revision sheet for the american west
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History:TheAmericanWest
AtimelineoftheAmericanWest:
TheHistoryoftheAmericanWestissplitintomanyvarioussections/periods:
Section/Period Overview
TheGeographyOf
America
This is an introduction to the geographical regions and its
features.Theclimateandlandscape.
TheNativeAmericans Covers Lifestyles and Religion & Tradition of the Native
Americans
TheEarlySettlers Exploresthelifeoftheearlysettlers,covers:
- JourneyWest- TheMormons- TheGoldRush- SettlementandHomesteaders
Date(s) Detail
1492 ColumbusarrivesinAmerica1700s SiouxforcedontoPlainsfromGreatLakesregion
1776 AmericanDeclarationofIndependence
1830 BookofMormonFirstPublished
1833 FirstMormonTempleBuiltinKirtland,Ohio
1847 MormonsSettleinSaltLakeValley
1848 DiscoveryofGoldinCaliforniabyJamesMarshall
1849 CaliforniaGoldRush
1861-1865 USCivilWar
1862 LittleCrowsWar
1862 TheHomesteadAct
1864-(Nov29) SandCreekMassacre
1866-1868 RedCloudsWar
1867 MedicineLodgeTreaty
1869 FirstTranscontinentalRailroadCompleted
1873 TimberCultureAct
1874 IntroductionofBarbedWire
1876(June25-26) BattleofLittleBighorn
1876-1877 SiouxCampaign
1877 DesertLandAct
1881 ShootoutattheOKCorral
1886-1887 TerribleWinter
1887 DawesAct
1890 FrontierDeclaredClosedbyUSCensusBureau
1890-(Dec29) MassacreatWoundedKnee
1892 JohnsonCountyWar
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CattleTrailsandthe
Cowboys
Thissectionlooksatthedevelopmentofthejobsandrolesof
the Cowboys and the cattle they raised. This section
specificallyfocuseson:
- EarlyRearingandtheCattleTrails- DevelopmentofCattleRearing- Cowboys
TheIndianWars ThissectionlooksatthevariouswarsoftheIndiansandhow
variousactsandtreatieswereencouragedtoendthem.Inthis
section,eachconflictandtreatywillbecoveredandtheeffect
theyhadonwaysoflifeforbothpartiesinvolved.
TheEndoftheNative
AmericanWayofLife
Ashortsectionoutlininghow,aftertheIndianWars,thewhite
mangainedcontroloftheplainsandtheIndianswipedout.
TheGeographyOfAmerica
GeographicalRegions
Inthiscourse,theAmericanWestisdefinedastheareaofNorthAmericathatis
WestoftheMississippiriver.Thisareaisdividedintovariousregionsthatwillbethe
focusofthecourse.ThemainareasofstudyconsistoftheGreatPlainsinthecentre
oftheAmericanWestandthesubsequentareasWestoftheGreatPlains:TheRocky
Mountains,GreatSaltPlainsandtheareasofCaliforniaandOregon.Theseregions
differgreatlyfromeachotherintermsofclimate,landscapeandpopulation.Itisthe
changeanddevelopmentoftheseareasthatisstudiedinthistopic.
TheClimateandLandscapeoftheAmericanWest
Throughout thehistoryofthisarea, the landscapeand climatehas alwaysbeena
contributingfactorinhowtheregionsdevelopandhowthepopulationthereact.
Primarily, themain focus region is The Great Plains, a vast expanse of land that
dominatesCentralNorthAmerica.Itismainlycomposedofgrasslandsplitintothe
EasternLowPlains(longgrass)andtheWesternHighPlains(shortgrass).Akey
pointisthattheGreatPlainsbecomedrieranddesert-likethemoresouthernyou
travel. The weather across the Plains varies severely to an extreme degree. Themountains on either side of the region create what are known as rain-shadows
(regionswithverylittlerain).Thereforeextremedroughtiscommoninthesummer
andseveresnowfallinwinter.Furthermore,duetothelandlockedstateoftheGreat
Plains, there is a vast difference in temperature from the summer to thewinter
months.AfinalnoteisthatTornadosarecommononthePlains.
Another area that commonly features throughout the course are The Rocky
Mountains. These mountains form a barrier across America with their heavily
woodedslopesandparticularlylargepeaks.TowardsthecentreoftheRockieslies
thePlateauxregion.Itisrelativelyflatandconsistsofdesert.Watercanrunintothis
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regionandgettrapped;onlyescapingthroughevaporation.Thisfeatureledtothe
creationoftheGreatSaltLake;averyimportantgeographicallocationlateron.
ThepacificcoastlinestothefarWestarethelastmainfocusareaofthecourse.This
region consists of desirable fertile land and a pleasant, mild, temperate climate.
Becauseofthis,theregionwasamuchsought-afterareatolive.
TheNativeAmericans
TheNativeAmericans,orPlains Indians,were the peoplewho livedonthe plains
whenColumbusdiscovereditin1492.Thestartofthisstudyperiodis1840where
webegintolookatthelifestyleandcultureoftheNativeAmericanswholivedthere
atthattime.Inthisperiod,theNativeAmericanswerenotjustasinglegroupwith
setcustoms;theyweremanydifferenttribesthatallexpresseddifferingculturesand
beliefs.
Lifestyle
TheNative American people were adapted to their environment, which enabled
themtosurviveontheseharshlands.However,inorderforthistooccur,theNative
Americanshadasevererelianceonthebuffalothatgrazedontheplains.Beforethe
mass slaughter in1870,millions ofbuffalowereavailable tothenomadichunter-
gatherersthatwereessentialinbringingsuppliestothevariousIndiantribes.The
buffalo provided the necessities for life in these tribes. Every single part of the
buffalowasused,fromsinewsforropestodungforfuel,exceptfortheheart.Thiswasremovedandburiedontheplains,which,theybelieved,enabledthebuffalos
spirittoberebornandthereforekepttheherdsofbuffalohealthyandplentiful.
AvastdevelopmentinthelifestyleoftheNativeAmericanscamewhenEuropeans
brought over horses in the 16th Century. The horses increased the power of the
tribes.Theymadehuntingmucheasierandmoreefficientandenabledthetransport
offoodandbelongingstobemuchmoreviable.
However,theEuropeansalsobroughtanotherfeaturetoNativeAmericanlifestyle;
one that was not appreciated. European diseases such as Smallpox and Choleracausedwidespreadepidemicsandsubsequentdeath.Nomadictribes(scatteredand
constantlymoving)werelessvulnerabletotheseepidemicsthanthepermanently
stationedfarmingtribesandassuchthepopulationofNomadictribesincreasedand
tookmajority.
Thereweredifferencesbetweentribes,however,thathadnothingtodowith the
way they hunted. Leadershipsbetween tribes differed; the previously agricultural
tribes tended toemployahereditary conceptwhenchoosinga Chiefwhereas the
leadershipofNomadictribeswasveryflexible.Anotherfeatureofcontrastbetween
tribeswas the languagetheyspoke.Eachtribehadtheirown individualtakeona
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main language; inter-tribal communicationwas possiblebut some differencesdid
occur.*ThinkofitlikeanAustraliantalkingtoanAmerican*
Thetribesthemselveshadaveryunique conceptontheownershiponland. They
simplydidnotacknowledgethefactthatlandcouldbeseenassomethingthatcould
beboughtandsold.Landwasfreetothetribes,likeair,andsoanyonecouldsettle
orgrowcropsanywhere.
Generositywasakeyfactorintriballife;itwasexpectedfromeveryonewhocould
provideittodisplaygenerositytothoseinneed.Thisconceptattributedtoapersons
prestige and power within the tribe and, likewise, a lack of it decreased their
influence.Achiefwhowasntgenerouslosttheirinfluenceonthetribe.
Therolesofwomenandmenwereverydifferentwithinatribe.Primarily,mostmen
werewarriors.TribalwarfarewaspartofthecultureofmanyNativeAmericans.Low
intensityviolenceandraidsonothertribesforhorsesandcaptiveswereapartofthelifestyleandservedasapurposeofgainingprestigeandstatureinatribe.Aspecific
acttoshowbraveryandprestigewasknownasCountingCoup.Thismeantriding
uptoanenemyandtouchingthemwithasymbolicstickbeforeridingawaysafely.
Thesesymbolicactsreducedtheneedfordeathtoshowprestigeandsotribalwar
wassustainable.ThereasonforthisisduetothefactthattheNativeAmericansdid
not view themselves as a nation but considered each tribe to be completely
different.Thereforerivaltribescouldbeconsideredasmuchstrangersandenemies
asthewhitesettlers.Somethingtonote,though,isthatnotalltribeswerewarlike,
forexample,thePueblosonlyfoughtinself-defence.
Womenof the tribes played a separate and contrasting role inNative American
culture. War and hunting were considered to be themens business and so the
womendidnotrisktheirlivesdoingthis;theyplayedahard-workingrolewithinthe
runningofthetribe:
Agriculture(ifanywasdone) Findingfoodforthehorsesandleadingthemwhenthetriberelocated Tanningbuffalohides Makingtipis(traditionalconeshapedhomeoftheNativeAmericans) Makingpemmican(alonglastingproductoffruitandbuffalomeat) Makingmostofthefinishedgoods-whatthewomenmadethey
subsequentlyowned,givingthempower.
ReligionandTraditions
ThewaytheNativeAmericanssawandinteractedwiththeworldwasbasedaround
theirreligion,whichwascloselylinkedtonature.Theybelievedthathumansarepart
ofnatureandnotmastersoverit.Thefundamentalbeliefwasina lifeforceknown
as The GreatSpirit thatwas present innature. Itwasnt personified and as such
could not be anthropomorphised (given human features). It wasnt a sentient,consciousbeinginthewaythattheChristiangodisperceived;itwassimplyatforce
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that was at one with nature. To the Native Americans, nature had a spiritual
dimension and was not just a supplier of commodities and resources for
exploitation.
TheNative Americans expressed an avid belief in the interdependence of things;
theysawallentitiesasbeingconnected.Therefore,circleswerespirituallyimportant
tothemandsoreligiousritualsalwaystookplaceincircles.Theyalsobelievedthat
everything has spirits as part of the Great Spirit, living (such as the buffalo they
hunted)andnon-living(suchasthemountainsandrivers).Todisturbtheseitemsof
naturemeantthattheirspiritsweredeserved.Topreventthis,ritualswhenhunting
werenot only for guaranteeing success,butwere clinical inkeeping the spiritsof
creaturessatisfiedandcontent.
Thetribeshadcertainmemberswhoappearedtohaveaconnectiontothepowerof
thespirits.Labelledmedicinemen(whichmeant: toappealtospiritsviaprayer,
ritual,orceremony),theypossessedstrength,courageandanunderstandingofboththevisibleandinvisibleworlds.
TheNative American beliefs and traditions were continued through oral history.
Theydidnotkeepphysicalwrittenaccountsoftheseand,assuch,importantideas
and histories of the tribes were passed down from generation to generation by
tellingstoriesandtales.Theissuewithoralhistorymeansthatsignsofchangeand
difference were rarely noted due to the same stories being passed down from
generations.Italsohadatendencytobeextremelyfragileinthesensethatabad
diseaseepidemiccouldkillofftheelderlywhopossessedtheknowledgeandsothis
knowledgewassubsequentlylost.
TheEarlySettlers
EuropeansettlersfirstsettledintheEastCoastofAmericainthe1600s.However,it
soonbecameapparentthattheWestcouldprovideamuchbetterqualityoflife;at
least,thatswhattheybelieved.
TheJourneyWest
ThejourneyWestwasaperilousone,oftenfatalifattemptedatthewrongtimeof
year. Familiesupstakesand simply left inhuge trails ofwagons,milesandmiles
long,containingalllifepossessions.Thedevelopmentofmigrationmeantthattrails
ofpassagehadtobecreatedand,astheyearswentby,moreandmoretrailsbegan
to appear across the American landscape. These trails had been pioneered by
explorersandtrappers,morecommonlyknownasinfamousmountainmen,and
withouttheirknowledge,thejourneywouldhavebeenclosetoimpossible.*Amost
notable mountain man was Jim Bridger, a pioneering 40 year wanderer of the
mountainswhofirstreportedtheexistenceoftheGreatSaltLake*
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Themapshowsthemostcommontrails.ThemajoritybeginatStLouisandeither
branch toend atLos Angeles orSan Francisco. They all crossed the GreatPlains,
whichquickly became knownas the GreatAmericanDesert due to the fact they
werefirstthoughtunsuitableforagriculturebecauseoftheextremeclimate,hard
ground and sparse rainfall. The majority crossed the Rocky Mountains, which
providedoneofthetoughestchallengersforthemigrants.
Themost common trails, the Oregon and California trails, stretched about 2000
miles and the approximate crossing time was 5 months by wagon. The rivers,
mountains and desert provided toughchallenges for themigrantswhich, coupled
withalackofdisciplineandexperience,wouldcausedangerousdelays.Itwassimply
imperativethatthewinterdeadlinewasbeaten.
OneinfamousdisasteroccurredtotheDonnerParty.Theytriedanunknownshort
cutandendedup trapped in deep snow in the Sierra Nevada in 1846. Of the87
emigrantsintheparty,lessthan50surviveduntilthenextspring,onlybyresortingtocannibalismandeatingthosewhodied.
Taking the journeywas very costly. Thosewho couldoutfit awagonhad tohave
money.Manywerefarmerswhosoldtheirfarmsataprofit;othersincludedlawyers,
teachers, clergy and craftsmen. Thosewho couldnot afford, such asyoungmen,
couldhirethemselvesashelpersonthetrails.
Theperilousnatureofthejourneyraisesquestionsaboutwhythepeoplejourneyed
thethousandsofmilesandtooksuchahugerisk.Itwaswellrecordedthatasmany
as10%ofpeoplewoulddieonthejourney.Thetablebelowsuggeststhepushandpullfactors,whatwaspushingthemoutoftheEastandpullingthemtotheWest.
PushFactors(outoftheEast) PullFactors(intotheWest)
Poverty Prospectofgoldandsilver
Disease Anewstart
Religious/socialpersecution Talltales/newspaperreports
Taxation Fertilecheapland
OverpopulationintheEast Governmentencouragedit
AlargereasonalsowasthecommonsharedbeliefbetweenWhiteAmericans,thebeliefinManifestDestiny.Thiswasthebeliefthattheyweredestinedtooccupy
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andgovern thewholeofNorthAmerica; theysaw itas theirGod-givenright. The
white settles also saw their religion and culture as superior to the beliefs of the
NativeAmericans.Theysawthemselvesascivilisingthecontinent.
TheMormons
The Mormons were a group of people who were followers of a branch of
Christianity.TheywerefollowersofJosephSmithandhisconceptaboutreligion.Itis
stillareligionthatisinpractisetoday.
JosephSmithwasthesonofapoorfarmerfromVermontwho,in1823,claimedhe
dugupsomegoldenplatesfromamountainsideinPalmyra,NewYorkState.Hesaid
he had been guidedby an angel, Moroni,who then helped him to translate the
mysteriouswritingonthem.Itsupposedlysaidthatwhoeverfoundtheplateswould
restorethechurchofJesusChristinAmericaandbuildupGodskingdomonEarth
ready for Christssecond coming. Smithpublished this inthe BookofMormon in1830.
TheMormons were named afterMormon,Moronis father, and believed Joseph
SmithandtheGoldenPlatesstory.Smithstartedwithonly5followersbutby1830,
hischarismaticpublicspeakingresultedinseveralhundredfollowers.
MormonBeliefs
- Againstswearing,drinking,gambling(ungodly)- Believeinhardworkforeachotherandthecommunity- BelievedtheywereGodsChosenPeopleandcalledthemselvesSaints- Gave1/10oftheirearningstochurch- Laterbelievedinandallowedpolygamy
TheMormons settledin theEastbutweredrivenoutofeverywheretheytried to
settle.Thetablebelowoutlinesthis:
EasternPlaceandDates WhatHappenedThere
Kirtland,Ohio1831-1837 LabelledbySmithasGodschosenplace
onEarth.Theybuiltatemple,banksand
farms. The bankscollapsed in1837,thenon-Mormonslostmoneyanddrovethe
MormonsoutofKirtland.
Missouri1837-1838 LabelledbySmithas Godschosenplace
onEarth.Theybuiltatemple,banksand
farms. Problems over land purchases,
opposition to Mormons ideas over
slavery (equal and free) and the
suspicion over Danites plotting with
Indians. Mormons chased out of
Missouri, Brigham Young emerged toleadtheMormonstoIllinois.
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Nauvoo,Illinois1839-1846 LabelledbySmithasGodschosenplace
onEarth.Theybuiltatemple,banksand
farms. AgainMormon ideas on slavery,
Indians, the Danites and Polygamy
angered non-Mormons. Smith also ran
for President but was arrested in June
1844 and was murdered later that
month.
ThisconstantoppositionandthedeathofJosephSmithresultedinfollowersleaving
the Mormon faith. However, 15000 remainedwhen Brigham Young took over as
leader.
BrighamYoungwastheleaderoftheMormonsafterJosephSmith.Oneofhisfirst
jobsas leaderwastoorganisethemoveof15,000men,womenandchildren into
unknown, dangerous territory and ensure they survived the journey. This was ajourneythattheyhadnotexpectedtomakeandweresubsequentlypoorlyprepared
for.
Theyweretravelling2250kmtotheGreatSaltLakeandtolandnobodyelsewanted.
Inorderforthistobeasuccess,BrighamYoung:
-DividedtheMormonsintomanageablegroups,eachwithaleader
- Insistedonstrictdiscipline,givingeveryoneaspecificroletoplay- Taughtthemhowtoformtheirwagonsintoacircleatnightforsafety- Insistedonregularrestingplaces
TheadvancepartyoftheMormonswentaheadandfollowedtherunsmadebythe
wagonwheels of the Donner party and so there was always the treat that they
wouldsufferthesamefate.ReachingthetopofthepassthatleddowntotheGreat
SaltLakeinJuly1847,thegrouphadtodecidewhethertopressontothepopulated
yetfertilelandofOregonorCalifornia,ordescendtotheempty,infertilesaltflats
that surrounded the lake.BrighamYoung issupposedtohave said,It isenough.
Thisistherightplace.
TheflatsoftheGreatSaltLakewas chosenbyYoungbecauseofmultiple reasons
influencedbypastMormonattemptsatsettlement. The landwas stillclaimedtohavebeenchosenforthembyGodbutmainlyitwasawayfromnon-Mormons.The
landwasnotgoodforfarmingsonooneelsewanteditand,additionally,theland
didnotbelongtotheUSAandsowasnotsubjecttoUSlaws.TheybuiltSaltLakeCity
thatwasidenticaltoprevioussettlements,minusthenon-Mormons.However,these
reasonsforsettlementalsoraisedtheirownissuesandproblems,detailedbelow:
IssuewithSettlement Solutions
LandOwnership No individual will own land - it was
decided that landwouldbeequallyand
fairlydistributedbytheMormonChurchProblemofFreshWater Irrigation - Dry ditches for irrigation,
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mainditchandsidestreamslinkedtothe
mainsourcethatsuppliedfreshwaterto
thelake
TheNeedtobeSelf-sufficient Perpetual Emigration Fund - provide
money for the poorer Mormons living
everywhere in America and Europe to
makethejourneytotheMormontowns
toprovidethecommunitywithskillsand
talents required. Emigrants then had to
paybackthemoneyininstalments.
Once settlement had been established in Salt Lake City, Brigham Young and the
Mormonsmadetheefforttoexpandandgainpoliticalstatureandrecognitioninthe
US. Young tried to appeal to the government for various developments; the
governmentgrantedthembuttherewerealwaysprovisionsandconditionsplaced
upon them, which restricted what the Mormons could achieve, and so they
responded.
DevelopmentofMormonSettlement Provisions/Conditions/Response
1848-BrighamYoungappliedtotheUS
GovernmentfortheMormonlands(salt
lake city) to become a state called
Deseret
-OnlyallowedMormonterritorystatus,
hadtoberunbyfederalofficials
-HadtobecalledUtah
-Smallandhadnoport
US Government appointed Brigham
YoungtobethefirstgovernorofUtah
- Laws made in Washington, not by
Mormons
-B.YthereforeusedtheDanitestocrushoppositionfromnon-Mormons
1857 - US Government sent a non-
Mormon governor to Utah along with
1500soldierstoenforcefederalrule
-AmassacreofmigrantsledtoMormons
blaming Indians, non-Mormons blaming
Danites. The Mountains Meadow
Massacre
-USGovernment changed itsmind and
triedtoreachapeacefulsettlement
The US Government agreed to let the
Mormonslivewithoutinterference
- Utah could not become a state until
theybannedpolygamy
- Mormons agreed to a non-Mormongovernorandbannedpolygamyin1890
TheGoldRush
JamesMarshallfoundgoldinCaliforniain1848.Goldwastheprizedpossessionin
the USand whoever had itwas rich. Therefore,when news leaked, people went
crazywiththeaptlynamedGold-Fever.Mattersweremadeworsebytheboastingof
PresidentPolk,whotoldthecongressoftherichestobefound.Tensofthousandsof
people came to California in 1849 and quickly became known as the 49-ers.
Between 1848 and 1852, the non-Native American population rose from anestimated14,000to225,000people.Manyofthesepeoplelivedincamps;someof
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whichgrew intopermanentmining towns. They travelledalongthe settlers trails
mostlybutsomecamebysea;aroundCapeHornorsailingdowntotheIsthmusof
Panama.Thosewhodidntwanttotrytheirluckatminingcametoruntheservice
industriessuchasstorekeepersandsaloonowners.
*Notallweresuccessful*Thefirstgoldwasfoundbypanningthestreambedsbut
thesesoonbecameexhaustedandsoexpensiveundergroundminingtookover.This
left miners in a Catch 22 situation. Everything was very expensive, including
transport home; thismeanttheyeitherhad towork formining companies infoul
conditions,orstarve.
InthistimetherewasasizeableissuewithLawandOrder.Criminalswereattracted
tothegoldrush,conmen,violentthievesandclaimjumpers,alltryingtogainsome
profit fromthegold-fever.Until1866, theUSAhadnolawregardingmineclaims;
theminers formed theirown system. Theminers courts thatwere formed were
flawed,however,astherewereadistinctlackofprisons.Thismeantthatthedeathsentence,aswascustomary,wascarriedoutwithouttherighttoappeal.Thiswasa
problemidentifiedbysomecivic-mindedpeoplewhoformedcommitteesingrowing
miningtownsandformedfullmunicipalgovernments.
Through all of this, the Native Americans and the Environment sufferedbadly. In
California, the Native American population dropped from 150,000 to less than
30,000during1845-1870.Thiswasaresultofviolentattacks,epidemicsandbeing
drivenoff theirland. Inthetermsofenvironment, the timber requiredformining
supportsuseduptheforestsandthechemicalsusedinminingcausedpollution.
SettlementandHomesteaders
Asmoreandmorepeopletookthisjourney,thelandintheWestbecamelessand
lesswhereasthedemandforlandbecamehigherandhigher.Thishungerforland,
coupledwithotherfactors(below)wassogreatthatsettlementbeganontheGreat
Plains,onceknownastheGreatAmericanDesert.However,thiswasnoeasytask.
*Different homesteaders had different experiences of the Plains depending on
WHEREandWHENtheylived*
Inthe1850ssomesettlerswereontheLowPlains.Thissettlementmovedgradually
alongtheriversandontothedrierlandsbetween,advancingonthelandspreviously
bypassedbythewagontrains.Thissettlement,encouragedbythegovernmentto
link the EastandWest,wasmadeeasier andmore appealing byvariousactsand
legislationimplementedinthisperiod.Theseactsaredetailedbelow:
Act Whatitdetailed
TheHomesteadAct1862 Allowed160acresoflandfreetosettlers
whooccupieditfor5years.Afterthe5
yearsthesettlerscouldownitfor$30TimberandCultureAct1873 Governmentrealisedthat160acres
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secondaryissuewastheproblemofdirtdiseaseinthesod-houses.Sincethehouses
wereentirelycomposedofdirt;spiders,fleasandallkindsofinsectswouldlivein
thewallsandfloorsofthesodhouses.Theseinsectscouldanddidcarrydangerous
diseases. Therefore, people, clothes and the houses themselves had to be kept
clean;thiswastheroleofthewoman.Thewomenwouldbeconstantlyfightingan
unendingbattleondisease.
Themostprominentissuesarosewhenthemen,thefarmers,triedtoworkonthe
inhospitablePlains.ManyearlyissuesarosewithfarmingonthePlainsbut,astime
wore on, solutions became apparent and the problemswere rectified. The table
belowsetsouttheseissuesandsolutionsinaclearmanner:
ProblemsofFarming Solutions
Lack of Fencing/Wood - No fencing tokeepanimalsoffthelandandstopthem
eatingcropsduetolackofwood
BarbedWireInvented-Inventedin1874by Joseph Glidden. Kept the animals of
thelandandusedverylittlewood
Lack of Water - Temperatures varied
dramatically during the day and night,
veryhottoverycold.Raincamedownin
torrentsveryquickly,but soondriedup
again and so crops didnt get water in
time
WindPumpInvented-Inventedin1854
byDanielHalladay.Allowedwatertobe
pumped from underground using wind
powertodrivethepump.Landcouldbe
irrigatedforcrops
Ploughing-LandonthePlainshadnever
been ploughed before and the rootsofthePrairiegrassthatresidedtherewere
very deep. Ploughs from the East were
notstrongenoughandkeptbreaking
SodbusterPloughs-Inventedin1830by
JohnDeere.Thesewerestrongerploughsthatdidnt breakaseasily astheywere
madefromsteelandnotiron.Theywere
broughtinbytherailroads
Planting - Maize was originally planted
butthiscropcouldntstandtheextreme
changes in temperature. Therefore,
manyharvestsdidnt giveenough crops
for the homesteaders to live on and
makeprofitfrom.
TurkeyRedWheat-Russianimmigrants
broughtanewcroptoplant.Thiswheat
could stand the extreme temperatures
and give a good harvest.Homesteaders
couldmakealivingfromthiscropandso
planteditinsteadofmaize.
Extreme Weather - Not much rainfall,hot weather.Many homesteaders lived
veryfarfromrivers
DryFarming -Thiswasusedafterithadrainedheavily.Alayerofdrysoilwasput
overthewetsoiltopreventtowetsoil
from being exposed to the sun. The
watercouldthenpenetrateandhydrate
thecrops.
NaturalHazards-PlaguesofInsects,
naturalweatherdisasters(hurricanes,
blizzards,etc.)
NoSolutions!
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CattleTrailsandtheCowboys
EarlyRearingandtheCattleTrails
CattlerearingbeganintheAmericanWestinTexas.Thecivilwarlefthugecattle
herds thatwere left free tobreedand prosper in the yearsofconflict. Theearly
cattlethatwasbredandraisedwastheTexasLonghorn.Itwashardyandhadathick
hide tosurvive the harshclimateand the subsequent journeyNorth. The journey
NorthhadtobeundertakenduetothehugedemandforbeefintheNorthbutthe
factthatthecattlesupplywasintheSouth.Theissuewastransportingthecattleup
to the North and therefore, as a result, cattle driving and cattle trails came into
existence.Thetablebelowshowsthetrails:
TrailName Detail
Goodnight-Loving
Trail
FromSouthTexastoSanAntonio,WestthenNorthpastFort
Summer,Pueblo,DenverbeforestoppingatCheyenneontheUnionPacificRailroad
WesternTrail FromSouthTexastoSanAntonio,NorththroughDodgeCity
beforestoppingatOgallalaontheUnionPacificRailroad
ChisholmTrail FromSouthorEastTexastoSanAntonio,North/North-Eastto
AbileneandEllsworthontheKansasPacificRailroad
ShawneeTrail FromSouthorEastTexastoSanAntonio,North-EasttoKansas
CityandSedaliaontheKansasPacificRailroad
Thejourneynorthwasveryhardandtiring,thecowboyshadmanyrolestoplayin
ensuringthecattlestayedalive(detailedbelowintheCowboyssection).ThereweremanydangersontheDrives/Trails,whichmadethejobashardaspossible:
Danger Detail
Stampede Usuallyhappenedonthefirstdaysofthedriveswhenthe
cattlewerenervous.
Wildlife Threatfromwolves,scorpionsandpoisonoussnakes.
Water Riversandundercurrentsdangerous.
Indians Unpredictableandstolecowsinlackofbuffalo.
Night Cowboysrelaxandtired,droptheirguard
ArmedMobsvs
TexasFever
Homesteaderswerearmedtostopcattlebeingdrivennear
withadisease,TexasFeverwhichcouldbepassedonto
theirowncows
LackofFood/Water Self-explanatory
Rough
Terrain/Extreme
Weather
Self-explanatory
Weak/Thin/Exhausted
Cattle
Self-explanatory
CattleRustlersand
Robbers
Self-explanatory
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Oncethecowshadbeensuccessfullydrivenitwasimperativethattheybesoldas
soonaspossibleat the best prices, therefore, cow townswere set upasaplace
wherecattlebuyers fromtheNorthandEastcouldmeetthecattledrivers.Itwas
alsoaplacewherethecattlecouldbefattenedupwithrestandsoldatthebest
prices.The1stcowtownwasAbilene.
DevelopmentofCattleRearing
ItsoonbecameapparentthatthedrivingthecattlefromtheSouthwasbynomeans
thebestandmosteffectivemethodofgainingprofits.Therefore,thenewprospect
ofopen-rangecattleranchingonthePlainsbecamemorepopularthandrivingthe
cattle. The drives left problems with unsold cattle as well as the issues with
HomesteadersblockingtrailsandIndiansforcingcowboystopayafeetocontinue
ontheirpath.
TheadvantagesofranchingonthePlainsincluded: -Easiertoraisecattle
-Nodriving=nodangers
-Betterqualitycattle
-Easiertomakeaprofit
-FreeLand
-Betterlivingandworkingconditionsforthecowboysandranchers
JohnIliffsoughttoimproveopen-rangeranchingfurther.Hesawtheadvantagesof
Plains ranchingand experimentedby crossbreeding Texas Longhornwith Durham
andHerefordbulls.Theresultwasmoremeatandmilkwhilstretainingtheabilitytosurviveintheclimate.Aso-calledsuper-cow.
However, just like the trails and driving, the days of open-range ranching were
numbered.Disadvantagesincluded:-OpenRange-cowsareeasilystolen/lost
-Neededranchtobenearwater
-Cattlediseasespreadeasily
-Fightsovercattleownership
Theendofopenrangeranchinghadcome.Itwasacombinationoflongtermand
shorttermfactors.Theflowchart/timelineshowswhathappened:
LT-Highdemandforbeef-Ranchersmakemoney-morecowsontheplains-lower
stocks of grass - toomuch beef - beef demand decreases - fall in beef prices -
ranchesgobankrupt-OthersleavecattleonopenPlains-Grasssupplydiminished
ST-Hotsummersfrom1883-Driedandshrivelledgrass
ST-Thewinterof1886-87-Blizzards,thicksnow,-40/-50C,cowsfrozetodeath
Thewinterwas the finalblow toopen-range ranching. From thenonwards,therewere restrictionsonthe sizeofranches, the amount ofcattleandeverythingwas
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keptinaspecificareabybarbedwire.Thelifeofthecowboychangedforever.Itis
thischangeinthelivesofcowboysthatiscoverednext.
Cowboys
The life of the cowboy changed dramatically asthe developmentofcattle raising
occurred.Theserugged,skilledindividualswerereducedtodoingmundanetasksfor
thecattlebaronsaslifeworeon.Thisisdescribedbelow:
1860s - Cattle
Trails
Thecowboys had tobe skilful and display extraordinary fitness
and endurance. Their jobs included roundingupand protecting
thecattlefromanyofthedangersthatoccurredonthetrails(see
above).Thecowboysthemselveswere taken inhighregard and
demandedrespectfortheiroccupation.
CHANGE CowsMalnourished,HighDemandForBeef,MakeMoreMoney
1870s - Cow
Towns
Asexplainedbefore, the cow townprovideda placewhere the
cattlecouldbefattenedupandallowthecowboystomeetthe
cattle buyers. It was considered that once the cow town was
reachedthatthejobwasdoneandso,sincetheonlyjobofthe
cowboys was to check the pens every do often, the cowboys
becamesimplyriotous.Shoot-outs,gamblinganddrinkingarejust
someofthefeaturesoflifestylechange.
CHANGE DevelopmentofIdeas,HigherDemandforBeef,JohnIliff
1880s - Open
RangeRanching
Once the implementation of open-range ranching came about,
the life of the cowboy once again became about skill and
dedication. Checking boundaries, rounding up cattle, brandingwerealltaskingjobswhich,coupledwithlonghours,meantthe
cowboyswereonceagainrespectedfiguresoffitness
CHANGE PricesofBeefFell,SourcesDrained,ConflictsOverOwnerships,
WinterandSummers,Inventions
1890s - End of
Open Range
Ranching
Aftertheeraofopen-rangeranching,thelifeofthecowboytook
aturnfortheworse.Theenclosedranchesmeantthateverything
was always in order and therefore the cowboys work was
reducedtomundane,rudimentarytaskssuchasrepairingfences.
They subsequently felt deskilled and almost worthless which,
pairedwiththelargeratesofunemployment,ensuredtheworkofthecowboywasneverthesame
TheIndianWars
ThissectionwillhighlightandexplaintheIndianWarsandthevarioustreatiesthat
becameaboutbecauseoftheconflicts.
War/Conflict/Treaty Details
1851-TheFortLaramie
Treaty
In1849,theUSgovernmenthad establishedtreaties
withtheComancheandKiowa,whichstatedthattheIndians would not attack travellers on the Santa Fe
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Trailinreturnforpromisesofland.Governmentagent
ThomasFitzpatrickestablishedtheFortLaramieTreaty
and reacheda similar agreement with the Cheyenne
andArapahoIndians(whowereattackingwagontrails
ontheOregonTrail),promising themthe foothills of
the RockyMountains between the North Platte and
Arkansas rivers. The government also promised to
protectthemandpaythetribes$50,000ayearfor10
years in exchange for the Indians refraining from
attacking the travellers on the Oregon Trail and
allowing the government to construct roads and
militaryposts.
1861-TheFortWiseTreaty WhengoldwasdiscoveredintheRockyMountainsin
1859,thewhitemensurgedthroughthelandsofthe
Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians and established a
settlementandtake-overofthelands,declaringthemColoradoandtakingpossession.ThewhiteAmericans
had broken the Fort Laramie Treaty, and then so
would the Indians. Members of both tribes began
seriousattacksonrailroadsurveyorsandtravellers.In
1861,thegovernmentsummonedthetribalchiefsto
FortWise and forced them toagree toabandon the
terms of the failed Fort Laramie Treaty. The
government therefore established the Fort Wise
treaty,whichhadthesamedetailsastheFortLaramie,
but the land they received was a small reservationbetween the Arkansas River and Sand Creek in
Colorado;ratherthanthefoothillsoftheRockies.The
Indian Chiefs, however, had nopower to force their
people to do anything. Most warriors refused to
accept the Fort Wise Treaty and instead went on a
warpath, raiding mine camps and attacking mail
coaches in Colorado and New Mexico. The carefully
plannedtreatieshadnotworkedforeitherside
1862-LittleCrowsWar LittleCrowandhistribeofSanteeSiouxwerelivingon
a reservation inMinnesota. In1861, the cropsfailedand the compensation that the Santee had been
promised had not arrived fromWashington, leaving
12,000Santeefacingstarvation.InAugust1862,Little
Crowhad had enough and led Santeewarriors inan
attackontheAgency (theorganisation set upby the
government to run the reservation) and took all the
food and provisions before burning the buildings to
theground.Theythenattackedapartyof45USArmy
soldiers coming to deal with the incident, killing
almosthalf.ButbyOctober,2,000Santeehadeitherbeen capturedorsurrendered.Whatwas left of the
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tribewasmovedtoasmallerreservation,CrowCreek
in Minnesota. The land was barren, the water
undrinkableandfoodscarce.SeveralhundredSantee
diedinthefirstwinter.SittingBull,animportantSioux
chief,visitedtheareaandwhathefoundaffectedhis
attitudetosettlersandtheUSgovernment.
1864-TheSandCreek
Massacre
The Cheyenne, under their chief Black Kettle, faced
similar problems on the Sand Creek reservation in
Colorado.The starving Indiansattackedwagon trains
butonlytookfoodandlefttravellersunharmed.After
3 years of raids and attacks, the government, army
and Black Kettle tried to reach an agreement.
Believinghewasunderarmyprotection,BlackKettle
set up camp at Sand Creek. However, Colonel
Chivington, responsible for dealing with the Indians
and protecting settlers, led a dawn raid on BlackKettles camp on 29
th November 1864. Chivingtons
partymassacredover450men,women,childrenand
babies,eventhoughtheywerewavingthewhiteflags
ofsurrender.BlackKettleescapedandcarriednewsof
themassacre toother tribes. The Indians responded
immediately,increasingattacksonwhitepeople.Once
thestoryofthemassacrebroke,boththewhitemen
andIndianswerehorrifiedandcalledforanendtothe
wars. In October 1965, US government gave money
and land in Oklahoma in order for the Cheyenne tostoptheviolenceandrelinquishanylandclaimsthat
previouslyexisted.
1865-68RedCloudsWar The discovery of gold in Montana posed a new
problem for the US government. The need for a
connection between the new gold fields and The
Oregon Trail ledtominerJohn Bozemanestablishing
the Bozeman Trail. TheBozeman Trail, however, ran
straight through the hunting grounds of the Sioux,
subsequentlybreaking the1851FortLaramieTreaty.
The Indians, led by Red Cloud, chief of the LakotaSiouxbeganattackingtravellersontheBozemanTrail.
By 1866, the US government had had enough and
called for talkswith Red Cloud. At the lastmoment,
Red Cloud discovered that the government were
planning on building at least two forts along the
BozemanTrailtoprotecttravellers.Hestormedoutof
the meeting and increased the pressure on the
government, attacking builders of the forts and
soldiers.EquallydeterminedSiouxleaders,SittingBull
and Crazy Horse, joined Red Cloud in this struggle.Coupled with Fettermans Trap (below), a stalemate
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wasachieved.Toresolvethis; inMarch1867,theUS
governmentsetuppeacecommissiontotryandsolve
Indian problemsonce and for all. Itwas agreed that
the treaties were unsuccessful, both parties had
brokenthem,butbothpartiesalsowantedthePlains.
TheUSgovernmentdecidedtheonlysolutionwasto
splittheIndiantribesandputthemseparatelyinsmall
reservations.
1866-FettermansTrap
(PartofRedCloudsWar)
InDecember1866,CaptainWilliamFetterman and a
group of 80 soldiers left Fort Kearney to provide
protection for a wagon train bringing wood for
building. They rode straight into a trap laid by the
Sioux and were wiped out. The Indians surrounded
FortKearneyinaringwitharmedwarriors.Thismeant
theUS army couldnt move outside the fort and no
travellercouldmovealongtheBozemansTrail.Itwasstalemate.
1868-TheFortLaramie
Treaty
TheUSgovernment agreed toabandon threefortsandtheBozemanTrail.
Red Cloud agreed to take his people to areservation in Dakota, stretching from the
BlackHillstotheMissouriRiver.
Red Cloud was pleased with the Treaty. Hebelievedhehadwon.
1876-TheBattleofLittle
BigHorn(partoftheGreat
SiouxWar-1876-1877)
Background
ChiefsCrazyHorseandSittingBullrefusedtoacceptthepeaceof1868.
GoldwasdiscoveredintheBlackHillsin1874. TheSiouxrefusedtoselltheirlandintheBlack
Hills.
ThegovernmentorderedtheSiouxontosmallreservations.WhentheSiouxrefused,they
weredeclared'hostile'.
1876Campaign-BattlePreparation
GeneralPhilipSheridanwassenttodefeattheSioux.
InJune1876USarmies,ledbythegeneralsAlfredTerryandJohnGibbon,metatthe
YellowstoneRiver.
GibbonwassettomarchuptheLittleBighornRiver,andLtColonelGeorgeCusterwas
orderedtomarchroundtheWolfMountains,aspartofatwo-prongedattackontheSioux
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camp.
ToLittleBigHorn
TheSiouxhadbeenjoinedbytheCheyenneandArapaho,makinganarmyofmorethan
3,000warriors,armedwithWinchester
repeatingrifles.
Custermarchedhismenthrough(notround)theWolfMountains,toarriveattheSioux
campfirst.
Custerdividedhis600menintothreegroups.
CustersLastStand
CustersentCaptainFrederickBenteenscouting,andsentMajorMarcusRenoto
attacktheSiouxvillagefromthesouth. Custerheadednorthofthevillagewith215
men.
TheSiouxcutoffbothRenoandCuster.BenteenrescuedReno,butCusterandallofhis
troopslosttheirlives.
TheSiouxwithdrewwhenTerryandGibbonarrived.
TheEndoftheNativeAmericanWayofLife
November
1876
TheUSArmybeganwintercampaignsagainsttheSioux,starving
themintosurrender.ColonelMackenziedestroyedDullKnife's
Cheyennecamp-drivingtheCheyenneintothehillstosurvivethe
winterwithoutanyfood.
January1877 ChiefSittingBullfledtoCanada.HejoinedaWildWestshow,but
eventuallyreturnedtojointhereservation.
October1877 ChiefJosephoftheNezPerctribetriedtofleetoCanada,butwasintercepted."Iwillfightnomoreforever"hevowed.
1879 RichardPrattopenedthefirstboardingschoolforNativeAmerican
children.
1879 TheSiouxweregivencattleandforcedtobecomecattle-herders.
1881-1887 GeronimoledaseriesofrebellionsbytheApachewarriors,but
eventuallyhadtosurrenderandbecomeavegetablefarmer.
1883 TheBureauofIndianAffairsissuedtheCodeofReligiousOffences,
banningNativeAmericanreligiouscustomssuchastheSunDance.
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1887 TheDawesActdividedtheNativeAmericanreservationsbetween
thedifferentfamilies.
1889 TheOklahomaLandRun.Thegovernmentsplit2millionacresof
former'Indianterritory'into160-acreplots,andpeoplehadtorace
toclaimaplot.Theracebeganatnoonon22April1889andbynextdayallthelandwasclaimed.
1890 AmedicinemancalledWovokastartedaGhostDance-althoughit
waspeaceful,theArmy,fearingarebellion,triedtoarrestSitting
Bull,whowastakingpart(hewaskilledduringtheattempt).Then
whenSiouxChiefBigFoot,tryingtoavoidthetrouble,ledhis
peopletoWoundedKneeCreek,theyweremassacredbytheUS
Army.
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