semanticssemantics. 1. study of linguistic meanings 2. explores the variety of meanings and meaning...

SEMANTICS

1. Study of linguistic meanings

2. Explores the variety of meanings and meaning relationships that hold between words and sentences

3. Has 2 sub-domains: Lexical (words) and sentential (sentences)

SEMANTICS

denotations VS referents

Denotation: literal meaning of word/phrase

Referent: the actual entity (ies) that a word signifies.

Reference: the relationship that exists between a word and its referent(s).

a) The President of the United States

Man with

power over the

US

The President of the United

States

denotations VS referents

b) Capital of Canada

Administrative centre &

main seat of Canadian

government

Capital of Canada

denotations VS referents

c) The women who walked on the moon

Group of women who stepped foot

on the moon… and walked a few

steps

The women who walked on

the moon

denotations VS referents

d) My linguistic professor

Teacher that teaches the subject of linguistic

My linguisti

c professo

r

denotations VS referents

The eye of a needle

The foot of the bed

The hands of the clock

The arm of a chair

Describes non-living entities in terms of physical human features

metaphors we live by

The lecture is easy to digest

He just eats up the lecturer’s words

Chew on this thought for a while

Listen to this juicy piece of gossip

Describes knowledge in terms of food-related terminology

metaphors we live by

Your claims are indefensible

He shot down all my arguments

His criticisms were right on target

If you use that strategy, he’ll wipe you out

I demolished his argument

He attacked every weak point in my argument

Describes arguments in terms of war terminology

metaphors we live by

He unleashed his anger

Her anger was aroused

Your temper is ferocious

She was bristling with rage

Describes wrath in terms of animalistic features

metaphors we live by

Sentential semantics – Relations between sentences AKA Logical connections

1.Paraphrase2.Entailment3.Contradiction4.Presupposition

logical entailment

Definition of entailment: Proposition A entails Proposition B if the truth of A makes B

necessarily true.

i.e The truth of sentence A ensures the truth of sentence B.

Lecture example

A: I boiled an egg.

B: I cooked an egg.

logical entailment

“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

1A 1B Explanation

1) Hilary and Dana are married to each other.

i) Hilary is a woman. Married =/= Woman Hilary could be a man.

ii) Dana is Hilary’s spouse.

Married = Spouses of one another.

iii) Hilary and Dana are husband and wife.

Married =/= Husband & wife Since there is gender ambiguity. Ans: Wife & wife.

iv) Dana is not single. Married = Dana is not single.

v) Hilary and Dana live together.

Married =/= living together. Could be married but living separately.

logical entailment

1A 1B Explanation

1) Hilary and Dana are married to each other.

i) Hilary is a woman. Married =/= Woman Hilary could be a man.

ii) Dana is Hilary’s spouse.

Married = Spouses of one another.

iii) Hilary and Dana are husband and wife.

Married =/= Husband & wife Since there is gender ambiguity. Ans: Wife & wife.

iv) Dana is not single. Married = Dana is not single.

v) Hilary and Dana live together.

Married =/= living together. Could be married but living separately.

“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

logical entailment

2A 2B Explanation

2) Romeo kissed Juliet passionately.

i) Romeo kissed Juliet. Have to kiss before doing it passionately.

ii) Juliet kissed Romeo. R kissing J passionately =/= J kissed R. J could have not kissed R back.

iii) Romeo kissed Juliet many times.

Does not have to be many kisses for it to be done passionately.

iv) Juliet was kissed by Romeo.

R kissed J = J kissed by R

v) Romeo loves Juliet. Kissing passionately =/= in love. Reckless youth.

logical entailment“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

2A 2B Explanation

2) Romeo kissed Juliet passionately.

i) Romeo kissed Juliet. Have to kiss before doing it passionately.

ii) Juliet kissed Romeo. R kissing J passionately =/= J kissed R. J could have not kissed R back.

iii) Romeo kissed Juliet many times.

Does not have to be many kisses for it to be done passionately.

iv) Juliet was kissed by Romeo.

R kissed J = J kissed by R

v) Romeo loves Juliet. Kissing passionately =/= in love. Reckless youth.

“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

logical entailment

3A 3B Explanation

John shot Tom’s brother dead.

i) John is a murderer. John could have killed Tom’s bro in self-defense Not necessarily a murderer.

ii) Tom’s brother was a victim of a violent crime.

Assumes that Tom’s bro was a victim. It could be an accidental shot/killing.

iii) Tom’s brother is dead.

John shot Tom’s bro dead = Tom’s bro dead.

iv) John knew Tom’s brother.

You can shoot someone you do not know.

v) John hated Tom. Could have shot by accident, without any feelings of hatred.

logical entailment“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

logical entailment

3A 3B Explanation

John shot Tom’s brother dead.

i) John is a murderer. John could have killed Tom’s bro in self-defense Not necessarily a murderer.

ii) Tom’s brother was a victim of a violent crime.

Assumes that Tom’s bro was a victim. It could be an accidental shot/killing.

iii) Tom’s brother is dead.

John shot Tom’s bro dead = Tom’s bro dead.

iv) John knew Tom’s brother.

You can shoot someone you do not know.

v) John hated Tom. Could have shot by accident, without any feelings of hatred.

“The truth of sentence A makes B necessarily true.”

Definition of Presupposition:

An implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to a sentence whose truth is taken for granted, so to speak.

Presupposition

A. John regrets that Maria went to the graduation ceremony.

John believes that Maria went to the graduation ceremony.

presupposition (A)

Ans: John regrets that Maria went to the graduation ceremony. Regrets: Presupposition that Maria has

gone to the graduation ceremony already. Believes: Encapsulates a personal opinion.

B. The captain thought that the ship was in danger. The captain realized that the ship was in danger.

presupposition (A)

Ans: The captain realized that the ship was in danger.

Realized: Presupposition that the ship is already in danger.

Thought: Encapsulates a personal opinion.

C. It is significant that the criminal was sentenced.

It is likely that the criminal was sentenced.

presupposition (A)

Answer: It is significant that the criminal was sentenced.

Significant Presupposition that criminal is already sentenced

Likely encapsulates a personal opinion and criminal might not be sentenced yet.

Sylvia is dead Murderer is unknown There must be a Sylvia

presupposition (B)

A. Who killed Sylvia?

presupposition (B)

B. Where did you put the cheese?

Cheese has to exist in this world The cheese is not at its original position Someone/something is responsible for

misplacing the cheese

presupposition (B)

C. Why is there sadness in the world? There is must be an emotion called

sadness in the world A world has to be in existence

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