physical development and the implications of sensory and neurological disabilities dr karl.r. wall...

Physical development and the implications of sensory and

neurological disabilities

Dr Karl .R. Wall

DOS-2009-2010

(1) Introduction The nature of human development

Brains, eyes and seeing-an introduction (2) Observed developmentHow do ‘typical’ children develop and when?

Typical development -milestones

V I development – neurological aspects -milestones (3) Explaining development – theories and issues

Four dimensions

• Physical development

• Social and emotional development

• Thinking skills

• Communication skills

Using a web based resource e.g. 1:

We will go to the various sites in turn:http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryo.htm

Parts of the UNSW Embryology site

Using web based resources

Issues in relation to using images for study purposes:

• Citing the web source and time of download• Copyright vs commons licence • Note any adaptation• Make a live hyper-link so source can be accessed directly• Use the actual website (not downloaded images and text) as a normal user

You may need permission to:

• Use the image• Distribute the image as a paper print out• To adapt it

http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryo.htm Downloaded 08-09-09 2.30pm

Using a web based resource e.g. 2:We will go to the sites:http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html

Parts of the WEBVISION site

Using web based resources

http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2007/12/evolution_of_vertebrate_eyes.php

For a detailed account of the evolution of the vertebrate eye see:

Photo construction- based on pictures found on the web

Brain

Eyes

Brainstem

Brain and eyes

Human Skull

Orbit of eye in close up

Orbits of the skull

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Muscles of the eye

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Fovea Optic nerve

RetinaVitreous humor

Iris

Cornea

Aqueous humor

Lens

Pupil

The Eye

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Inside the eye 1

Basic equipment...2

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Primary sensory area

Visual processing of moving targets…

Visual area

Motor speech

area

Eye movement

control

Secondary motor area

Primary motor area

Secondary sensory

area

Primary auditory

area

Secondary auditory

area

Face processing

area

Basic equipment...3

Visual Fields, Fig 10.3, Neuroscience; Bear, Connors, Paradiso

Optic nerves

Optic tract

Lateral geniculate nucleus

Optic radiation

Optic chiasm

Primary visual cortex

Image capture

Foot

Hip Trunk

Arm

Hand

Face

Tongue

Larynx

The sensory homunculus

0 – 5 months: ‘typical’ development

From upper part of Figure 10 p64 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

5 months – 1 year: ‘typical’ development

From lower part of Figure 10 p64 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

12 mths – 18 mths: ‘typical’ development.

From upper part of Figure 18 p154 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

18 mths – 60 mths: ‘typical’ development

From lower part of Figure 18 p154 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

Variation and range in milestones

From Table 4 ‘Ages when motor skills are achieved’ p95 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

Apart from what a child ‘does’, we need to take account of:

• The characteristics of a particular child

• Their immediate environment

• Their family context and its social nature

• Their cultural context: social implications

• How the same child varies by setting

A health warning!

More broadly we need to be mindful of:

How the developmental course varies for different individuals in:

• similar settings

• different settings

• with the same people

• with different people

…and another health warning!

We always need to ask:

‘How our developmental expectations affect our interpretation of what we observe?’

‘How the expectations of others may affect their interpretation of what they observe?’

OK!... Another warning!

Kathleen Berger (2000)

The typical (usual) patterns of growth and change are ones everyone follows to some degree but no one follows exactly

Typical and atypical development

Five broad groups of contexts linking typical and atypical children:

1 Delayed development

2 Atypical development

3 Compensatory development

4 Absence of development

5 Typical behaviour displayed by atypical children

Atypical development 1

1 Delayed development

Development is slower than typically developing children. Similar processes are shared, involving the same stages. Atypical children may not develop to the same extent

Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

Atypical development 2

2 Atypical development

The processes of development differ to those found in typical children - as a result behaviours and developments not seen in typical children may be apparent

Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

3 Compensatory development

Here the same developmental end point is reached but the route taken by atypical children is different to that taken by typically developing children

Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

Atypical development 3

4 Absence of development

Children fail to develop a particular aspect of development

Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

Atypical development 4

5 Typical behaviour displayed by atypical children

Here atypical children display typical behaviours and development: the atypical child may show typical development, developing within the range of variation noted for typical development.

Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

Atypical development 5

• When milestones occur - taking account of range and underlying variation

• Expectations

• Impact of cultural variation

Issues linked to ‘milestones’ 1

• Impact of cultural variation

• Child-rearing practices

• The equivalence of expectations from different professional perspectives

• Different periods, different judgements: e.g. height and physical maturity

Issues linked to ‘milestones’ 2

• Parent –child interaction

• Importance of visual feedback

• Motor activity and movement

• Focus on child touch and hand movements

• Focus on listening by child

• Compensatory communication routes

Specific issues: VI and milestones 1

• Useable vision

• Size constancy

• Shape constancy

• Face recognition

• Depth perception

VI– developmental focus areas

• Movement perception

• Perceptual-motor skills

• Gross motor skills

• Fine motor skills

Child development theories 1

Historically:

• Childhood: the early part of being an adult - not a special period

• Children as little adults – no special care or attention required; no differentiation between ‘child’ development and ‘adult’ development

• Arnold Gesell (1880 -1961): universal patterns of physical maturation, genetically driven and determined > ‘milestones of development’

• Sigmund Freud (1857 -1959): early childhood experience informs subsequent development; focus on impact of psychosexual influences > type of stage theory

Child development theories 2

• Erik Erikson (1902-1994): extends Freud’s perspectives:

Brings in environmental factors and more stages issue of overcoming stage related ‘crisis’ events.

• B.F. Skinner (1904 -1990): Child behaviour shaped by how experience is reinforced:

Role of reward and punishment > experience conditions behaviour

Child development theories 3

• Alfred Bandura (1925 -present): Learning informed by imitation and social observation

Role of motivation and inner psychological processes

modelling, role models, ‘social’ learning: ‘Social Learning Theory’

Child development theories 4

• Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): Learning interactions as basis of development:

Role of social context, language, communication and the mediating influence of others inform a ‘social constructivist’ development

Historical, cultural and social factors inform cognition and development - ‘language’ is the principal societal tool

Child development theories 5

• Jean Piaget (1896 -1980): development seen as:

Four, genetically driven, universal and sequential stages of symbol based ‘cognitive’ development.

These reflect children's individual construction of their own thinking systems, supported by interaction with adults

Child development theories 6

• John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Integrated Attachment Theory):

focus on how parent – child relationships are established

the role of early relational experiences and their impact on how later relationships are formed and maintained

• ‘Life Course’ perspectives: re-integration of child and adult development as aspects of a single developmental continuum

Child development theories 7

Recommended sources

Sylva, K. and Lunt, I. (1982) Child development-a first course. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

Lewis. V. (2003) Development and Disability. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Sheridan, M. D. (2005) From Birth to Five years [Updated and revised by Frost, M. and Sharma, A.). London: Routledge.

Sheridan, M. D. (2006) Play in Early Childhood – From birth to six years. [Updated and revised by Harding, J. and Meldon-Smith, L.). London: Routledge.

Other sources 1

Butterworth, G. & Harris, M. (1994). Principles of Developmental Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press. Chap. 9: Cognitive development in early childhood; Chap. 10: Cognitive development in middle childhood.

Child, D. (1997). Psychology and the Teacher. London: Cassell. Chap. 7: Concept formation and cognitive development.

Donaldson, M. (1978) Children’s Minds. London: Fontana. (a critique of aspects of Piaget’s stage theory)

Other sources 2

Eysenck. M.W. (2000). Psychology: A Student’s Handbook. Hove, E. Sussex: Psychology Press. Chap. 16: Cognitive development.

Siegler, R.S. & Wagner Alibali, M. (2005). Children’s Thinking. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chap. 2: Piaget’s theory of development.

Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive Development Today: Piaget and his Critics. London: Paul Chapman.

Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1991). A theory of assisted performance, in P. Light, S. Sheldon, M. Woodhead (eds). Learning to Think. London: Routledge.

Other sources 3

Miller, P. H. (2002) Theories of Developmental Psychology (4th edn). New York: Worth.

Kugelmass, J. W. (2007) Constructivist views of learning: implications for inclusive education, in Lani Florian (ed). The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. London: SAGE

De Valenzuela. J. S. (2007) Sociocultural views of learning in Lani Florian (ed). The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. London: SAGE

Copyright notice and image sources

The copyright of referenced diagrams, texts and sources is acknowledged.

All photographic images used in this presentation were in the public domain ( the copyright of individual owners is acknowledged where this was not apparent in the source) or taken from copyright free clip art / photo sources (including those available through© Microsoft Corporation). Disclaimer: The interpretation of the meaning of the images and the person (s) represented in them as well as the interpretation of any diagrams or referenced sources is that of the presenter alone.

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Short-SightednessAlso known as Near-sight or Myopia, short-sighted individuals have trouble seeing things in the distance whilst anything close-up is clearer. This occurs because light from the objects being viewed focuses in front of the retina and not on it. It is believed that this mostly happens as a result of the eyeball being slightly too long. The scientific term for this is Axial Myopia

From: www.vogueeyes.com.au downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Long-SightednessAlso known as Far-sight or Hyperopia, long-sighted individuals have difficulty with anything close-up whilst their general distance vision is not as bad. Light from objects viewed will theoretically focus behind the retina and not on it. However because the eye is able to naturally fatten the lens and cause light to bend more, this error in focus is overcome, which explains why distance vision is generally pretty good.

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

Q: What can we do if particular parts of the eye are affected?

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm