ = 0 vs. Ha: ρ ≠ 0 (two-sided)

B. Test stat

C. .005 < P < .01 by Table C. P = .0097 by computer. The evidence against H0 is highly significant.

9 211

3.27 0.2253

737.0

0.2253211

737.01

stat

2

df

t

SEr

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Confidence Interval for ρ

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Confidence Interval for ρ

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Conditions for Inference

• Independent observations

• Bivariate Normality (r can still be used descriptively when data are not bivariate Normal)

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§14.4. Regression• Regression describes

the relationship in the data with a line that predicts the average change in Y per unit X.

• The best fitting line is found by minimizing the sum of squared residuals, as shown in this figure.

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Regression Line, cont.

• The regression line equation is:

where ŷ ≡ predicted value of Y, a ≡ the intercept of the line, and b ≡ the slope of the line

• Equations to calculate a and bSLOPE:

INTERCEPT:

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Regression Line, cont.Slope b is the key statistic produced by the regression

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Regression Line, illustrative example

Here’s the output from SPSS:

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• Let α represent the population intercept, β represent population slope, and εi represent the residual “error” for point i. The population regression model is

• The estimated standard error of the regression is

• A (1−α)100% CI for population slope β is

Inference

X

xYbbn

sn

sSESEtb

1 where |

1,2 2

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Confidence Interval for β–Example

-4.342 17.854

.007 .039

(Constant)

cig1930

Model1

Lower Bound Upper Bound

95% Confidence Interval for B

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t Test of Slope Coefficient

A. Hypotheses. H0: β = 0 against Ha: β ≠ 0

B. Test statistic.

C. P-value. Convert the tstat to a P-value

2

1

where |stat

ndf

sn

sSE

SE

bt

X

xYb

b

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t Test: Illustrative Example

6.756 4.906 1.377 .202

.023 .007 .737 3.275 .010

(Constant)

cig1930

Model1

B Std. Error

UnstandardizedCoefficients

Beta

StandardizedCoefficients

t Sig.

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Analysis of Variance of the Regression Model

An ANOVA technique equivalent to the t test can also be used to test H0: β = 0.This technique is covered on pp. 321 – 324 in the text but is not included in this presentation.

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Conditions for Inference

Inference about the regression line requires these conditions

• Linearity

• Independent observations

• Normality at each level of X

• Equal variance at each level of X

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Conditions for InferenceThis figure illustrates Normal and equal variation around the regression line at all levels of X

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Assessing Conditions• The scatterplot should be visually inspected for

linearity, Normality, and equal variance• Plotting the residuals from the model can be

helpful in this regard.• The table lists residuals for the illustrative data

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Assessing Conditions, cont. • A stemplot of the

residuals show no major departures from Normality

• This residual plot shows more variability at higher X values (but the data is very sparse)

|-1|6|-0|2336| 0|01366| 1|4 x10

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Residual PlotsWith a little experience, you can get good at reading residual plots. Here’s an example of linearity with equal variance.

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Residual PlotsExample of linearity with unequal variance

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Example of Residual PlotsExample of non-linearity with equal variance