memory memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of...
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Memory
•Memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.•Example – Flashbulb Memory of 9/11
The Memory ProcessThree step process….
1.Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
2.Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3.Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
Atkinson and Shiffin’s 3 Step Model of Memory
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten
Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.
Sensory Memory
• A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information.
• Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory
• Echoic Memory
Short Term Memory
• The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM.
• Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically.
• Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds.
• We recall digits better than letters.
Short Term Memory Activity
Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin (3 Stage) Model
• Working Memory –conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial info. and info from long term memory
• Our memory sketchpad
Connectionism Model of Memory
• Memory from activation of networks of interrelated concepts • the memory is stored in the activation pattern • retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on each of the elements of the
pattern
How We Encode
2 Ways to Encode1. Automatically Processing– Automatic– Parallel
2. Effortful processing – Rehearsal
Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information– Examples: Unintentionally encoding…and later remembering– Time –
– Space –
– Frequency –
– well learned info –
• Parallel Processing – processing of many things simultaneously
Encoding – Effortful Processing
1. Effortful Processing –encoding that requires conscious effort and attention
• Rehearsal – conscious repetition of info to encode it for storage
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
• Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
• Overlearning – additional rehearsal after we learn material increases retention
Effortful Processing• Spacing effect – distributed study is better long-term recall
than massed study (cramming)– DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Testing effect – repeated quizzing or testing improves retention
Encoding Information• Serial Positioning Effect –
we tend to remember the first and last items on a list – Primacy Effect – remember
items at the beginning of a list – Recency Effect –
remembering items at the end of a list (most recent
• Von Rostorff effect – remembering unique items on a list
What We Encode…• Visual Encoding: the
encoding of picture images.
• Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
• Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
Encoding Exercise
Visual Encoding– Imagery – visual images help us remember
concrete words (aided by semantic encoding– Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points,
forgetting the worst–Mnemonic Devices – memory aids that use
visual images and organizational devices• Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
• Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
– Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Encoding Exercise
Acoustic and Semantic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
Sensory Memory• Sperling’s memory experiment–Momentary photographic memory
• Iconic memory – photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second– Example:
• Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo chamber)– Example:
Working/Short-Term Memory
• Duration – Brief (30 sec or less)• Capacity – Limited
• The list of magic sevens
Implicit Memories• Procedural Memories
– without conscious recall– Processed by
cerebellum and other brain areas
• Conditioned Memories – memories from conditioned learning
Explicit Memories• Explicit Memories – memories of
facts and experiences, consciously recalled
Episodic Memories - memories of specific events, situations, and experiences
Semantic Memories – memory of words, meanings, and understandings
Storing MemoriesLong Term-Potentiation• long-lasting enhancement in
signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously.
• Neurons that fire together wire together…creating a memory.
• Memory boosting drugs– CREB – Glutamate – enhances synaptic
communication (LTP)
The Context Matters!!!
• Flashbulb Memories – clear moment of a emotionally significant event
• Mood Congruent Memory – recalling memories consistent with current mood
• State Dependent Memory – learning that takes place in one situation or "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar situation or state
Amnesia• Amnesia – loss of memory– Retrograde Amnesia –
inability to remember past events
– Anterograde Amnesia – inability to create new memories• Loss of Explicit Memory but not
Implicit memories
Retrieval
Recall• you must retrieve the
information from your memory
Recognition• you must identify the
target from possible targets
Retrieval• Relearning – learning material for
the second time, saves time.
• Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access target info for retrieval later
• Priming – unconscious activation of associations in memory
Forgetting• Schacter’s sevens sins of memory– Sins of Forgetting
• Absent-mindedness• Transience• Blocking
– Sins of distortion• Misattribution• Suggestibility• Bias
– Sin of intrusion• persistence
Forgetting
• Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.
• Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.
Retrieval Failure• Repression – (Freud’s
Psychoanalytic Theory)• A defense mechanism that
banishes painful memories from consciousness to minimize anxiety
Constructive Memory• Constructed memory - a
created memory, altered when encoded or retrieved.–Misinformation effect– Imagination effect– Source amnesia
Constructive Memory• Elizabeth Loftus• Misinformation Effect – incorporating
misleading info into a memory
• Imagination Effect – imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories
• Source Amnesia – retaining the memory of an event, but not the source
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement–Sexual abuse happens– Injustice happens–Forgetting happens–Recovered memories are incomplete–Memories before 3 years are unreliable–Hypnotic memories are unreliable–Memories can be emotionally upsetting
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