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MODERN EDUCATIONAL TECHNICAL THEATRE INITIATIVE
METTI Lighting A Comprehensive Curriculum in
Modern Theatrical Lighting
Student Version
Third Edition
By
Matthew Haber
P a g e | 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3
Safety ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Levels of Training ..................................................................................................................... 5
Skills Assessment...................................................................................................................... 7
Lighting Technician 1 ............................................................................................................... 8
Lighting Technician 2 ............................................................................................................. 22
Lighting Technician 3 ............................................................................................................. 30
Lighting Designer 1 ................................................................................................................ 40
Lighting Designer 2 ................................................................................................................ 48
Light Board Theory................................................................................................................. 52
Light Board Operator 1 ........................................................................................................... 56
Light Board Programmer 1 ..................................................................................................... 59
Technician Supervisor ............................................................................................................ 65
Color Mixing ........................................................................................................................... 69
Useful Information .................................................................................................................. 72
References ............................................................................................................................... 73
About METTI ......................................................................................................................... 74
Legal ....................................................................................................................................... 75
P a g e | 3
Introduction The goal of this curriculum is to lay out a framework for learning about modern theatrical
lighting techniques through a mixture of hands-on and content driven methods. This
curriculum is in keeping with the standards of lighting education and evaluation set forth by
many different industry organizations and is divided into several levels of certification and
associated training. These levels, which are outlined in a later section, build upon one another
and each come with new privileges and responsibilities which together combine to create a
streamlined lighting design and execution process. Each of these sections culminates with an
assessment which is designed to insure that one does not progress through their training in
such a way as to risk damaging equipment or endangering the safety of other members of the
crew. More information concerning assessment will be provided in a later section. This
curriculum is designed to be a supplement and reference book for someone who has
substantial field experience and is trained as a lighting instructor, as without someone to
answer questions and guide new lighting technicians, poor habits and improper practices will
go uncorrected. Thank you for reading this introduction and on behalf of lighting designers
and technicians everywhere, I welcome you to the diverse, creative, and downright fun field
of theatrical lighting.
P a g e | 4
Safety In addition to discussing the issues involved with the practice of lighting, this curriculum will
cover relevant safety information for lighting technicians. The technical aspects of modern
lighting are not inherently unsafe to those involved. However, due to the environment in
which they are frequently conducted, there are safety risks posed both to the technician and
to those in the vicinity. Many sections and associated certifications will introduce and
evaluate comprehension and retention of new safety guidelines which are intended to
mitigate some of the risk involved. These guidelines should not be taken lightly as their
proper execution is crucial to a safe theatrical working environment. The sections of this
curriculum which covers supervision include additional advanced safety information and
supervisors are required to receive some external medical training as outlined in that section.
This section will cover some basic safety guidelines which should be followed under all
circumstances and are a starting point for all other sections of this curriculum.
1) Whenever one is working in a theatrical environment, you should be partnered with
another technician who has attained a level of certification that permits them to conduct
the work being done. If two lighting technicians of differing levels of training are
working together, the work being conducted must be within the purview of the training of
the less trained technician.
2) Whenever one is working in a theatrical environment, there must be a supervisor present
who is certified to supervise the type of work being conducted. If at all possible this
supervisor should not be actively engaged in the work but rather stay back and supervise
it as well as render advice and instruction.
3) All technicians who are working should be wearing safety gear sufficient for the kind of
work being conducted even if they are not actively engaged in it. For example, if in a
theatre, one team is working on rigging and another is working on adjusting lights, all
members of both teams should be wearing safety gear sufficient for rigging.
4) All technicians should acquaint themselves with the location of the first aid kit at a work
site before beginning to work. The first aid kit should normally be with the supervisor.
When shortcuts are taken and technicians are hurried, mistakes get made. Unlike mistakes in
most situations, when someone makes a mistake in a theatrical environment, there is the
potential for serious injury to oneself and others. For this reason it is imperative that all
guidelines be followed to the letter and beyond. When in doubt, err on the side of safety. As a
lighting technician you are first and foremost responsible for your own safety. Just remember
this: If a facility can’t afford to do it safely, they can’t afford to do it at all. Don’t be afraid to
stand up and say something if you think there is something unsafe going on.
P a g e | 5
Levels of Training There are multiple levels of training and certification which are covered in this curriculum.
Each level in this book has any prerequisites indicated at the beginning of the reading.
Course Descriptions
Lighting Technician 1 (LT1)
This course is designed to cover the basics of lighting from a technical point of view. It
includes knowledge concerning basic safety procedures, operation and maintenance of
various lighting instruments and other equipment, working with gels, and reading design
sheets.
Lighting Technician 2 (LT2)
This course builds upon LT1 and adds instruction in dimmer pack use, cabling, working with
gobos, and more advanced safety procedures.
Lighting Technician 3 (LT3)
This course builds upon LT1 and LT2 and adds instruction in working with Remote Focusing
Units (RFUs), simple rigging as it applies to a lighting technician, and using more advanced
lighting and effects units.
Lighting Designer 1 (LD1)
This course takes the technical knowledge learned in LT1-3 and begins to introduce lighting
design theory including its place in theatre, the elements of design, and using color and
pattern to set the scene. It is strongly recommended that even those who intend to pursue
only the technical aspect of lighting consider this course as it will provide invaluable
Lighting Technician 1 Lighting Technician 2 Lighting Technician 3
Lighting Designer 1 Lighting Designer 2 Light Board Theory
Light Board Operator 1 Light Board Programmer 1
Technician Supervisor
P a g e | 6
knowledge in how to work with lighting designers and a better understanding of the thought
process behind the light designs.
Lighting Designer 2 (LD2)
This course builds on LD1 and adds instruction in creation of lighting plots and cue sheets,
working with movement and transition, and designing for advanced lighting and effects units.
This course also includes a hands-on project in lighting design.
Light Board Theory (LBT)
This course provides an introduction to the DMX protocol beyond the skills learned in LT2
and introduces the ideas and vocabulary behind modern light board operation in a non-model
specific manner.
Light Board Operator 1 (LBO1)
This course builds on the theory learned in LBT and adds training in deciphering and
following cue sheets, the light board operator’s role in a performance, and inter-crew
communications. Your instructor will supplement this course with instruction in the
particular board you will be using for your training.
Light Board Programmer 1 (LBP1)
This course adds to the light board operation skills learned in LBO1 and begins teaching non-
model specific light board programming technique and theory. Your instructor will
supplement this course with instruction in the particular board you will be using.
Technician Supervisor (TS)
This course teaches the skills necessary to safely and efficiently supervise a lighting
operation in a theatrical or touring environment. This includes skills such as crew
communications, technician paperwork, and equipment management.
P a g e | 7
Skills Assessment In order to make sure that students are prepared to work independently in the roles for which
they were trained as well as effectively advance through the levels of training and
certification, it is necessary to provide a means for evaluation. Toward this goal, each chapter
culminates with an assessment of knowledge retention from the chapter. The instructor
responsible for your training is strongly encouraged to combine the conventional written
assessment with a hands-on practical assessment although this is not required for receipt of a
certification for the level in most cases. Assessments are split into two or more sections. In
order to “pass” the level of training students are required to answer a minimum of 85% of the
questions correctly except in the section of the assessment which assesses retention of skills
and knowledge relating to safety. For this section students are required to answer 95% of the
questions correctly. Students are permitted to take and retake the assessment until they can
pass it. The exact assessments that will be administered by your instructor are included at the
end of each chapter but the assessments themselves are closed-book. Some levels include a
practical assessment project in place of or in addition to the standard assessment and in order
to pass this project which is required to receive the corresponding certification students must
earn a minimum 80% score as determined by their instructor.
P a g e | 8
Lighting Technician 1
Prerequisites
None
Level Contents
Basic safety rules
Types of lighting instruments
Working with basic lighting hardware
Hanging a light
Working with gels
Reading design sheets
Content
Basic Safety Rules
There is nothing inherently unsafe about the technical aspects of theatrical lighting however,
due to the environment in which they are frequently conducted, there are safety risks posed
both to the technician and to those in the vicinity. This chapter will introduce some of the
basic safety rules above and beyond those introduced in the safety section that you already
read that apply to lighting technicians.
Technicians should wear synthetic or leather gloves, protective poly-carbonate or
tempered glass eyewear, laced and closed toed shoes and durable clothes when
working or when in the vicinity of actively working technicians as dictated by the
type of work.
When working on ladders above 5 feet, the ladder should be steadied at the base by
another technician.
Never leave tools on a ladder, scaffolding, or catwalk and never drop or throw tools
to another technician. It is safer to climb a ladder, drop a line, and haul an object up
rather than carrying heavy objects up a ladder.
Whenever you are working above 5 feet, you should secure any tools that you are
using to yourself using a leash. A leash consists of a piece of flame retardant
theatrical string or bungee no more than 4 feet in length secured to the tool with a
carabineer on one end and secured to the technician with either a wrist loop or
carabineer on the other.
Technicians should never tamper with plugs that are connected to a live socket on a
dimmer pack or wall outlet.
P a g e | 9
Any object hanging from, or attached to, a support structure must be secured with a
safety cable capable of handling an object of its weight.
If a safety cable has caught the load of a falling object, then it should be disposed of
and replaced with a new one.
Any object secured to a support structure must have all of its loose parts secured with
safety cables as well.
Technicians should never attempt to fix a damaged electrical connection unless they
have received proper training.
Extension cords should be used sparingly and only when heavy-duty and three
pronged. Technicians should consult their supervisor before using an extension cord
for anything but temporary power for tools.
Types of Lighting Instruments
It is important to understand the ways that the various types of modern lighting instruments
work in order to properly operate and maintain them.
Ellipsoidal
Ellipsoidal lights, also known as Lekos or Profiles, are the most commonly used fixture in
theatrical lighting. They afford a high level of control to the technician in terms of focus,
beam size, beam shape, and image projection. Focus is normally controlled by a knob located
on the underside of the unit. It is loosened and slid back and forth to adjust the focal length of
the light. Beam size is controlled either with an iris which blocks light to control beam size or
with a zoomable ellipsoidal which has an additional lens assembly. Beam size is more
commonly controlled through using different beam angle lenses and through physically
moving the unit in respect to the subject. Beam shape is controlled through a set of four
shutters on the unit. Each shutter moves in two dimensions for beam shaping. Shutters
control the part of the beam inverted and opposite to the location of the shutter handle due to
the way light travels through the unit. Gobos are used for image-projection and are discussed
at length in LT2.
P a g e | 10
With the lenses far apart, the beam is narrow
With the lenses close together, the beam is
wider.
PAR Can
This diagram shows the way light
travels through an ellipsoidal.
This diagram shows the effects of
lens movement on beam size in an
ellipsoidal.
This is the popular ETC Source 4
ellipsoidal with its major parts
labeled.
Yoke
Bulb
Shutters
Gobo slot
Focus knob
Gel holder slot
P a g e | 11
These lights are commonly used in music and event lighting due to their relatively low cost.
They offer almost no control of the light aside from aim and color. PARs are listed with a
number ranging from 16 to 64 at the end of the name. This denotes the width of the reflector
in eighths of an inch.
This diagram shows how light
travels through a PAR can.
This diagram shows the general
layout of a PAR can.
This is a common type of PAR 64.
This is a newer and increasingly
popular type of PAR can. It uses a
standard ellipsoidal bulb and has
interchangeable lenses for
increased flexibility.
P a g e | 12
Fresnel
These lights are used for washes and offer a soft edge with somewhat adjustable focus. Their
beam shape can be roughly controlled with barn doors which will be discussed more later in
this chapter. The beam edge is usually controlled by a knob on the bottom of the unit which
is loosened to allow the bulb and reflector to slide freely before being tightened in the desired
position.
Fresnel "spotted down"
Fresnel "flooded"
This is a small PAR 16, often
called a birdie, which is used for
close illumination.
This diagram shows how light
travels through a fresnel.
This diagram shows how bulb and
reflector position affect the beam
in a fresnel.
P a g e | 13
Striplight
These lights are used for making color washes on a backdrop and are often used with primary
colored gels to facilitate color mixing. The individual lights themselves are PAR cans in
many cases.
Follow Spot
A follow spot is essentially an extremely bright zoomable ellipsoidal with additional features.
Follow spots are usually carefully weighted to allow smooth movement. They also have a
boomerang which is a spring loaded gel holder at the front which allows rapid color changes
and blackouts of the unit.
This is a common fresnel model
made by Altman.
This is newer type of lighting unit
called the ETC Parnel. It
combines the size and powerful
beam of a par can with the
adjustable beam and soft light of
a fresnel.
This is a model of striplight made
by ETC.
P a g e | 14
This is the industry standard
Mega-Clamp made by The
Light Source.
Working with Basic Lighting Hardware
The following items are frequently used by lighting technicians in their work so it is
important to know what they are and how they are used.
The yoke of a light it the metal C-shaped arch that is attached to the light on both sides. It is
used to secure the light to a C-clamp and allows the light to be tilted up and down using a
knob on the side.
An important piece of hardware is the safety cable. This is a metal cable
with a loop on one end and a clip on the other. This is looped through the
yoke of the light, over the bar onto which you are hanging the light, and
clipped into a loop. Safety cables can also be more permanently attached to
a fixture.
The most basic piece of rigging hardware is the C-clamp.
C-clamps attach to the yoke of a light and clamp onto the
bar or truss the light is being hung from and are available in
different types depending on the weight of the fixture and
the diameter of the pipe onto which the clamp it being
attached. There are three bolts on a standard theatrical
heavy duty C-clamp. The shaft bolt is the one on the bottom
used to attach the bolt to a light’s yoke. The pan bolt is the
little square one on the side. It can be loosened and
tightened to allow the light to be rotated 360° without
affecting the clamp’s grip on the pipe or its connection to
the light. The clamp bolt it the long one that it tightened
down to attach secure the bolt to the pipe. It is important
that the clamp bolt not be tightened more than 2 turns past
finger tight or else there is the risk of denting (also called
dimpling) the pipe which could drastically weaken the pipe causing structural failure.
This is a popular follow spot
made by Altman.
P a g e | 15
Another common piece of rigging equipment it the sidearm it is used to horizontally attach
lights to vertical supports. A sidearm is essentially a C-clamp with a short pipe attached
instead of a light. The light attaches to an adjustable slider on the pipe.
Almost all lighting units have a gel frame of some sort with the only
real exception being intelligent fixtures with internal color mixing or
changing capabilities. Gel frames can be metal (this is the norm) or
fiberboard to reduce the risk of burns from touching hot gel frames
Ellipsoidal units also have a slot for gobos (also called templates).
Gobos, which can be glass or metal, are placed in a gobo holder and
then inserted into the slot on the top of the unit.
This will be discussed in more depth in LT2.
Other accessories can be inserted into the gel frame slots of most
ellipsoidals in place of or in addition to gel frames. Snoots, which are
shaped like top hats, are used to reduce light spill
from a fixture. They are most commonly used on
ellipsoidals which are being used for especially long
throws although they can be used in PAR cans as
well. They are also commonly used in architectural
lighting applications. Donuts are flat pieces of metal
with a hole cut from the center. They strictly regulate
light spillage to insure that gobo projections appear as
crisp and in-focus as possible. Donuts are only used in ellipsoidal fixtures.
Barn doors attach to the front of fresnel or other wash fixtures and provide
a way to limit the light exiting the unit. They usually have four doors (one
for each side) which hinge open and closed and frequently also have
sliding panels to adjust the size and shape of the doors. Barn doors are not
nearly as precise as the shutters on ellipsoidal units but they are a
frequently used tool to shape and control the output of wash fixtures.
Hanging a Light
As a lighting technician, one of your main duties will be to hang lighting fixtures. You will
usually be hanging them from house electrics (battens or catwalks over the audience), stage
This is the popular Mega-
Baby Sidearm.
P a g e | 16
electrics (fixed or flyable battens over the stage), or booms (verticals supports at the sides of
the house). You will access the lighting supports via a ladder, catwalk, rolling scaffold, Genie
or other electric lift, or by having the support lower to you in the case of flyable battens.
Once you have accessed the hanging position, you will need to get you, your fixture, and any
applicable accessories (safety cable, gel frame, etc) to the position. Make sure the C-Clamp is
sufficiently open to easily slide over and onto the support before you try and hang it. Clip the
safety cable of the fixture through the yoke and over the support. Now place the unit onto the
support. Make sure you face the C-Clamp with the open side towards you to make it easier to
focus and remove the fixture. Tighten the pipe bolt to finger tight to secure the fixture to the
support and then, using your wrench, tighten it 1-2 additional turns. You should repeat this
process with the clamp bolt. You can also use your wrench to snug the pan bolt but don’t
over tighten pan bolts as they can break. Now, unwrap the power cable (also called a tail) and
let it dangle from the fixture.
Working with Gels
Gels come in two different types: Plastic gel sheets and glass or plastic roundels. Roundels
are rarely used and, when they are, their use is for old-style striplights or small birdies
designed for DJs. Due to this limited utility, they will not be discussed further. Standard
plastic gels can be used with any type of conventional light and come in three different
forms.
1. Precut gels for standard PAR can sizes are available in commonly used colors. For
example 9”x9” sheets are widely available for PAR64s. Perforated sheets for the
popular ETC Source 4 fixtures are also available from the gel manufacturer Apollo.
2. 20” by 24” gel sheets are available in any of the hundreds of available colors and are
then cut to the correct size for your lights. Usually one sheet can produce several
individual gels.
3. 24” by 20’ rolls are available in any of the colors gel sheets are available in for those
who need a large amount of a particular color.
The lighting designer will use a swatch book of all the different colors to choose which ones
they want to use and the technician supervisor will acquire any that are not kept in stock.
Once they are cut, gels are generally stored in file folders and when they need to be used they
are placed in a gel frame which is slid into the gel frame holder of a light and usually secured
in place by a latch. Gels are designed to withstand the incredible heat put off by modern
lights. However, with use, they will eventually burn or discolor and need to be replaced. As a
technician, you should report damaged gels to the technician supervisor. Gels do not have to
be a color. There are also misty gels and diffuser gels. These will be discussed more if you
choose to pursue lighting designer training. However, for lighting technicians, these types of
gels can and should be treated the same way as normal colored gels. When cutting gels from
a larger sheet, you should always label them with a silver Sharpie on dark gels or a black
Sharpie on light gels so that in the future everybody knows what color they are. You can also
use a special pen designed for labeling gels. In the corner of the gel write the first letter of the
name of the manufacturer followed by the color number of the gel.
P a g e | 17
Reading Design Sheets
As a lighting technician, you will be tasked with carrying out the instructions for light
configuration created by the lighting designer and technician supervisor. They will usually
convey these instructions to you in the form of a design sheet and lighting plot. A design
sheet will list in columns the light type, its channel on the board, color, any gobos it may
have, shuttering (if applicable), focus (if applicable), which light bar or stand it is on, which
light it is from audience’s left to right on the bar or stand (in the case of vertical supports the
number is top to bottom), and any notes the designer might have. This information is often
represented in the form of a diagram with the following common symbols to represent light
types. There are also many model specific symbols for different conventional and intelligent
fixtures.
Fresnel Ellipsoidal PAR Can
When hanging a light using this sheet, the light is not pointed in the direction it will be when
the process is done. Aiming information has to come from the lighting plot. A lighting plot
shows a diagram of the stage with shapes to denote the areas a particular light shine onto as
well as which light shines there. To aim the light, a technician just turns on the light via a
RFU (Remote Focus Units are discussed in depth in the LT3 training) or requests that the
light board operator or technician supervisor turn it on, and then they aim the light and shape
its beam until it matches the drawing. This is what a very simple lighting plot often called a
magic sheet looks like. Note that some areas have multiple lights on them but with different
colors or direction of origin.
P a g e | 18
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Lighting Technician 1 level of
training. You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get
some hands-on time with some of the equipment discussed in this chapter to reinforce the
knowledge you learned.
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability.
Safety
List 4 things that every technician should be wearing and indicate when they must be worn.
8pts
1)
2)
3)
4)
How should tools be handled when above 5 feet? 2pts
What are the safety rules regarding extension cords? 2pts
Please describe what a safety cable is and how it is used. 2pts
Lighting Unit Types and Basic Lighting Hardware
P a g e | 19
Please list the 5 types of lighting instruments discussed in this chapter. Choose 3 to diagram
how light beams travel through them. 11pts
Please describe how you would adjust focus in the types of lighting instruments that offer
control over that aspect of their beam. 1pt
Please create a labeled drawing of the piece of hardware used to attach a light to a lighting
bar. 2pts
P a g e | 20
Please describe the following pieces of lighting hardware. 5pts
Gel frame
Top hat
Side arm
Donut
Barn doors
Hanging a Light
Please describe the process of hanging a lighting instrument. 10pts
Working with Gels
P a g e | 21
Please list the 3 formats gels come in. 3pts
1)
2)
3)
Please describe how you would label a gel that you just cut. 2pts
Reading Design Sheets
Please name and describe the functions of the two types of plots that you will be using. 6pts
Please label the type of lights these symbols represent. 4pts
P a g e | 22
Lighting Technician 2
Prerequisites
LT1
Level Contents
Electrical safety
Dimmer pack use
Cabling and plugs
Changing bulbs
Working with gobos
Content
Electrical Safety
In this level you will begin to work with cabling and other pieces of equipment involving
electricity. The amount of electricity powering lights, dimmers, and other equipment is
enough to kill you so it is extremely important that you take precautions when working with
it.
If any connection looks loose, frayed, or is taped, do not use it until you have
consulted the technician supervisor and they have given you the go-ahead.
Never plug or unplug cables from live dimmers.
Do not attempt to change the bulb or adjust any internal part of a light which is
plugged in.
Alert any other crew members who are working in the same facility as you before
beginning to work and keep them aware of which lights you will be working with so
they don’t accidentally turn lights on that you are working with.
Dimmer Pack Use
Modern lighting boards to not offer direct control over lights. Instead they communicate the
desired light intensity for each unit to a piece of equipment called a dimmer pack using a
digital format called DMX. DMX signals are carried over 5 pin DMX cable or 3 pin XLR
cables. Each cable can control 512 channels so units are daisy-chained together. Each
channel can be any value between 0 and 256 at any given time. Dimmer packs interpret the
DMX signal they receive and dim lights individually or in groups if more than one fixture is
connected to a single dimmer. Dimmer packs can usually control between 4 and 12 channels
each and in installations are installed in racks with cables for each channel running through
the facility. In smaller temporary installations and touring applications, dimmer packs are
P a g e | 23
either in small rolling racks or sometimes small 4-6 channel dimmers packs are mounted with
the lights. Because DMX cables carry 512 channels of information but each dimmer pack
only uses a few of the channels, dimmers have a system for addressing them. Technicians
enter their starting number, the first channel they should read information off of, using either
a screen and buttons or binary dip switches. You should look in the useful information
section at the end of this book for a chart on how to use dip switches.
Cabling and Plugs
There are three types of plugs used to connect a light to a dimmer. Stage pins are the most
frequently used and probably what you have in your theatre, Twist-locks are most commonly
used in touring applications, and Edison plugs are usually used in very small touring
applications, usually with the small dimmer packs mounted with the lights. Edison plugs are
also used when the light must plug directly into a conventional wall outlet.
This is a rack-mount 12-
channel dimmer pack made by
ETC.
This is a 4-channel dimmer
pack made by NSI.
This is a pair of male and
female stage pin connectors.
P a g e | 24
Large dimmer packs in touring applications use multi-pin cables such as Socapex to carry
power for multiple lights to the desired location in the rig.
With many lights on a bar, it is inevitable that there will be a lot of cables running back
and forth. For safety reasons you should follow these guidelines in cable management.
This is a pair of male and
female twist-lock connectors.
This is a pair of male and
female Edison plugs.
This is a pair of male and
female 5-pin XLR connectors.
This is a pair of male and
female 3-pin XLR connectors.
P a g e | 25
After all the units on the pipe are plugged in, you can neaten up the cabling and tie it all
up. The best way to do this is as follows:
1. Use black theatrical string and tie a standard single-knot bow tie.
2. Tie the cable straight along the pipe from its source to where the unit is.
3. If there's excess cable, fold it once along the pipe and back and then tie it along;
do not to loop it.
4. Tie the final connector just above the unit, or close to it. Never tie the unit's cord
itself to the pipe.
5. Make sure that your ties give slack where connections are made, rather than
stretching them apart.
You may also want to use masking or gaffer’s tape and a sharpie to label both ends of cables
for easier troubleshooting with long cable runs.
Changing Bulbs
General rules:
a) Never touch the quartz glass envelope of a bulb with your bare fingers. If you
accidentally do, wipe it off with a soft cloth.
b) Make sure the power's off before replacing a lamp. The best way to do this is to
unplug it yourself.
c) It's sometimes not the lamp that's bad, so it's always a good policy to treat the bulb
you're taking out as good unless it's visibly broken.
Since the methods for bulb replacement vary greatly by the type and model of fixture, you
should consult the unit’s manual or ask someone who is familiar with it before replacing the
bulb. You will find that that once you have done it a few times with different units, it isn’t
difficult to do it on other fixures.
Working with Gobos
Gobos, which are sometimes called templates, are circular metal or glass images which can
be projected using an ellipsoidal lighting instrument. The lighting designer will choose the
ones they wish to use from a catalog or have them custom made and the technician
supervisor will acquire them so you just have to slide them into the lights that they are
supposed to go into. Due to the manner in which light goes through an ellipsoidal unit, gobos
must be placed upside-down and backwards to come out correctly on the projection surface.
To install the gobo in a unit, just slide the gobo into a gobo holder and insert that into the
gobo slot of an ellipsoidal unit. Location of the gobo slot varies by model, but they are
usually just in front of the top shutter. Donuts, which were mentioned in LT1 are often
inserted into the gel slot of a lighting unit when using gobos to increase the clarity and focus
of the projected image. For more advanced effects, gobos can be used in rotators, indexers,
and other advanced lighting effects units which will be discussed in the LT3 level of training.
P a g e | 26
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Lighting Technician 2 level of
training. You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get
some hands-on time with some of the equipment discussed in this chapter to reinforce the
knowledge you learned.
P a g e | 27
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. Fields inside of grey boxes are for your
instructor and should be left blank.
Electrical Safety
Name 2 things which might indicate that an electrical connection is damaged. 2pts
1)
2)
What should you do before beginning to work on lights? 4 pts
Dimmer Pack Use
List the three types of dimmer packs discussed in this level. 3pts
1)
2)
3)
For each of the following channel ranges please indicate what position the 9 dip switches on
a dimmer pack would be in. You may use an addressing chart. 12pts
1
28
84
123
416
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512
Cabling and Plugs
Name and draw the 3 types of power plugs. 12pts
Name and draw the two types of plugs used for digital lighting data. 6pts
Changing Bulbs
List a few basic guidelines for changing bulbs which do not apply to specific types of
lighting units. 4pts
Working with Gobos
Name the 2 types of gobos. 2pt
1)
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2)
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Lighting Technician 3
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
Level Contents
Working with RFUs (Remote Focusing Units)
Simple rigging
Advanced lighting and effects units
Content
Working with RFUs
Up to this point in your progression through lighting technician training you have been
forced to rely upon a board operator or technician supervisor to turn lights on and off for you.
A RFU is a small wireless or wired device which allows you, the technician, to control the
intensity of lights from where the lights are hung without interfering with the programming
of the main show. RFUs, which are board dependant, communicate with the main lighting
board. Most major programmable light boards such as the ones used in many theatrical
facilities are able to be controlled via an optional wireless or wired RFU. The operation of
the RFU is dependent on the board model but is usually designed to mimic the data entry
function of the board itself. This usually means that you can enter the channel number(s) of
the light(s) you wish to activate followed by the intensity at which you would like them.
Many newer boards offer network connectivity and can be outfitted with an off-the-shelf
wireless router to allow a tablet computer or WiFi equipped PDA or smartphone to act as an
RFU.
Simple Rigging
This is an RFU made by ETC
for their Express lighting
boards.
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There are some standard pieces of rigging hardware that you will encounter as a lighting
technician so it helps to know your way around them for when someone trained in rigging
isn’t available. In LT1, you were introduced to three pieces of basic lighting hardware: the C-
clamp, the side arm, and the safety cable. These are some of the most basic pieces of rigging
hardware. In this level you will be introduced to a few more advanced forms of rigging and
ground support equipment.
Trunions
Strip lights are often mounted with trunions at each end to serve as feet. These are just
triangular pieces which hold the unit off the ground. If the trunion is set up that way, it
sometimes can serve double duty as a way to hang the strip from a pipe if you attach C-
clamps to them. Alternatively, you can use an angle iron to do the same job (which is a lot
like a sidearm but attaches to the side of a striplight).
Boom Bases
Boom bases come in a variety of diameters and weights and can be used to support anything
from a single light in place of a C-clamp to a whole vertical column of lights on a heavy duty
iron pipe.
Scenery Bumper
Scenery bumpers are slightly flexible rings mounted to a C-clamp. Technicians often use
these when light bars that can be raised and lowered run the risk of interfering with or
damaging curtains or suspended scenery above the stage.
Sand Bags
This is a single wheeled
trunion. Note the hole on the
bottom for a C-clamp.
This is a small 10” 6 lb boom
base for a single light.
This is a metal scenery
bumper made by Altman.
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Sand bags are cloth sacks with a handle which are filled with sand and placed on the base of
large boom bases and other stands to prevent them from tipping. Sand bags range in weight
from 10 lb to 50 lb.
Weighted Base Stand
These stands are usually 50 lb boom bases with a five to ten foot pipe screwed into them.
Lights can be attached to them for placement in temporary locations such as side stage.
Special caution must be used with them because you can’t use a safety cable for the lights.
T-Stand
These stands are most commonly used in small touring and temporary applications. A T-
stand is a small cross bar for lights attached to the top of either a tripod stand or a crank-up
stand. These stands can hold four lights on the bottom of the cross bar and sometimes another
two lights on the top. Often they have bolts on the bottom to be used in place of C-clamps for
permanent storage and transportation of groups of four lights.
Advanced Lighting and Effects Units
There are times when your lighting designer will need to create effects with light which
cannot be achieved with conventional lights. These various pieces of equipment which either
P a g e | 33
modify a conventional unit or stand alone are gaining increasing acceptance in the theatrical
community and so it is likely you will have the opportunity to work with them at some point.
Color Scrollers
Color scrollers use scrolls of attached gels to change the color of a light on the fly. This
allows one light to have multiple colors at different points in a production or to create
dynamic color change in one scene. One caveat to scrollers is the crinkling sound they can
make when changing color.
Gobo Rotators
Gobo rotators create unique effects by spinning gobos. Most units either spin one gobo or
two gobos in opposite directions. Gobo rotators are connected to a standard plug on the
dimmers.
Gobo Indexer
Gobo indexers allow the light board operator to control the exact angle that the gobo is at via
DMX.
Gobo Animator
Gobo animators spin a patterned disc in front of the unit to create more random looking
moving patterns in conjunction with a gobo than can be achieved with a gobo rotator.
Different patterns on the disc can create different effects.
This is a common scroller
made for use with ellipsoidals.
This is a Rosco single gobo
rotator that fits in most
common ellipsoidals such as
the ETC Source Four.
This is a gobo indexer that fits
in most common ellipsoidals
such as the ETC Source Four.
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DMX Iris
DMX controllable irises allow light beam sizes to be dynamically adjusted which permits a
light to serve multiple roles in one show or to create special effects.
LED PARs
LED PAR cans can be used the same way a conventional PAR can would be but they can be
many colors. These units come in many different forms from small to large and in strip
lights. This offers some of the flexibility of scrollers but silently.
Moving Head Lights
Moving head lights are the most advanced types of lighting units available. These lights
frequently have double gobo rotators, gobo changers, color mixers, irises, remotely
adjustable focus, and many other effects built in and they can point anywhere. Although in
the past these have mainly been used in non-theatrical applications, they are increasingly
gaining acceptance. Due to the complexity of using these units they will not be discussed
further in this curriculum although they are covered in depth in our Intelligent Lighting
curriculum.
This is a Rosco gobo animator
that fits in most common
ellipsoidals’ gel frame slots
via an adapter.
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This is a common model based off of a popular type of ellipsoidal which includes many of
the features listed above.
Fog Machines
Fog machines are used to create effects in and of themselves and for the purpose of making
beams of light visible. They vary greatly in size and fog production but all are used
essentially the same way. Many larger and heavier units use flexible hosing to carry the fog
to where it is needed.
Hazers
Hazers are similar to fog machines except that hazers produce haze which is barely visible
but still makes light beams visible.
This is an advanced moving
light called the ETC Source
Four Revolution. It includes
many of the common moving
light features and can be
upgraded via accessory slots
to have more features such as
remote controllable shutters.
It is based off of the common
ETC Source Four ellipsoidal.
This is a powerful high output
fogger made by Rosco.
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Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Lighting Technician 3 level of
training. You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get
some hands-on time with some of the equipment discussed in this chapter to reinforce the
knowledge you learned.
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. Fields inside of grey boxes are for your
instructor and should be left blank.
RFUs
What are RFUs used for? 4pts
What does RFU stand for? 2pts
Simple Rigging
Name and describe the purpose of each of the following pieces of hardware. 21pts
This is a high output hazer
made by Rosco.
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Advanced Lighting and Effects Units
Name each of the following pieces of equipment. 16pts
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What is the difference between a fog machine and a hazer? 2pts
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Lighting Designer 1
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
Level Contents
Functions of stage lighting
Qualities of light
Reflection
Effects of differing lighting angles
Color mixing
Content
A good lighting designer can make a huge difference in the success of a show’s set which in
turn makes a huge difference in the success of the show itself. The principals of lighting
design can be taught but only diligent practice, real world experience, and a good mentor will
create an excellent lighting designer. The creative perspective, organization, ability to work
with the other members of a show, and the raw talent required to be a great lighting designer
are found in very few people but when they are their shows are an experience that won’t soon
be forgotten. The director is responsible for choosing a lighting designer for their show and
once hired the lighting designer reports directly to them under most circumstances although
there may be a technical director in-between on large productions. The lighting designer is
responsible for attending rehearsals to understand the feel of the show, working with set,
costume, makeup, and sound personal to create a unified experience, creating lighting plots
along with the technician supervisor, and working with the director to achieve your joint
creative vision for the production. The following sections will teach you the basic theory
involved in lighting design and LD2 will give you some hands on lighting design experience
but you will still need to spend many years working in the field before you will be a great
lighting designer.
Functions of Stage Lighting
1. Visibility: If the audience can't see the actors, everything else the lighting designer
does is a waste of time. Studies have shown that visibility affects our ability to
understand spoken speech. This doesn't mean that the audience must see everything
all of the time; a German director named Max Reinhardt once said that, "The art of
P a g e | 41
lighting the stage consists of putting light where you want it and taking it away from
where you don't want it."
2. Mood: (or "atmosphere") "Mood" is the evocation in the audience of the appropriate
emotion. Many designers mistakenly err in paying attention to mood to the point
where visibility is sacrificed.
3. Composition: The act of painting a picture, in this case, with light.
4. Plausibility: Sometimes called "realism", but that's not always accurate, since not all
plays – and certainly very few ballets, modern dance pieces, and operas – are
realistic. It's the same quality that Stephen Colbert refers to as "truthiness".
5. Reinforcement: What are we reinforcing? Everything.
o We reinforce the playwright's text: In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Puck has
the line, "And yonder shines Aurora's harbinger," meaning the dawn. The
lighting designer can reinforce this by providing the first rays of dawn.
o We reinforce the work or the set and costume designers:
We might use colors that flatter or complement those used by our
colleagues.
If the sets and/or costumes are sculpted and lush, we might light them
so as to highlight their 3-dimensionality.
6. Revelation of Form: Decide on the level of 3-dimensionality you want the audience to
see. In some productions, you might want a "flat" look; in others – particularly in
dance – you might want a more sculpted look.
7. Punctuation: The blackout at the end of a climactic musical number! The slow fade to
black....
Qualities of Light
1. Intensity: How bright it is
2. Distribution: Where light is and where it isn’t, related to intensity
3. Angle: Discussed in later section of this level
4. Color
5. Change and movement: When any of the other qualities of light change
6. Visual quality of the light field: (diffuse, soft edged, or even and hard, with or without
a clear outline)
7. External look: Beams cutting through fog filled air
8. Pattern: Gobos etc
Reflection
It is important to understand how light reflects of different surfaces as this will inform your
decisions on how to light various set elements. Obviously darker surfaces absorb more light
than lighter surfaces and matter surfaces absorb more light then shiny surfaces. When
reflection is going on, there are 4 types.
1. Specular Reflection changes the direction of a beam of light without otherwise
appreciably altering the nature of beam. A mirror is a specular reflector.
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2. Diffuse Reflection occurs when the beam of light is completely dispersed. The light
bounces off the reflector in all directions. Example: flat paint.
3. Spread Reflection is similar to diffuse reflection, except that a greater percentage of
the light is reflected along the angle of reflection than along any other line. Example:
crumpled-up aluminum foil.
4. Mixed Reflection is a mixture of diffuse and specular reflections. Examples: a
doorknob / shiny wood floor /gold watch
Effects of Differing Lighting Angles
The angle from which an actor is lit will affect what parts of their body and face can be seen
as well as the dramatic and emotional implications of the moment. The vast assortment of
P a g e | 43
lights available to the modern lighting designer makes it possible to light actors in any way
which suits the moment.
EVEN LIGHT
From two angles in front and backlight
TOP LIGHT
From directly above
UP LIGHT
From directly below (just in front of the actor)
BACK LIGHT
From directly above and behind
FRONT LIGHT
A single light source in front of the actor
SIDE LIGHT
From stage right
Color Mixing
Please refer to the color mixing section later in this curriculum for this section of LD1.
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Lighting Designer 1 level of training.
You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get some
P a g e | 44
opportunities to experiment hands-on with some of the ideas discussed in this chapter to
reinforce the knowledge you learned.
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. Fields inside of grey boxes are for your
instructor and should be left blank.
Functions of Stage Lighting
Please list the seven functions of stage lighting with brief descriptions or examples for each.
21pts
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
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7)
Qualities of Light
Please list the 8 qualities of light and provide a brief description or example for each. 16pts
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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6)
7)
8)
Reflection
Please list the 4 types of reflection and provide an example of what types of material one
might see them in. 8pt
1)
2)
3)
4)
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Color Mixing
Please list the two sets of primary colors and what they are for. 12pts
Please list the two types of color mixing and describe them. 6pts
What are secondary colors? 2pts
What are complementary colors? 2pts
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Lighting Designer 2
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
LT3
LD1
Level Contents
Lighting plots and cue sheets
Movement
Working with advanced units
Hands-on project
Content
Lighting Plots and Cue Sheets
Way back in LT1 you learned how to read a lighting plot. As a lighting designer, it is your
responsibility to make these plots as well as cue sheets for the light board programmer. Being
able to read a cue sheet provides most of the necessary skills to create one. All you have to
do is sketch out where lights are located in the facility, consult with the technician supervisor
as to what channels are located where so you can indicate this on your sheet, and draw and
label the lights in such a way as to carry out your creative vision. While this is somewhat
easier said than done, it is on the whole a relatively simple process and with a little practice is
mostly painless. Some lighting designers cut a cardboard stencil for themselves which allows
them to quickly draw the symbols for the different types of lighting instruments on a plot and
more frequently, computer software is used by many lighting designers. The cue sheet lists
any and all lighting changes you want to happen during the show. This is from the time the
audience enters the theatre until the end of the curtain call. This sheet needs to indicate every
single time a light is turned on or off and if it fades how fast as well as what exact place in
the script this happens. The light board programmer will work with the operator to decide
how best to program the board to do this and then they will turn your cue sheet into a cue
sheet that they will use during the performance.
Movement
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In LD1 change and movement were briefly mentioned as one of the qualities of light. Change
and movement are in fact two different words for the same thing. Basically, movement is any
time one of the other qualities of light (e.g. color, distribution, intensity, etc) changes during
a scene. When the qualities of light change during a blackout so that when the lights come up
again they are different that is not movement. However, when the lights are up and then they
dim, for example, that would be movement. Movement is used by lighting designers to
indicate change of scene or occasionally change of character state. For example, dimming
lights and added hues of blue might indicate that time has passed and it is now night or
streaks of red being added to the background might highlight the growing evil side of one of
the characters during a particular moment. When using moving lights or by cross fading
between lights, movement can literally be movement. One common example of movement is
when lights fade leaving only a spotlight illuminating a single part of the stage.
Working with Advanced Units
Modern lighting instruments and effects offer unprecedented flexibility to lighting designers.
Scrollers and LED PARs allow for the creation of movement during scenes without the need
for dozens of differently colored lights and the increasing affordability and availability of
devices such as fog machines and hazers allow lighting designers to access the 3rd
dimension
of a stage in ways they couldn’t readily just a few years ago. Of course, with these increasing
options, comes increasing knowledge required to effectively utilize these pieces of equipment
and increasing time and cost required to implement designer’s plans. Some units such as
scrollers will be used by the lighting technicians in the process of carrying out your designs
even if you didn’t originally indicate for them to do this, however for the most part it will fall
to the lighting designers to assess what equipment will be available to them and then decide
what of it they will want to implement and where. Units such as fog machines will usually be
operated and handled by stage crew so designers have to work with them on that but other
units will fall under the purview of the lighting technicians’ responsibilities.
LED PARs
LED PARs are often small enough that they can be integrated into elements of the set such as
a fireplace. They are used just like normal lighting units except that they take up 3-12 DMX
channels on the board. This may limit how many of them can be used with older control
boards.
Scrollers
The special gels scrolls used in scrollers will usually have to be specially ordered for a show
unless you want to limit yourself to the standard colors from stock Theatre or Rock-and-Roll
color scrolls. This means that the technician supervisor will need plenty of advanced warning
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about what colors you wish to use in the scrollers and you will not be able to change your
mind after the fact.
Gobo Rotators, Indexers, and Animators
When these are available they can be used with normal gobos with little advanced notice so
these are usually easy to implement.
Moving Lights
As was mentioned in LT3 when moving lights were first discussed they are extremely
complicated. Additional study and training will be required before you will know enough to
effectively design for them. Even then, many facilities do not have access to them or the
special light boards required for their operation.
Practicals
Practicals are elements of a set such as a table lamp which are actually operational. Using
adapters and creative collaboration between lighting, set, and props personnel these are
something which is available to any production. They are a powerful tool in lending
credibility to a set and supplementing the conventional theatre lighting in a scene.
Hand On Project
Before you are ready to go out on your own and design lights, it is important that you receive
a structured opportunity to design lights for a show and receive instructor feedback and
guidance.
The Project
You should work in pairs to design a light show. This can be set to music if desired or it can
be in partnership with actors or dancers who will perform as part of it. This is very open-
ended however the one main guideline is that there must be no talking by anybody during the
performance. The goal of this project is not to build a lighting scheme around a show but
rather a show around a lighting scheme. One possibility for this project is to choose a book or
short story and create a lighting show which represents a particular character throughout the
story. The whole performance should be between four and eight minutes long and serve as a
demonstration of your best skills and creativity. For this show you will be responsible for
serving as your own lighting technician although you are permitted to receive technical
assistance from your classmates.
Assessment
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For this certification level your hands on project will serve as your assessment. Your
instructor will gauge whether they think that you have mastered the content from LT1-3 and
LD1-2 and if they feel this is the case they will award you your certification. It should be
expected that it may require more than one attempt to successfully complete this task so it
should be thought of as a learning experience not as a test.
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Light Board Theory
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
LT3
Level Contents
Role of a light board
Types of light boards
Using DMX
Content
Throughout your training up until this point you have worked with lighting instruments,
advanced lighting units, and dimmers but have yet to touch one of the most crucial elements
of a lighting system: the light board. This level will introduce you to the basic ideas involved
with light boards and their operation. In future levels you will work with your instructor to
learn how to operate and program specific models of light board but with skills which can
carry over to any model.
Role of a Light Board
A light board’s job is to provide a way to control the lighting instruments and other
equipment used in the lighting system. Lighting boards provide varying methods depending
on the complexity and size of the unit for controlling dimmers and advanced lighting units.
All lighting boards except the simplest testing units offer a means to adjust settings of units
without actually affecting what the audience sees and many offer a system to store multiple
snap-shots of scenes which can then be selected when they are needed. This is needed in
anything but the smallest lighting systems due to the difficulty of trying to manually set the
intensity for dozens if not hundreds of individual lights for every scene.
Types of Light Boards
There are three main ways that light boards are used. Many models offer not just one of these
methods, but some combination of two or all three. All lighting boards have a master fader
which allows all of the units to be controlled together as well as a blackout button which
quickly blacks out all of the lights and then can be pressed again to bring them back.
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Two-Scene
Two-scene lighting boards are essentially two separate light boards with a cross-fader to
control which one is being seen. The operator manually sets up the next scene on the inactive
piece of the board and then switches to that scene and repeats the process. This type of board
is usually reserved for lighting systems with no more than twenty four lights and no
advanced lighting units. Most two-scene lighting boards can also be operated in wide mode
which uses both scenes as one to double the number of controllable channels but forces the
board to be operated entirely manually.
Submaster
Submasters allow multiple lighting units to be assigned to a single fader. This can either be
done via a keypad where the operator enters the channel numbers of the lighting units and
then records them to a submaster or via channel faders which are set and then recorded to a
submaster.
Memory Board
Memory boards are the most common in theatrical applications. They are programmed
before the show with every scene used in the show by using either a keypad or channel faders
to configure a scene and then record the scene to a memory. Memories can also be chases
which are multiple scenes which are cycled through at an adjustable rate. During the show
the operator presses a “Go” button to advance through the prerecorded memories. Many
memory boards also have submasters to facilitate convenient programming. They also
frequently have external monitors to allow the programmer to view all of the memories.
This is a common two-scene
light board called the ETC
SmartFade.
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Using DMX
In LT2 you learned how to address a dimmer pack using the starting number. You also
learned that DMX has 512 channels each of which can be any value from 0 to 256 at any
time. When working with a standard lighting fixture connected to a dimmer, this number
represents the intensity of the unit: 0 meaning the light is off and 256 meaning the light is at
full intensity. When working with more advanced lighting units it represents whatever the
manufacturers wants it to represent. Although DMX accommodates 512 channels of data,
some lighting boards cannot control that many lights. Instead, the programmer soft patches
the lights to the boards. This tells the board which board channels correspond to which DMX
channels. Many boards allow multiple units to be patched to a single channel to allow smaller
boards to control larger systems when one does not need individual control over all of the
units.
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Light Board Theory level of training.
You should now ask your instructor any questions you have to reinforce the knowledge you
learned.
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. Fields inside of grey boxes are for your
instructor and should be left blank.
Role of a Light Board
Please describe the role of light boards in your own words. 10pts
The ETC Express is one of the
most popular memory light
ever made and is found in
many school theatres.
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Types of Light Boards
Please name and describe the three types of light boards. 15pts
Using DMX
How many channels does DMX have? 2pts
What is the range of values which each channel can represent? 2pts
Please describe what those values represent. 10pts
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Light Board Operator 1
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
LT3
LBT
Level Contents
Light board operator role in a production
Reading cue sheets
Inter-crew communications
Content
Role of the Light Board Operator in a Production
The job of the light board operator in a modern theatrical production is to handle all lighting
aspects of the show before, during, and after the actual performances. Before a performance
this usually means turning on the equipment, turning the lights on for several minutes to
allow them to warm up, reviewing all equipment to insure proper operation, and performing
any last minute fixes that might be required. During the show, the light board operator
follows along in the script and, when using a simple light board, manually controls the lights
for each scene or, when using a memory board, presses the “Go” button to advance through
the cue stack. They also remain in contact with the stage manager to insure that the show
runs smoothly. After the show, they reset any equipment which requires resetting before the
next performance and power down the lighting system. The light board operator, as is the
case with all members of the crew, should not leave until all members of the audience have
left the venue and they can turn the house lights off on their way out.
Reading Cue Sheets
During the pre-production phase of the show, the light board operator and the light board
programmer (although this can be the same person) work together to create a cue sheet. This
is a sheet which contains every cue the lighting board operator is expected to carry out during
the show. If a memory board is being used, every cue will correspond to a point in the script
and a memory on the board. If a simpler board is being used, every cue will correspond to a
point in the script and a set of levels for all of the channels or submasters on the board. When
P a g e | 57
using simple boards it can become tedious and confusing to write out all of the channels for
each cue so instead they a usually written out as a change. For example, instead of listing all
of the levels for all of the channels, it would just say “Ch15 to 90.” This indicates that all of
the channels will stay at the same level as they were in the previous cue except for channel
fifteen which will change to an intensity of ninety from whatever its previous state was. This
is called tracking and although most memory boards are non-tracking, some use this changes-
since-last-cue to record information. When using a memory board the information for each
cue on a cue sheet is minimal so it is common to just write the cues directly in script that the
light board operator will use. That way, the operator just follows the script as the actors talk
and when they reach a mark in their script they just press “Go”. As one can see, the job of the
light board operator is greatly simplified by the use of a memory board which is the reason
they are used in most theatrical productions.
Inter-crew Communication
As was mentioned earlier in this section, the light board operator’s responsibilities involve
communicating with other members of the crew. They must works closely before the show
with the light board programmer to insure smooth translation of the programmer and
designer’s intentions into the actual performance and during the show they must
communicate with back stage crew via intercom to insure that the lights match the actors. For
example, sometimes an actor gets stalled back stage and is not able to get out on stage to
begin a scene as quickly as usual. Good communications between the light board operator
and the stage manager insures that this is nothing more than a minor delay. Without good
communications, the lights could come up on a stage with nobody who is ready to perform
on it.
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Light Board Operator 1 level of
training. You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get
some hands-on time with some of the equipment discussed in this chapter to reinforce the
knowledge you learned.
Assessment
As is the case with several other more advanced levels of training, the assessment for LBO1
is somewhat different than normal. In the past you have taken a written assessment to gauge
you knowledge and skill retention for the level but as you advance in your training it
becomes impossible to accurately assess your mastery of skills which require practice to
gain. For this assessment, you will start by working with your instructor on the particular
lighting board you are learning on. Throughout this process, it will be your instructor’s job to
judge your mastery of the skills involved with its operation. To complete this certification
P a g e | 58
level, you must show your proficiency in light board operation by running the light board for
at least one scene of a theatrical performance under the supervision of your instructor. Your
instructor will help you find an opportunity to do this or he/she will work with actors to
create one for you. Successful completion of your assigned scene will earn you your
certification.
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Light Board Programmer 1
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
LT3
LBT
LBO1
LD1
Level Contents
Role of light board programmer
Memories
Memory Types
Submasters
Programming Considerations
Content
Due to the fact that light board programmers aren’t used when a venue has a 2 scene board
since these boards cannot be programmed and since memory boards are used in most
facilities, this chapter will only address the issues involved with working with a memory type
lighting board which has submasters.
Role of Light Board Programmer
The role of the light board programmer is to work with the light board operator (the
programmer and operator are frequently the same person), the technician supervisor, and the
lighting designer to choose the optimal way to program each scene to allow for convenience
to the operator, working within the equipment restraints such as light board channel output
counts, and meeting the design requirements for movement as set out by the lighting
designer. In smaller venues this can sometimes call for creative soft patching work-arounds
to deal with limited channel output counts and a general flexibility and perseverance that
many of the other technical roles in a theatrical production do not require. Light board
programmers are responsible for creating their show based on the lighting plots and cue
sheets given to them by the designer and the technician supervisor and they are responsible
for creating the cue sheet the light board operator will use during the actual performances.
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Memories
As you learned in LBT, a memory board contains a cue stack which is comprised of a
sequential list of memories. All memories have a number which is more than the prior
memory and less than the next memory and usually can contain decimals to allow for
memory insertion after the cue stack has been programmed, a fade in and fade out time, a
hold time, and a trigger variable. Many more advanced boards also allow text names for
memories to be entered with an external keyboard. The fade in and fade out times are how
long it takes for all of the values to fade to full or to fade to zero. These are set by the
programmer and are frequently zero. The fade in starts when the memory is triggered and the
fade out time starts when either the next memory is triggered or the hold time is met. The
hold time is how long the memory will stay active. The hold time is usually set to infinite so
the memory is active until the next one is triggered. When a hold time is used, advancing to
the next memory overrides the hold time and ends the cue even if the hold time has not yet
been met. A trigger variable tells the board what activates the memory. Trigger variable
options are usually “Go” which is when the “Go” button is pressed on the previous memory,
“Timed” which is a set amount of time past the end of the hold time of the previous cue (in
most cases the board will not advance if the previous cue’s hold time is set to infinite
however some boards have the timed cues set to start from the beginning of the previous cue
in which case it will override a hold time which is not met), and “External” which allows
some external source such as a foot switch or remote to be used to activate the “Go” button.
This can be useful when a light board operator must also operate other equipment such as a
sound board. It should be noted that most boards to not allow the “Go” button to be used to
advance a memory if the memory is set to “External” or visa-versa however some board let
the two be interchangeable and don’t require cues to be programmed for one-or-the-other.
Memory Types
One crucial element of a memory which was omitted from the section you just read on
memories is the memory contents. The contents of a memory can either be a scene or a
chase. A scene is a single set of DMX values for all of the board’s channels. This is the most
commonly used type of memory. Chases are a set of scenes (called steps in a chase) (usually
between 2 and 99) along with settings pertaining to the chase. Chases are programmed like a
mini cue stack within a memory and include information on playback direction, playback
method, playback speed, and movement. The playback direction setting allow the
programmer to indicate whether a chase will be played from first step to last in a loop, visa-
versa, or back and forth. The playback method allow the programmer to choose whether the
chase will be advanced manually using a special “Go” button for advancing scenes within a
chase, automatically based off of the playback speed control, or at a semi-randomly varying
speed. Some boards also offer an audio input to connect the board to a sound system so that
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chases can be synced to the beat of music being played. Playback speed is set using either a
speed dial or an entered setting. When many chases are being used in a show which all
require different playback speeds, it is necessary to set their individual playback speeds as
part of their chase. When one is using only a few chases in the course of a show it is possible
to manually control their speed using a dial on the board. This requires that the lighting
operator manually adjust the speed for the chase between their playbacks. The movement
setting controls whether the steps of the chase will be moved between sharply, with a fade in
or out, or as a cross-fade between the steps. The speed of fades is dependent on the playback
speed of the chase. Regardless of the type of memory being used, each scene or step is
programmed by configuring the lights as desired using either channel faders or a keypad and
recording the scene to a memory or step.
Submasters
Submasters play two roles in a memory board: Assisting with programming and assisting
with improvisational playback. When working with large and complicated lighting systems,
it can become tedious and confusing to manually set every single light for every single scene
especially since most light are in groups and are never configured out of those groups in a
given show. This is where submasters come in. A scene can be manually set and recorded to
a submaster in the same way as a memory. Submasters can be configured with commonly
used groups of lights for convenient programming. Submasters are also used in simpler
shows, especially when little time is offered for preparation. Submasters can be configured
with commonly used scenes, part of scenes, or even chases. Then the lighting board operator
simply activates the submasters as needed during the show instead of advancing through a
cue stack.
Programming Considerations
This section will be very short. In fact, it includes only one key piece of advice to any
lighting board programmer: Back up your shows. Most lighting boards store their settings
and shows in low-power volatile flash memory. What this means is that even when the board
it off it still draws a small amount of power from the outlet to power its memory. If it is not
plugged in as is often the case with light boards which are not being actively used, it uses a
small watch battery installed in the factory to power the memory. After a couple of years, this
battery can run out of electricity and you will lose all of your hard programming work every
time you unplug the board. For this reason it is vital to back up your shows. All modern
memory boards offer a floppy drive, a USB port, or a memory card slot for back up. You
should use them under all circumstances unless you don’t need the work you’ve done since
your last back up to be there when you come back. Many programmers use an individual
floppy disk/memory card/etc for each show they are working on so they can easily find the
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show the need and have it for reference in the future. You instructor will show you how to
back up shows on the specific board you are being trained on.
Congratulations you have completed the reading for the Light Board Programmer 1 level of
training. You should now ask your instructor any questions you have and insure you get
substantial hands-on time with some of the equipment discussed in this chapter to reinforce
the knowledge you learned.
Assessment
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. Fields inside of grey boxes are for your
instructor and should be left blank.
Role of Light Board Programmer
Please briefly describe the role of the light board programmer in a modern theatrical
production. 4pts
Memories
Please name and describe all of the common settings for a memory. 20pts
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Name one memory setting which is more common on more advanced lighting boards. 2pts
Memory Types
There are two types of memories. One is called a chase. What is the other one? 2pts
What is the difference between the two types of memories? 10pts
Name and describe the four common settings which affect a chase. 16pts
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Submasters
Please name and describe the two uses of submasters. 8pts
Hands on Project
In LBO1 you participated in a hands on project/assessment as the end of the section. For this
assessment, you will start by working with your instructor on the particular lighting board
you are learning on. Throughout this process, it will be your instructor’s job to judge your
mastery of the skills involved with its operation. To complete this certification level, you
must show your proficiency in light board programming by programming the light board for
at least one scene of a theatrical performance under the supervision of your instructor. Your
instructor will help you find an opportunity to do this or he/she will work with actors to
create one for you. You instructor will work with you to insure successful completion of this
project and, assuming you completed the written assessment satisfactorily, this will earn you
your certification.
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Technician Supervisor
Prerequisites
LT1
LT2
LT3
LBT
LBO1
LBP1
LD1
RT
A First Aid/CPR class within the last year. Many technicians who will be supervising larger
rigging and lighting operations choose to pursue the training required to attain a First
Responder certification.
Extensive experience working in the lighting field.
Level Contents
A note on the position of technician supervisor
Responsibilities of a technician supervisor
Safety
Equipment management
Crew management
Technician paperwork
Content
A Note on the Position of Technician Supervisor
The role of the technician supervisor is not an easy one and it should not be assumed that this
level of training should or can be part of many lighting technicians’ progression through
training. The technician supervisor is in charge of a work site when on duty and they have the
final decision on every aspect of what happens there. When it comes to the matters of safety
technician supervisors are faced with on a daily basis, a technician supervisor is expected to
have the final call over anybody else including the director of a show. However, with great
power comes great responsibility since the technician supervisor is responsible for the safety
of all of the people and equipment at a work site. When on duty, the technician supervisor is
expected to supervise not engage with the other workers. As hard as it can be sometimes, it is
the job of the technician supervisor to lay down the law because when they don’t things go
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wrong and in this field when things go wrong people die. The technician supervisor cannot
become distracted. Instead, they must constantly be checking on what every single technician
and bystander is doing and making split second judgments about the safety of everybody’s
actions. Even when they need to answer questions and make decisions they must be able to
continue to monitor their work site. If you have any doubts about your ability to take on this
responsibility stop now. In order to receive your certification you will need to consistently
prove your ability to monitor a worksite under the supervision of your instructor despite
various distractions. The technician supervisor certification is extremely difficult to earn and
will require perseverance and multiple failed certification attempts. Many find that they do
not even enjoy the position once they earn it. However, it needs to be done and, for those
who can step up to the plate, the position of technician supervisor can be incredibly
rewarding.
Responsibilities of a Technician Supervisor
In addition to the observational role of the technician supervisor you just read about, TSs
have many more administrative responsibilities.
Safety
TSs are responsible for carrying around the first aid kit for a work site and handling any
medical emergencies which is why first aid and CPR training is required for certification.
Equipment Management
The TS is responsible for working with the lighting designer to figure out what equipment
will be available for the show. They are also responsible for ordering gels, gobos, bulbs, and
consumables such as gaffers tape as needed and reserving equipment rentals. The TS is also
in charge of maintaining inventory and keeping track of what equipment it being used for
what, what equipment is not operational, and what equipment is being loaned out to or on
loan from another venue.
Crew Management
The TS is in charge of lighting and rigging crew members. TSs must keep track of when
different crew members are working, what each crew member’s specific responsibilities are,
and, if the production has a person in charge of payroll, the TS must report what hours were
worked by each crew member. For the actual show, if the light board operator cannot attend a
specific performance the TS must find a replacement. The TS also is responsible for hiring
all of the lighting and rigging crew in the first place. It should be noted that the lighting
designer is not considered a member of the lighting crew and is not under the supervision of
the TS but rather the production’s director.
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Technician Paperwork
The TS is entrusted with organizing and handling all lighting and rigging related paperwork.
They also work with lighting designers to create the paperwork in the first place.
Although the technician supervisor must work within the scheduling and other constraints set
by the director and the creative directives given by the lighting designer, they report to the
person who hired them. In most cases this is either a production’s producer or a facility’s
technical director or manager.
Safety
Unlike the safety sections throughout the rest of this curriculum, this one will not set out
guidelines and rules to be followed. By this point in your lighting career you know all of the
safety rules and your medical training has prepared you for when they aren’t followed.
Instead, this section will provide you with one simple rule to remember throughout the rest of
your lighting career: Use your judgment. If you receive the technician supervisor certification
it will be because your instructor feels that you have demonstrated good judgment throughout
your work. Since you have good judgment, use it. You know that using your cell phone when
you’re supposed to be watching a 2 ton piece of box truss loaded with moving lights and two
rigging technicians get hoisted 30’ up is not the right thing to do so let it go to voicemail. Use
your judgment and things usually won’t go wrong.
Equipment Management
As is the case with any type of management, you will need to develop your own equipment
management style but this is one that is popular. Create a spreadsheet with all of the pieces of
equipment that you have listed down the left hand side. For each piece of equipment the
sheet should indicate what category it is (e.g. light, dimmer, etc), what make and model it is,
what year it was purchased (you can put a date in the future if it is on order), what condition
it is in (e.g. working, needs new bulb, etc), what location it is in (e.g. first electric, second
catwalk, on loan to xyz theatre, light booth, etc), what its status is (e.g. inactive, used for xyz
show, reserved for xyz show, etc), and any notes that are relevant to that particular unit.
Consumables should be included on these sheets so you know when to order more although
many TSs choose not to include items like gobos and gels instead electing to keep them well
sorted and just check by hand to see what it needed. The lighting designer will provide a
sheet listing the manufacturer numbers and required quantities for all of the gels and gobos
needed for a show which you can just compare to your supply and order needed items.
Crew Management
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You already learned a little bit about crew management from earlier in this reading and
hopefully you have learned some crew management skills by watching your technician
supervisors in the past. One thing which cannot be stressed enough is the need for a balance
in your crew relations between friendship and respect. Everybody wants to be liked, TSs are
no exception, and it is important to be liked by your crew or else they may not listen to you
when it counts. However, it is above all else your job to keep things safe and efficient and
your friendship with, and need to be liked by, your crew cannot get in the way of your job.
Crew management is a slippery slope which will require practice to get down but with
practice, there is no reason why your crew can’t like you and still work under you. Just as a
good teacher can be liked by their students without sacrificing authority, a TS can be liked by
their crew and still be listened to when they need to make a tough call. An important thing to
consider is responsibility. It is imperative that you not micro-manage your crew. A good TS
lets technicians take responsibility for being a technician and make technician decisions and
reserves their authority of TS decisions.
Technician Paperwork
Throughout this curriculum and your work you have had to work with various documents
involved with the lighting process. As a TS it will be your job to keep track of these
documents. By all means make copies and distribute them liberally to relevant members of
the crew, in fact this can be an important part of crew management, but at the end of the day
it is your job to keep track of them and only your job. Organizational styles vary and you will
have to choose what works for you best. Accordion folders and three-ring binders are both
popular organizational tools but you should go to your local office supply store and decide
what is going to work best for you.
Normally the readings for the levels in this curriculum culminate with a statement
congratulating you on your completion of the level but this level will not. This reading is but
a fraction of the process of becoming a technician supervisor. Your instructor will now
supervise you during countless hours of real life technician supervising.
Assessment
When your instructor feels that you have demonstrated a consistent mastery of all of the
skills involved with being a technician supervisor they will grant you your certification. This
may take anywhere from 15-50 hours of hands on work and in some cases may take more.
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Color Mixing
There are two ways to mix colors in lighting:
1. Additive mixing happens when two or more differently-colored lights are aimed at
the same surface.
2. Subtractive mixing happens when a single light source shines through differently-
colored filters. Each filter allows certain colors to pass while blocking or absorbing
other colors.
In additive mixing, primary colors are those three colors which, when aimed at the same
place at the same intensity, theoretically form white light ("theoretically", because in
practice, this is limited by the imperfections of color filters and light sources). These colors
are red, green, and blue.
The secondary colors in additive mixing are those colors which can be created by evenly
mixing two primaries. These colors are:
Cyan (blue and green)
Magenta (blue and red)
Amber (red and green. Really.)
Additive Mixing Subtractive Mixing
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In subtractive mixing, the primary colors are those which can be created by evenly mixing
two secondaries, as shown in the drawing above. In the example on the right, a white light is
altered by inserting a cyan filter, which absorbs the red part of the spectrum and passes (or
"transmits") blue and green light. The resulting cyan light is then passed through a yellow
filter. This filter absorbs blue light, but transmits any red or green that may be present. Since
there is no red (because we've already blocked it with the cyan filter) all that is transmitted is
green.
Subtractive mixing is often found in automated fixtures. The act of inserting a color filter in
front of a light is a very simple form of subtractive mixing.
Complementary colors are those colors directly across from each other on the color wheel:
For example: yellow and blue are complementary to each other, as are green and magenta.
As you can see, the complementary of any primary color is the secondary color formed by
mixing the two remaining primaries.
Complementary colors, when combined additively on a neutral surface, form (in theory)
white light.
Complementary colors, when used adjacently, reinforce each other; each makes the other
appear to be more vibrant.
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Non complementary colors when used adjacently have the potential to be very subtle, usually
in an undesirable way.
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Useful Information
DMX Addressing Chart
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References
METTI would like to thank the following sources for providing the images used in this
curriculum:
Altman Lighting
Theatrecrafts.com
Stagelightingprimer.com
Stagelightingstore.com
Electronic Theater Controls Inc
Elation Lighting
NSI Leviton
Chauvet Lighting
Rosco International
Chris Mearing
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About METTI
METTI seeks to promote technical theatre education in middle and high schools as well as
colleges and universities. METTI provides a comprehensive framework for constructive
technical theatre education as well as a means of assessing and regulating the quality of
training programs. METTI embraces the importance of the technical aspects of theatre as
well as the artistic aspects of technical theatre and understands that working as part of the
tech crew provides a vital outlet for many students' creativity and energy as well as
facilitating their inclusion in the arts.
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Legal
All contents copyright © 2009 by the Modern Education Technical Theatre Initiative
(METTI). All rights reserved. No part of this document or any related files may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher.
The publisher has used its best efforts in preparing this curriculum, and the information
provided herein is provided "as is." Neither METTI nor Matthew Haber (hereto referenced as
The Author) makes any representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this curriculum and specifically disclaims any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose and shall in no event be
liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage, including but not limited to
special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
This curriculum identifies product names and services known to be trademarks, registered
trademarks, or service marks of their respective holders. They are used throughout this book
in an editorial fashion only. In addition, terms suspected of being trademarks, registered
trademarks, or service marks have been appropriately capitalized, although neither METTI
nor The Author can attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this
curriculum should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark, registered
trademark, or service mark. Neither METTI nor The Author is associated with any product or
vendor mentioned in this curriculum at the time of writing however there is no guarantee
written or implied that products or vendors mentioned herein will not become associated with
any or all of this curriculum’s publishers at a future time.
It is the sole responsibility of the instructors and students using this curriculum to objectively
evaluate its instruction and information and decide on a safe and effective course of
procedure in their lighting education and practice. Neither METTI nor The Author shall be
held liable in any event for damage to property or injury to self or others resulting from
misinformation gained through this curriculum.
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This is a publication of METTI Press: Part of the Modern Educational Technical Theatre
Initiative. For more information or to order or download additional copies please visit
www.METTI.org
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