middle-east.com: diffusion of the internet and online shopping in jordan and turkey

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MIDDLE-EAST.COM: Diffusion of theInternet and Online Shopping inJordan and TurkeyThomas F. Stafforda, Aykut Hamit Turanb & Ahmad MansourKhasawnehc

a University of Memphis, USA,b Adnan Menderes University, Turkey, .c Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Jordan, .Published online: 09 Sep 2014.

To cite this article: Thomas F. Stafford, Aykut Hamit Turan & Ahmad Mansour Khasawneh (2006)MIDDLE-EAST.COM: Diffusion of the Internet and Online Shopping in Jordan and Turkey, Journal ofGlobal Information Technology Management, 9:3, 43-61, DOI: 10.1080/1097198X.2006.10856426

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MIDDLE-EAST. COM: Jordan and Turkey

MIDDLE-EAST.COM: Diffusion of the Internet and Online Shopping

in Jordan and Turkey

Thomas I?. Stafford, University of Memphis, USA, tstaffor@memphis.edu Aykut Hamit Turan, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey, aturan@adu.edu.tr Ahmad Mansour Khasawneh, Al-Hussein Bin Tala1 University, Jordan,

akhasawneh@ahu.edu.au

ABSTRACT

As Internet adoption is a fundamental antecedent to online commerce, differences in Internet diffusion between nations can be important. The emerging online markets represented by the developing nations of the Middle East are important, but not as well understood as the online markets of the developed nations of the world. This study makes a comparative analysis between Turkey, one of the more mature developing nations of the region, and Jordan, a smaller developing nation that has recently adopted important technology initiatives. This study suggests that the rapid advance of Internet user motivations and online shopping intentions in the Kingdom of Jordan appear to be a direct result of the new King's recent technology initiative.

KEYWORDS

Middle East, Internet, Online Shopping, Technology Diffusion, User Motivations

INTRODUCTION

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are essential to economic development in the underdeveloped nations of the world, yet outside of the notable example of the Malaysia Multimedia Super Corridor (e.g., Harris, 2002) little research has been done to examine the ICT difhsion process in emerging economies, particularly those of the Middle East (Ali, 2004). Several studies have examined the global difhsion of the Internet from a broad perspective, including Mukhopadhyay's (2006) econometric global Internet diffusion model and Ho's (2005) recent digest of the Global Diffusion of the Internet study series. Yet, prominent bodies of work focusing on global Internet and ecomrnerce diffusion, such as Kraemer, Dedrick & Gibbs' (2003) CAIS special issue on globalization and ecommerce, appear to have largely overlooked the Middle Eastern nations.

The lack of research on technology usage issues in this keenly disadvantaged region is problematic (Palvia, Palvia & Whitworth, 2002). Half of the world lives in developing and emerging economies (Sahay & Avgerou, 2002), and the emerging economies of the Middle East are a special case worthy of specific consideration

(Loch, Straub & Kamel, 2003). With the notable exception of Israel (Ein-Dor, Goodman & Wolcott, 1999b), the nations of the Middle East have traditionally been some of the least technologically-enabled economies in the world (Straub, Loch & Hill, 2001), hence opportunities for research and practice abound as the developing nations in the Middle East begin to explore technology and telecommunications connectivity as an economic lever for national prosperity (cf., Ali, 2004; Al- Jaghououb & Westrup, 2003; Ein-Dor, Goodman & Wocott, 1999a; Kulchitsky, 2004; Pare, 2003; Polatoglu & Ekin, 2001).

In examining the impediments to technology transfer and the development of ecommerce in the Middle East, much of the work that has been seen has investigated societal-level cultural variables as they act to either hinder or enhance technology transfer (Loch, Straub & Kamel, 2003; Waller, Fam & Erdogan, 2005). Cultural research on technology diffusion is limited in outlook, being based largely on Hofstede's classic but decades-old studies which never developed individual-level perspectives of cultural factors that might influence adoption (cf., Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill & Thanasankit, 2004; Goodman, Press, Ruth & Rutowski, 1994; McCoy, Galetta & King, 2005). This paper contributes to an emerging body of literature in that regard by examining user perceptions of online shopping and Internet use in Middle Eastern nations using established constructs of media use, technological affinity, Internet involvement, computer self-efficacy and technology acceptance.

Other research such as the Global Diffusion of the Intemet Studies (MOSAIC Group, 2005; also summarized in Ho, 2005) has exhaustively described the macro-level status of technology adoption in various Middle Eastern nations, yet has only served to document the status quo at various points in time and has not specifically investigated the individual level casual factors that might lead to greater or lesser degrees of technology adoption (Ein-Dor, et al., 1999a; Wolcott & Cagiltay, 2001). With technological innovation and diffusion recently advancing in that part of the world (Loch et al., 2003), the time has come to begin investigating user-level perceptions that will aid decision makers in the segmentation of product introductions and service offerings tailored for this unique part of the global marketplace. While one can expect national differences across countries to impact Internet diffusion and ecommerce diffusion (Kraemer, Dedrick & Gibbs, 2003), the question of how this influences usage at the individual level remains open. Hence, our research examines the following question:

m a t Internet and ecommerce usage dlflerences exist between the online populations of the diverse nations of the Middle East?

This research considers two different nations in the Middle East in a comparison of Internet and online shopping motivations: Turkey and Jordan. While Israel is arguably the most technologically advanced nation in the region (Ein-Dor, Goodman & Wolcott, 1999b), the status of technology diffusion in Turkey has been closely studied, as an example of a technologically developing nation in the region (Goodman

& Green, 1992). Jordan is also a recent and shining example of a resource-poor developing nation that has seized upon IT as a competitive differentiator to enhance its interaction with the global business markets (Ein-Dor et al., 1999a; Info-Prod Research, 2005; World IT Report, 2003). While Turkey is well on its way to technology enablement, Jordan appears to offer potent promise as a new rising technology "star" (Ramanathan, 2006).

Both Turkey and Jordan are notably similar in terms of their present level of Internet penetration - about 8% each (U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 2005) - earning them the Internet pervasiveness rating of "commonly available" (Wolcott, Press, McHenry, Goodman & Foster, 2001). While many Middle Eastern nations are generally thought to lag the rest of the world in ICT diffusion (Checchi, Sevcik, Loch & Straub, 2002), these two nations are clearly on their way to leveraging Internet technology for the benefit of their respective populations. The question is how different they may be, with one nation effectively bridging the Middle East with Europe, and the other representing the hopehl emerging face of the 2 1" Century Middle Eastern world.

This paper begins with a review of the current state of Internet diffusion in Turkey and Jordan, noting demographic and descriptive differences between the nations. A comparison of current technological resources and capabilities of each nation is then undertaken, along with a discussion of influences on ICT diffusion with the specific focus of online shopping via the Internet as a case in point. Hypotheses related to Internet use and online shopping propensity are offered and tested based on the

potential differences between Turkey and Jordan as instances of newly developed and newly developing technological economies, respectively. Differences between the two nations are then discussed in the context of user variables of confidence in technology, technology interest, technology appreciation, and behavioral intentions to make use of the Internet for online shopping purposes.

Factors Influencing Internet Diffusion in Jordan and Turkey

The simplest indicator of Internet diffusion in developing nations is the number of hosts active in the country, but teledensity is also instructive (Wolcott, 1999). According to the World Factbook (U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 2005), the Jordanian Internet community of 457,000 users has 3160 hosts to serve it. This amounts to about 7 hosts per 1000 Internet users in the Kingdom. In Turkey, there are many more hosts; 355,215 hosts serve the online population of 5.5 million. Even so, in consideration of the proportion of each population actually online, the availability of hosts in proportion to the online community in Turkey is very similar to that of Jordan, at 6.5 per thousand Internet users.

Similar Usage Rates

Shown in Table 1, the comparison between Turkey and Jordan is interesting. Jordan has population of 5,611,202 population, 457,000 of which now use the Internet - a

little over 8%, while in Turkey, 5.5 million out of a population of 68,893,918 are online, which is almost 8% (7.98) of the population (U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 2005). Though Turkey boasts larger raw numbers of Internet users, the percentage of population measures between Turkey and Jordan are essentially the same, and the degree of "Internet Pervasiveness" can be considered essentially equal between them (Wolcott et al., 2001), with 7.98 user per 100 population members for Turkey, vs. 8.14 users per 100 for Jordan).

Table 1. Comparison of Jordan and Turkey

Though the two nations are similar in terms of Internet penetration percentages among their respective populations, differences between the countries are more distinct in other areas that could influence technology diffusion rates. Turkey is far larger, geographically - about the size of the Texas - while Jordan is a small nation-state that essentially consists of the capital city of Amman and minimal outlying areas (Ein-Dor, et al., 1999a; Wolcott, 1999). This carries certain logistical considerations; the population of Jordan is far more geographically concentrated than is that of Turkey, which may be advantageous for the "ready build out of box" technological infrastructure.

Differing Governmental Structures

There are notable differences between the governments of Turkey and Jordan, one being a large and structured democratic bureaucracy and the other a monarchy. Turkey, as a republic, enjoys a rather well-structured government (Wolcott, 1999). By contrast, Jordan, as a monarchy, might be expected to have far less effective governmental bureaus (Kulchitsky, 2004). There is a general expectation that more highly structured governments will have better success in ICT diffusion than less structured governments might (Kulchitsky, 2004; Lai, 2004). The logic behind this expectation is the idea that a rule-following bureaucracy will be more likely to support

and advance the necessary telecommunications infrastructure required to launch Internet initiatives (Goodman et al., 1994; Lai, 2004).

Interestingly, telecommunications are reasonably sophisticated in Jordan, and of 1 8 Middle Eastern and North African nations studied recently, Jordan also is one of the four most economically developed and liberalized in its telecommunications sector (Ramanathan, 2006). The government of Jordan has also clearly identified ICT investment as means of development and national advantage (Al-Jaghouob and Westrup, 2003; Kulchitsky, 2004). Meanwhile, Turkey has had some problems with growing a vital and entrepreneurial telecommunications sector, owing to the ongoing failure to privatize its PTT (Wolcott & Cagiltay, 2001), though the telecommunications markets of the Middle East are seen as less open than in the rest of the developing world (Varoudakis & Rossotto, 2004).

It is often assumed that business Internet use must lead consumer use in the evolution of Internet use and online commerce in developing nations (Palvia & Vemuri, 2002). It is clear that, in comparison to Jordan, Turkey has an advantage in terms of existing geographical dispersion of ICT availability, but it also seems that this advantage of existing infrastructure has not resulted in the expected corresponding increases in Internet usage among businesses in that country (Wolcott, 1999). By contrast, there is a high level of awareness of the Internet in Jordan, so the governmental sponsorship of initiatives to get more computers and networking technology into the hands of users may be highly beneficial in that population (Info-Prod Research, 2005). In short, Turkey, as a republic, has the governmental structure to support telecom initiatives, but Jordan, as a monarchy, has the centralized authority to mandate them.

The Role of Centralized Control

While monarchies such as Jordan may have greater issues regarding equitable distribution of economic assets, as compared to more democratic nations like Turkey, such monarchies also have the benefit of the ability accruing to strong central governments to mandate technology access initiatives (Hill, Loch, Straub & El Sheshai, 1998). More egalitarian countries are not as readily able to mandate infrastructure initiatives, preferring to rely on market forces to achieve that end (Harris, 2002), so it may be that the more egalitarian Turkey enjoys a more stately and market driven technology diffusion rate for ICT initiatives than is the case with the recent and pressing technology mandate of the Kingdom of Jordanian.

The enabling role of a strong central government in mandating technology difhsion initiatives is well-understood (e.g., Harris, 2002), as shown in the classic Malaysia and Singapore cases. However, authoritarian governments usually have more restrictions on Internet use and diffusion (Dholaika, Dholaika & Kshetri, 2003), and in Middle Eastern countries states tend to dominate most of the media outlets (Fandy, 2000). It could be expected that Jordanian monarchy might have more restrictions on Internet use and diffusion than more egalitarian nations such as Turkey.

Generalized Expectations for Internet Diffusion Trends

It appears that the diffusion of Internet technology, in comparing Turkey and Jordan, might well be an open question. Turkey has certain bureaucratic structures in government that generally bode well for infrastructure diffusion, while Jordan has a strong centralized authority that also has the potential to positively influence infrastructure development. Turkey has more Internet users in raw numbers, being a more populous state, but on a percentage of population basis Jordan and Turkey are very similar in usage levels.

In terms of usage propensity, Turkey has the advantage of an established telecommunications infrastructure, based on linkages between its major research universities (Wolcott, 1999), and wide-area networking technology could be said to be in a more mature state there. Jordan, having less experience with networking, and coming later than Turkey to its infrastructure initiative, still has the advantage of the high-visibility dedication to mission engendered by the King's ICT initiative (Al- Jaghouob and Westrup, 2003; Kulchitsky, 2004). In predicting which nation would boast a population more interested in, more involved with and appreciative of, and more likely to use Internet technology, the various factors in favor and against each nation appear to balance against each other. The prediction that Internet technology might be more popular in Turkey simply based on the maturity of its initiative in comparison to Jordan could be made, but it would be almost a "null hypothesis" expectation presented for potential disproof in view of the array of countervailing forces, benefits and hindrances accruing to the two nations.

Factors Motivating Online Shopping in the Middle East

In considering the general technology trends of the region, discussed above, and given that the ecommerce sector is less robust in the Middle East than in other trading blocks (e.g., Pons, Alhifii & Fourati, 2003), the question of how readily either population might take to Internet use and ecornrnerce is posed. While much information about macro-level infrastructure initiatives is available, user motivations to use the infrastructure are often overlooked in Internet studies of developing countries (Pare, 2003). Technology transfer and diffusion issues are admittedly challenging in the Middle East (Cecchi et al., 2002), but in view of the growing markets that are evolving there, scholars must strive to understand the motivations of this unique group of technology users (Rose & Straub, 1998; Straub, Loch & Hill, 2001).

The acceptance research of Rose and Straub (Rose & Straub, 1998) was an initial move in this direction, as was Polatoglu and Ekin's (2001) study of Internet banking acceptance in Turkey and the more recent Sukkar and Hasan (2005) acceptance study of Internet banking in Jordan. Other research has demonstrated important linkages between key technology acceptance constructs and online shopping motivations

(Stafford & Stern, 2002), and it appears that these well-understood motivational constructs are useful in Middle Eastern contexts.

Operationalizing Intentions to Engage in Online Shopping

It is said that using benchmarks from developed nations for studying ICT diffusion in developing nations is potentially risky (Rolland & Monteiro, 2002; Sahay & Avgerou, 2002; Sundqvist, Frank & Puumalainen, 2005). Even so, there are certain methods of study found in the developed world that would serve as useful benchmarks if they might be applied reliably in the developing world, and the TAM variables are a specific case in point (Loch et al., 2003). It appears that the acceptance model constructs can transfer successfully to the Middle (cf., Rose & Straub, 1998; Sukkar & Hasan, 2005). Thus constructs such as intentions to use technology would provide for a ready benchmark of well-understood technology diffusion precepts for researchers to apply in understanding the process and pace of ICT diffusion in this specific area of the developing world.

For that reason, the construct of behavioral intention to use technology provides valid, wellestablished, robust and well-understood measurement tools for diffusion research related to Internet use and online shopping in emerging nations. Since important research on the motivations for online shopping among consumer markets has also used behavioral intentions profitably (Stafford & Stem, 2002), thus the well- understood construct seems to span the literatures of consumer online shopping and ICT diffusion, and appear to be converging with developing conceptualizations of online shopping in the technology and e-Commerce literature. For that reason, we will operationalize our dependent variable of intentions to use the Internet and participate in online shopping in line with the robust behavioral intentions variable from acceptance research in the hypotheses that follow.

Operationalizing Technology Confidence and Technology Appreciation

Online shopping research has examined technology acceptance alongside of motivational variables related to Internet use and ecommerce (e.g., Stafford & Stem, 2002), but this work has also developed online shopping adaptations of the well- accepted self efficacy measures of Compeau and Higgins (1995), which can be useful for operationally assessing confidence and assurance among computer users engaged in online shopping. The computer self-efficacy scales are frequently used in tandem with technology acceptance constructs, and to the extent that variables such as behavioral intentions to use technology are considered to be suitable for crosscultural studies, the brief computer selfefficacy scale of Compeau and Higgins should also be adaptable as an operational assessment of Internet user confidence in this study.

Appreciation for computer technology and Internet use is also a useful motivational construct, in the form of adapted computer affinity scales. Such measures are potentially indicative of a propensity to use Internet technology for tasks such as

shopping. An emerging body of literature that has adapted media use motivation metrics from radio and television research has been reliably demonstrating motivational measures for Internet Uses and Gratifications (U&G) along with a range of computer affinity measures. Stafford and Stafford (2001) and Stafford, Stafford and Schkade (2004) adapted Internet usage motivation metrics from the U&G television viewership research of Rubin (1981), in which media affinity scales were subsequently adapted, devised and tested to measure computer affinity among Internet users in surveys of online technology use. The affinity for the computer construct has been demonstrated to correlate well with Internet usage motivations (Stafford & Stafford, 2001), and this construct is taken here as an operational measure of user appreciation for Internet use among Middle Eastern online populations comprised of Internet users in Turkey and Jordan.

Appreciation for computer and Internet use can also be operationally indicated by degrees of user involvement with the technology. Stafford and Stem (2002), in a study of consumer motivations for online shopping, adapted well-regarded personal involvement scales from consumer behavior research (e.g., Zaichkowsloj, 1994) to the context of motivational appreciation of online technology. Utilizing these adapted technology involvement scales, we also indicate motivation for Internet use through the personal involvement scale operationalization of interest and appreciation for Internet technology in the hypotheses that follow.

Hypotheses of Internet Use and Online Shopping in the Middle East

As regards expectations about which population might be expected to be more enthused about Internet use, the comparisons between Turkey and Jordan, above, are instructive. Does the maturity of a technology initiative coupled with more sophisticated government bureaus in Turkey (Goodman et al., 1994; Wolcott, 1999) trump the marquee value of the highly visible dedication of a strong central government to a technology mandate in Jordan (Al-Jaghouob and Westrup, 2003; Kulchitsky, 2004)? This essentially juxtaposes the seemingly technologically mature Turkey with the recently enthusiastic Jordan.

Levels of Internet Motivation

Demographic analysis indicates that, as a percentage of population, Internet use is very similar between Turkey and Jordan, but there also appears to be an evenly- balanced set of countervailing forces for and against successful technology diffusion in each nation that would tend to make them appear to be more or less equal as regards future trends for diffusion and use, as well. Hence, we prefer to express our hypothetical predictions in the null form, subject to potential refutation, and reflecting the status quo expectation that the longer-lived and more mature technological initiative of Turkey will result in higher degrees of appreciation for Internet technology among its population than that of Jordan:

Hla: Turkish Internet users will display significantly higher levels of confidence and assurance in using computer technology than will Jordanian Internet users.

Hlb: Turkish Internet users will display significantly higher levels of interest in using computer technology than will Jordanian Internet users.

Hlc: Turkish Internet users will display significantly higher levels of appreciation for computer technology than will Jordanian Internet users.

Operationally, confidence is assessed with the Compeau and Higgins (1995) brief computer-self efficacy scale. Interest is operationally assessed with Stafford and Stem's (2002) computer involvement adaptation of the Zaichkowsky (1994) involvement inventory. Appreciation is operationally assessed with Stafford and Stem's (2002) affinity for the computer metric, adapted from Rubin's (1981) media affinity scales.

Levels of Intention to Shop Online

In descriptive research on ICT diffusion in developing countries, wealth has tended to have a highly notable county effect (Sundqvist et al., 2005). In fact, it is generally expected that wealthier nations will adopt technology more quickly and effectively (DeKimpe, Parker & Sarvary, 2000). In consideration that motivations to use the Internet, and Internet use in general, are predictive of online commerce activities (Stafford et al., 2004), the subsequent expectation of a robust "wealth effect" for Internet use to correspond positively to online shopping activities would mean that Turkish Internet users might be more likely to shop online. Jordan's $1 1.51 billion Gross Domestic Product, expressed on a per-capita basis of $4,700, compares far less favorably than Turkey's $332.5 billion GDP at $8,200 per capita (U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 2005).

Even so, the usage rates between the two nations and various countervailing forces auguring for increased usage between them, tends to lead to hypothetical expectations for online shopping levels that might well be offered with the null form expectation of refutation in line with current economic statistics that might be seen to favor Turkey:

H2: Turkish Internet users will exhibit significantly greater degrees of behavioral intention to engage in online shopping than will Jordanian Internet users.

Intention to shop online is operationally assessed with the standard TAM behavioral intention metric, adapted in its wording to reflect intention to shop online.

METHOD

Measurement and Variables

The standard behavioral intention scales, as adapted for use in examining online shopping behavior (Stafford & Stem, 2002), were utilized to measure technology acceptance tendencies in regard to online shopping tendencies among the selected sample of Internet users, and produced excellent internal consistency measures (a= 34). Confidence in Internet technology, interest in Internet technology and appreciation for Internet technology, all of which are considered antecedent to online activities such as shopping (Stafford & Stafford, 2001; Stafford & Stem 2002), are measured with previously adapted versions of the computer self-efficacy scale (a= .85), the personal involvement scale (a= .91), and the media affinity scale (a= .672); respectively. Each was previously adapted to measure such qualities in Internet users as regards their likely participation in online shopping (e.g., Stafford & Stem, 2002), and the scales demonstrated levels of internal consistency ranging from reasonable to excellent in their use here.

Sample Characteristics

The study sample consisted of college-age Internet users in Turkey and Jordan, with a sample frame of students enrolled in business courses in two major universities, one in Turkey and also one in Jordan. Questionnaires were distributed in classrooms, with students participated in exchange for partial course credit. One hundred fifty usable questionnaires were returned from Turkish students, while 101 questionnaires were obtained in Jordan.

Basic demographic characteristics of the sample are shown in Table 2. Of the Turkish responses, 71 .l% were from males and 28.9% from females. In Jordan, 65.4% of respondents were males and 34.7% females. In both countries, age distributions showed that the majority of response came from the 25-34 age group (54% for Turkey, 38.6% for Jordan). In Jordan, 11 respondents were under 18, and 25.7% of the sample reported being in the 18-24 group, compared to 13.3% in Turkey. The 35- 44 age grouping represented 27.3% of Turkish response, compared to 15.8% of Jordanians, and minimal numbers represented the 45-54 demographic (3.3% for Turkey, 6.9% for Jordan) and the 55-64 grouping (2% for Turkey and Jordan, both).

Schools have long been considered the vector for Internet adoption in the Middle East (Ein-Dor et al., 1999a), with major research universities serving as pivotal nodes of network evolution in the region (Wolcott, 1999). Though a university environment can be seen as representative of the current "state of the art" in Internet use among the two nations, and can be counted as unusually representative of the Internet using public in these two nations, there are still omnipresent issues in scholarly research with the use of student samples, and convenience samples, in general. Counterbalancing the generality issues typically faced in student sample, however, are

the beneficial effects of homogeneity of variance in theory development that also accrue from the judicious use of students samples which tend to be more consistent in composition than probability samples of the general population (Calder, Phillips & Tybout, 1981).

Table 2. Sample Demographics

The clear tradeoff is the effectiveness of theory testing with a homogenous sample in reference to the variables of interest, versus the subsequent generality issues accruing to student respondents. To the extent that college students represent an unusually generalizable aspect of Internet users in the Middle Eastern region, the benefithsk tradeoff of a student sample seems acceptable.

RESULTS

Hypothesis Testing

Initially, tests of differential perceptions of technology were performed, using Stafford and Stem's (2002) adaptations of involvement, and the affinity and selfefficacy scales, as modified for investigating the use of online shopping technologies. Hypothesis 1, in three sub variants, suggested, ceteris paribus, that expectations of the recent status quo would exist among developing and newly developed Middle Eastern nations: that Turkish Internet users would be more likely to demonstrate higher evaluations of Internet technology than would Jordanian users. Table 3 displays the results of analysis of variance between the two nations using measures of computer self-efficacy, involvement with computers, and affinity toward the computer.

Table 3. Country Means for computer Attitudes

Given a variety of studies fiom the past decade giving reasonable expectations that Turkish Internet users would have more favorable attitudes toward ICT, we were testing the "null" expectation that the status quo continued to pertain and that the more developed nation would produce higher Internet user ratings. Such was not the case. Jordanian Internet demonstrated higher ratings than Turkish users, indicating that the Internet in the Middle East may be undergoing a current state of transition and development. It appears to be the case that, at least just lately, Jordanians favor the Internet significantly more than do their Turkish counterparts.

Hypothesis la specified that Turkish users would have higher levels of confidence and assurance regarding their Internet use. Operationalized as computer self-efficacy - the self-perceived capability to make use of ICT - differences were significant between Turkey and Jordan (F 240 = 215.6, p = .000), but not in the hypothesized direction.

Affinity for Computers range 10 - 24

mean17.1,sd2.8

Shown in Table 3, means analysis demonstrated significantly higher ratings of self- efficacy for computer technology among Jordanian Internet users (mean = 40.6) than among Turkish users (27.9). Given a potential range of 14 through 50, with an overall sample mean of 33.2, the differences between the two groups are striking.

Computer Involvement range 10 - 50

mean36.1,sd9.3

Turkey

Jordan

As to Hypothesis lb, it was predicted that Turkish Internet users would display significantly higher levels of interest in using computer technology. Operationalized as computer involvement, differences were significant between Turkish and Jordanian users (F1, 249 = 65.96, p = .000), but differences were also not in the direction hypothesized. Jordanians (mean = 41.2) had significantly higher degrees of computer involvement than did Turks (mean = 32.6). This result is given in the context of a range of 10 through 50, with an overall sample mean of 36.1.

Computer Self-Efficacy range 14 - 50

mean33.2,sdg.l

Hypothesis lc predicts Turkish Internet users would appreciate ICT more than Jordanian users, but this hypothesis was also disconfirmed for the operational measure of computer affinity (F1,248 = 153.3, p = .000). Jordanians had much higher affinity for computers (mean = 19.1) than did Turkish users (mean = 15.7). 10 to 24 is the range

for the summed scale measure, 17.1 is the sample mean. In all three cases of the general hypothesis 1 predictions, Jordanian Internet users showed greater appreciation for, stronger attitudes about, and better perceived usage capabilities of, the Internet information and communication technologies.

Hypothesis 2 predicts that Turkish users would have significantly higher intentions to shop online than Jordanian users. This hypothesis was also disconfirmed. Shown in Table 4, Jordanian Internet users were far more likely to report strong intentions to shop online than were the Turkish Internet users sampled (F = 109.4, p = .000). With a range of 2 through 10, and a sample mean of 7.2, Turkish users are actually below the norm for intentions to shop online both in terms of the putative midpoint of the summed scale (6), and in terms of the overall sample mean. It would appear that in every case investigated here Turkish Internet users are not as positive in their attitudes about the Internet, nor are they more likely to be using ICT for commerce purposes, as compared to their Jordanian counterparts.

Table 4. Country Means for Intentions to Shop Online

DISCUSSION

Turkey

Jordan

The predictions in this study were predicated on a mature literature stream that provided a "common sense" intuition that Turkey was one of the stronger Internet '

nations in the Middle Eastern region. In fact, the work that has been done on technology diffusion in the Middle East is becoming dated, and the speed with which nations are evolving in the region suggests more current work is required. This study, testing the common sense expectation that large, powerful, technologically mature Turkey would have a more focused and motivated Internet public than would a smaller and less powerfid Middle Eastern neighbor, is a demonstration in practice of the need for additional work in the region.

Behavioral Intentions for Online Shopping

range 2 - 10 mean 7.2, sd 2.3

It would appear that Internet use in the Middle East is evolving. A small and economically weak nation such as Jordan is beginning to demonstrate Internet usage intentions and motivations that are more in keeping with the characteristics of more developed nations such as Turkey. Indeed, it seems likely that the lever of a

technological initiative by the young Jordanian King is beginning to have the intended effect.

While the possibility exists that the relatively strong degree of Jordanian Internet interest and online shopping intentions observed here could be only spuriously related to the concerted technology initiative of a strong central government, the global technology scholar is tempted to ask: is this another case like the Super Corridor in Malaysia (e.g., Hams, 2002)? The new King has considerable influence in the activities of the nation, and has been an active campaigner for the diffusion of ICT as an economic differentiator for Jordan, since his ascension to the throne. Initiatives of the Jordanian government, with the full faith and support of the royal family, such as REACH and PC@Every Home (Ein-Dor et al., 1999a; Info-Prod Research, 2005), ensure that the entire population of Jordan understands the priority that has been placed by the national government on ICT diffusion.

For managers and scholars, alike, the successful mandate of high-technology in Malaysia as an economic improvement incentive to provide an alternative to what had been primarily an agrarian economy is a compelling model for technology diffusion, technology transfer, and ultimately, the joint venture efforts of technology companies from more developed nations with government infrastructure initiatives in less developed nations. Particularly in the case of Jordan, which is possessed of relatively fewer natural resources in comparison to the oil rich nations in the region, this possibility represents one of the few avenues to future prosperity.

In view of the modest economy of Jordan, in comparison to its wealthier and more developed neighbors, the ecommerce market is not likely to be as attractive in managerial terms as the technology development market. As was demonstrated in Singapore, and again in the more directly comparable case of Malaysia, when strong central governments mandate a technology initiative, and then carefully manage the gradual privatization of the technology sector with the help of venture partners in industry, foreign business partners can substantially benefit. They gain a new market for business s e ~ c e s and equipment, and they gain a loyal new partner in the nascent development of future electronic markets, with later potential for consumer market revenues once the infi-astructure is more fully utilized by the population (Harris, 2002).

Jordan would bear watching, and would likely be a fruitful subject of longitudinal study as its technology mandate plays out; whether it represents another example of the "Malaysia model" in action or not, the unique combination of political and cultural forces converging on the goal of increasing the economic prosperity of a small and resource-poor nation is an example that could well be used elsewhere in the developing world, should the model prove generalizable. We are at the early stages of seeing this process in play in Jordan, it would seem.

Turkey is far from being considered a Luddite nation in regards to ICT. This study is comparative; differences are relative and context-bound to a specific point in time and to a specific sample frame, and only generalizable to the context of study, which is a comparison of a large and economically strong Muslim nation in the Middle East with a smaller and less economically powerful one. While Israel is clearly a technology leader in the region (Ein-Dor et al, 1999b), the robust literature on ICT diffusion in Turkey remains indicative of the degree to which this nation is a leader of the Muslim nations of the Middle East in modernization. It may well be the case that IT has become a mundane and unremarkable aspect of modem life in Turkey, whereas ICT in Jordan has all the vibrancy of a new and important national initiative for economic success and survival; differential levels of involvement and perception would be expected, in that case. This lends a very different perspective to the notion that Jordanians are more interested, involved and capable with regards to ICT. It probably is the case that ICT diffusion has become a national article of faith in the emerging economy of Jordan, whereas modern ICT may be an accepted and noneventful matter of fact in the modem life of Turkey.

At the political level, however, it would appear that there is a significant culture of technology adoption at work in Jordan, where the new King has made it his priority to stimulate and support ongoing ICT diffusion initiatives. There is no substitute for visible and powerful political leadership in the technology diffusion process, as has been seen previously with Dr. Mahathir's powerful technology initiative in Malaysia, and H.M. Abdullah I1 is clearly providing that leadership in regards to Jordanian ICT innovation.

CONCLUSION

This research investigated differences between an emerging Middle Eastern economy and a developing Middle Eastern economy in terms of Internet usage motivations and intentions to engage in online shopping. The mature literature stream documenting technology diffusion in the region tends to support the notion that Turkey is rather a more developed Internet market, and that Internet users there would be far more interested, self-assured, and appreciative of the technology than would citizens of a far smaller and less developed nation.

Emerging research is beginning to show the development of the Internet sectors of smaller nations in the region, among these Jordan, and the results of this study are an early indication of the strength with which their national technology initiative may be taking hold among the population. Though the study reported here only examines young Internet users of college age in the two nations, it appears that, based on the limited results of this study, Jordanian Internet users may be more highly motivated and interested in Internet use toward economic ends than Turkish users are. Further research will be required to confirm, clarify, and track these nascent trends in Jordan in order to determine whether the model of political mandate being played out there is

a viable method for other developing nations in the region to utilize for economic growth.

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Tom- Stafford is Assistant Professor of Management Information Systems at University of Memphis. Dr. Stafford h o l h the Ph.D. in MIS from University of Texas - Arlington and the Ph.D. in Marketing from University of Georgia. His research spans the topics of e-business, e-commerce, and motivations for Internet use, and his work has appeared in publication such as Communications of the ACM, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Decision Sciences, and, Journal of Global Information Technology Management.

Aykut Hamit Turan is a PhD student and research assistant at Adnan Menderes University, School of Business and Economics. He has received MBA degree from University of Scranton and MsC degree from University of Memphis. He has publkhed articles in Journal of Global Information Technology Management, Americas Conference of Information Systems, Southwest American Conference of Management, and the Global Information Technology Management Conference.

Ahmad Khasawneh is a Professor at A1 Hussein Bin ~ a l a l University, Faculty of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. He has received PhD and Master degree from University of Newcastle, Australia and BSc. degree from Yarmouk University in Jordan. His research investigates the strategic role of information technology and the factors affecting the adoption, implementation and diffusion of information technology in businesses.

middle-east.com: diffusion of the internet and online shopping in jordan and turkey

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