living monuments: confederate soldiers' homes in the new south

title: LivingMonuments:ConfederateSoldiers'HomesintheNewSouth

author: Rosenburg,R.B.publisher: UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress

isbn10|asin: 0807821098printisbn13: 9780807821091ebookisbn13: 9780807864210

language: English

subject

UnitedStates--History--CivilWar,1861-1865--Veterans,Soldiers'homes--ConfederateStatesofAmerica,Soldiers'homes--SouthernStates--History--19thcentury.

publicationdate: 1993lcc: E545.R651993eb

ddc: 973.7/42

subject:

UnitedStates--History--CivilWar,1861-1865--Veterans,Soldiers'homes--ConfederateStatesofAmerica,Soldiers'homes--SouthernStates--History--19thcentury.

LIVINGMONUMENTSConfederateSoldiers'HomesintheNewSouth

R.B.ROSENBURG

TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPressChapelHillandLondon

ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookIongevityoftheCouncilonLibraryResources.

PortionsofChapter4appearedearlier,insomewhatdifferentform,inR.B.Rosenburg,"TheHousethatGradyBuilt:TheFightfortheConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia,"GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly74(Fall1990):399-432,andarereprintedherewithpermission.

Frontispiece(p.iii):PastandpresentmergeinasceneoutsidethemainbuildingoftheLeeCampHome,Richmond,Virginia,c.1910.(author'scollection)

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Rosenburg,R.B.(RandallBritt),1956-Livingmonuments:Confederatesoldiers'homesintheNewSouth/byR.B.Rosenburg.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBND-8078-2109-8(hard:alk.paper)1.UnitedStatesHistoryCivilWar,1861-1865-Veterans.2.Soldiers'homesConfederateStatesofAmerica.3.Soldiers'homesSouthernStatesHistory19thcentury.I.Title.E545.R651993973.7'42dc20 93-12465

CIP97 96 95 94 93 5 4 3 2 1

ForMax

CONTENTSPreface xi

Acknowledgments xv

CHAPTERONE JohnnyReb:HeroandSymbol 3

CHAPTERTWO SouthernPoorBoys 13

CHAPTERTHREE TheSacredDuty 26

CHAPTERFOUR TheHomeThatGradyBuilt 46

CHAPTERFIVE ADisciplineforHeroes 73

CHAPTERSIX InsidetheWalls 93

CHAPTERSEVEN TwiceaChild 111

CHAPTEREIGHT PatternsofChangeandDecline 132

Epilogue 153

Appendix 155

Notes 175

Bibliography 215

Index 233

Pageix

ILLUSTRATIONSSceneoutsidethemainbuildingoftheLeeCampHome iii

ImageofJohnnyReb 6

ConfederateveteransonthegroundsoftheLeeCampHome

TheNorthCarolinaSoldiers'Home 11

TheArkansasConfederateHome 16

InmatesandstaffoftheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary

TennesseehomeonthegroundsoftheHermitage 24

TheLeeCampHome 29

TheTexasConfederateHomeforMen 31

Louisiana'sCampNicholls 34

WoundedveteransinfrontoftheMississippihome 40

ReceiptformedicalcareforFloridahomeinmate 43

TheConfederatesoldiers'homeasanobjectofsectionalprideandofcommercialismina1928advertisement

AtlantaConstitutiondrawingpublishedinreactiontotherejectionofplansforaGeorgiasoldiers'home

ThecontroversialhomethatGradybuiltforGeorgia'sveterans

ThemainbuildingofthenewhomeforGeorgia'sConfederateveteranserectedinplaceoftheonethatburneddown

PlatoftheLeeCampHome 77

TheadmissionformusedtoscreenapplicantstotheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary

HonorabledischargepaperissuedbytheLeeCampHome

ThemesshalloftheLeeCampHome 97

InmatesGeorgeL.CatheyandG.FBeaversattheNorthCarolinahome

OfficialsandstaffoftheJeffersonM.FalknerSoldiers'Home

InteriorviewofthehospitalchapelatBeauvoir 115

BoyscoutvisitingwithveteransattheMississippihome

SceneinfrontofCampHardeecottageattheAlabamahome

Ex-bodyservantsFrankChildressandNathanBestatBeauvoir

PostcardtoanArkansasConfederateHomeinmate 146

YoungwomenvisitingveteransattheLeeCampHome

Pagexi

PREFACEThecityofAtlantahadwitnessednothingquitelikeitbefore.Itwasoneofthosesensationaleventsthatpeoplewouldrememberandtalkaboutforyearstocome:theworldpremiereofDavidO.Selznick'sGonewiththeWindattheLoew'sGrandonPeachtreeStreet.AmongtheexcitedthrongthatnightinDecember1939wasaquartetofConfederateveterans,allofwhomwereintheirnineties.TheagedwarriorswereinvitedguestsofClarkGable(RhettButler),whohadarrangedforthemtobeseatednearthefrontofthepackedhouse.Theveteranshadawonderfultime.DressedintheirgrayUnitedConfederateVeteransuniforms,theyposedforthenewsreels,spokeoveranationalradionetwork,andweregreetedwithapplauseastheyambleddowntheaisle.Afewminuteslater,MargaretMitchell,thenovelistwhosevividandmovingaccountwasabouttobeenactedonthegiantscreen,pausedtoshakehandswiththembeforecontinuingtoherseat.Mitchell'sactwasmorethanasymbolicgesture.ItwasafittingtributetothesurvivorsoftheoriginalbattleofAtlanta,therealstarsthatevening.

Throughoutthefilm,theoldmenwatchedintently,oftenleaningforwardintheirseatsandcuppingtheirhandsbehindtheirears.Theyclapped,cheered,growled,andjeered,andattimesfeltlikecrying,asothersintheaudienceunashamedlydid.Afterward,J.A.Skelton,ageninety-two,wasaskedbyareporterwhathethoughtofthemovie.Neverbeforehavingseena"movingpicture,"thoughherecalledoncehavingviewedsomelanternslidesbackin1876,Skeltonremarkedthatitwas"thegol-darndestthing"heeverwitnessed.EquallyimpressedwasJamesR.Jones,nearlyninety-five,theeldestoftheveteransandalsothemosttalkative.Jones,"admittedlythe'ladies'man'ofthegroup,"hadvowedjustdaysbeforethepremieretokiss

VivienLeigh,CaroleLombard,ClaudetteColbert,or''anyoftheladies"ifhehadtheopportunity,and,truetohisword,GeneralJoneskissedScarlettO'Harathateveningtwice!Whenaskedwhathemadeofwhathehadjustseen,thecolorfulJones'sreplywasbothmemorableandsuccinct."Thepicture'sfine,"hesaid."Thewarlookedjustlikethat!"

Atthetimeofthepremiere,JonesandhisthreecompanionswerelivingintheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home,whichwasonlyaten-minuteridefromthetheater.Infact,theywereamongthelastofliterallythousandsofConfederateveteranswhohadresidedininstitutionssuchastheGeorgiahome,whichweredesignedspecificallyfortheirneeds.Thestoryofthosehomesiswell

Pagexii

worthtellingandformsthebackgroundforthisbook.Butwhatfollowsisnotsimplyaninstitutionalhistoryperse.Granted,onepurposeofthestudyistotreatcomprehensivelythehomes,examiningwhyandhowtheywereestablishedandhowtheyevolvedovertime.Nevertheless,Ihaveattemptedtofocuslessontheinstitutionalsideofthingsandmoreontheveteransandtheircaretakersthemselves,preferringtoallowthemtodothetalkingandtheacting,andsometimesthepontificatingandthebickering.Moreover,Ihavetriedtoassessthesocietalfunctionsofthehomes,arguingthattheyweremeanttoreflectmuchofwhatthose"ontheoutside"whocreatedandadministeredthemvaluedandappreciated.Inotherswords,anexaminationofthehistoryofConfederatesoldiers'homesoffersinsightsintotheassumptionsandbeliefsheldbypeopleinthepost-CivilWaryearsinregardtosuchsignificantmattersassocialwelfare,honor,aging,racerelations,classresentments,andtheroleofwomentonamejustafew.

Antedatingtheestablishmentofinstitutionstotakecareofdisabledandhomelessex-ConfederateswasthemyththatsouthernsoldiershadbeenheroesfightingfortheLostCause.Itwasthismyththatinspiredconcernedcitizenstoorganizebenevolenceforpoorol'JohnnyReb.Andorganizetheydid.Asthepresentstudyreveals,awell-organizedsoldiers'homemovementemergedlateinthenineteenthcenturyandhadthreedistinctstages.Thefirststage,duringthe1880sand1890s,broughtthefoundingofearlyhomes;thesecond,after1900,sawtheideaofestablishingsoldiers'homesspreadthroughouttheSouth;andthethird,after1920,ledstatestoassumefromprivateboardsresponsibilityforoperationofthehomes.Butasthisstudyalsoreveals,someharshrealitieswereinstoreforthosewhosoughttoembodyamythinaninstitution.Ironically,thesameprinciplesofhonor,valor,andmasculinityfoundinJohnnyRebthatinspiredmanytodotheir"sacredduty"ofestablishing,supervising,

andmaintainingthehomes,compelledothersfromtheoutsettodisapproveofthecharities.Apologistsfacedseriousobstaclesinsellingtheirprojectstothepublicandobtainingstatefunding;inGeorgia,forexample,detractorssucceededforoveradecadeinpreventingthesoldiers'homefromopening.Justastroublesomeweretheday-to-daychallengesposedbyrecalcitrantinmateswhoresistedhavingtoconformtoregiminaldeportmentstandardsandapparentlyresentedbeingtoldbytheirsocial"betters"toacttheirageandliveuptostandardsbefittingtrue,virtuous"heroes."Insomecasesadministratorswereforcedtoreconsidertheirownideasofsocialresponsibilityandstewardship,leadingthemtobemorepatientwiththeirwardsandlessdiligentintheirpaternaloversight.Nevertheless,untiltheirbreakuparound1920,Confederatesoldiers'homescontinuedtofunctioninmuchthesamefashionasoriginallyintended.

Bynomeansshouldthefollowingstudyberegardedasdefinitive.Its

Pagexiii

primaryfocusisonthehomes'combinedsocialandculturalfunctions,fromthetimeoftheirfoundingtoroughly1920.After1920,theinstitutionsevolvedrapidly,andthetextureofhomelifechanged;managementofthehomescamecompletelyunderstatecontrol,andfemalerelativesofveteranswereadmittedwhichisanothertopicentirely.Moreover,foremostattentionhasbeendevotedtohomesintheelevenstatesthatcomprisedtheformerConfederacy,withsecondaryreferencesmadetotheotherfivehomeswhereinstructive.Thisworkisalsonecessarilylimitedbythesourcesavailable.Ithasbeenrelativelyeasytodescribehowthehomefoundersidealizedthecommonprivatesoldier,howtheyviewedhispoverty,aging,anddisability,andhowtheyconspiredtoprotectandreforminmates,basedupontheirownassertions,whichhavebeenpreservedandcollected.Achievinganequalunderstandingofthesoldiers'attitudesandmotivesismoredifficult,however.Ihaveattemptedwheneverpossibletoreconstructhowsoldiers'homeresidentsperceivedthemselves,theirmanagers,theircommunity,andtheirplacesinhistoryandsociety;andapreliminarysocioeconomicprofile,baseduponthequantitativeanalysisofaselectedsampleofinmates,hasbeenprovided.Nevertheless,owingtotheusuallywoodenandstylizednatureofmanyofficialrecordsrelativetothehomesandthegeneraldearthofdocumentsproducedbyinmatesthemselves,theirperspectiveaspresentedheremaybesomewhatdistorted.

TheConfederatesoldiers'homesoftheNewSouthoccupiedasignificantplaceinsouthernhistory.Severalgenerationsofsouthernersknewaboutthemandselflesslygavetheirtime,energies,andgiftstothem.Thegroundsprovidedthesettingforeverythingfromveterans'reunionsandgospelsingingstopoliticalrallies,vaudevilleacts,bandconcerts,andEasteregghunts.Presidents,governors,militaryleaders,moviestars,andotherdignitariesoccasionallyvisitedthehomes;andovertheyears,gleeclubsand

Sundayschoolclasses,curiosityseekersandtemperancelecturers,preachersandelixirsalesmenbeatapersistentpathtotheirdoors.Thehomesservedasobjectsofconcern,devotion,commercialism,sectionalpride,andreconciliation,andsometimesassourcesofheatedcontroversyjustashadtheaged,poor,anddisabledveteranswholivedanddied(andsometimesresentedbeing)there.AsClarkHowell,longtimeeditoroftheAtlantaConstitutionandaviddefenderoftheGeorgiahome,aptlyputit:"Tombstonesandstatuescrumbleanddecay,and,evenwhiletheystand,theirinscriptionsfadefromsight....Butlivingmonumentsareworthmorethanall."Tosouthernersofallages,especiallytoJohnnyReb,thehomeswereindeedworthagreatdeal.

Pagexv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSManypersonshavecontributedtothecompletionofthisbook.Firstarethefollowingscholars,whoreadlargeportionsofthemanuscriptand/orofferedhelpfulsuggestionsandotherwisegavesoundadvice:FredA.Bailey,PaulH.Bergeron,JamesC.Cobb,GainesM.Foster,GaryW.Gallagher,LeRoyP.Graf,DanielE.Sutherland,PeterWallenstein,Wm.BruceWheeler,andCharlesReaganWilson.Eachofthemhasmadethisabetterworkthanitmighthavebeen.Thentherearethemanydirectorsandstaffmembersofrepositoriesandcollectionslistedinthebibliography,whosecourteousandtimelyservicemeritrecognitionhere.Theyexpeditedmyresearchandgenerallymadelifeeasierforme.Theassistanceofseveralpersonsexceededthecallofduty,andIamcompelledtothank,individually,MarkKennedyofVanderbiltUniversityand,collectively,thestaffoftheSpecialCollectionsLibraryattheUniversityofTennessee,

Knoxville.SpecialrecognitionalsogoestoBillRambooftheConfederateMemorialParkinAlabamaandKeithA.HardisonofBeauvoir,theJeffersonDavisMemorialShrine,who,inadditiontoprovidingresearchmaterials,gavemeguidedtoursoftheonlyextantConfederatesoldiers'homes.IalsowishtothankRuthPGraf,whoproofreadmymanuscriptbeforeIsubmittedittotheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,whereitwastransformedintothisfinishedproduct.Atthepress,IamespeciallyappreciativeofLewisBateman,whorecognizedthework'spotential,andRonManer,whosecarefulcopyeditingprovedinvaluable.Finally,IamindebtedtoLynnandtoJonathan,Joel,andJ.Leigh,withoutwhoselong-standingsupportandencouragementnoneofthiswouldhavebeenpossibleorworththeeffort.

LIVINGMONUMENTS

We...sincerelyhopethatthesepoorcripples,therelicsofwarandalostcause,maymeetwiththatcharitywhichneverfaileth.NewOrleansDailyPicayune,June9,1866

Alandwithoutmonumentsisalandwithoutheroes.And,gentlemen,thisisthemonumentthathasbeenraisedtotheConfederatesoldiersofAlabama.JeffersonM.Falkner,ashestooduponthehighestpointoverlookingtheAlabamasoldiers'home,April2,1904

CHAPTERONEJohnnyReb:HeroandSymbolGeneralTennesseeFlintlockSashwasanancientConfederateveteranwhomlocalsocietyveneratedandpraised.OnspecialoccasionsSash,dressedinuniform,wasloanedtoamuseumbyhisgranddaughter,whotookcareofhim,andcarefullyputondisplay,surroundedbyotherrelicsofthewar.Asschoolchildrenpassedby,theywereaffordedarareopportunitytosee(butnottouch)areal,liveConfederateveteranandageneraltoboot!YetneitherwasSashaformergeneralnorwashewearinghisownuniform.Infact,hecouldhardlyrememberanythingaboutthewar,letalonethedetailsofanyengagementthathehadsupposedlywitnessed.Moreover,heinwardlydetestedbeingforcedtorelivehispart.Exceptfortheprettygirlswhooccasionallypaidattentiontohim,Sashcouldnothavecaredlessfortheceremonialactivities.

NotunlikeSashacharacterinastorybyFlanneryO'Connor

1thousandsofConfederateveteransweredressedinuniforms,publiclyexhibited,protectedfromharm,andrequiredtoplayarole.Theywereresidentsofsoldiers'homes,"livingmonuments"totheSouth'smostsacredvirtuesofhonorandchivalry.Atthesehomes,notonlyschoolchildren,butsouthernersofallages,gatheredtocelebrateandhelprelivetheachievementsofthepast.TheConfederatesoldiers'homeservedassimultaneouslyaplaceofrefuge,amuseum,amilitarycamp,anartificialcity,andashrine.

AsmanyassixteendifferentConfederatesoldiers'homeswerefounded,andtheircollectivehistoriesspanmorethanacentury.Thefirsthomeswereestablishedduringthe1880sand1890s,aperiodof

rampantex-Confederateactivity.Inthesetwodecades,atthesametimethatsouthernersorganizedanddedicatedthemselvestounveilmonuments,writeregimentalhistories,decoratecemeteries,preservebattlefields,andparticipateinreunionritualsallinanefforttopreservethememoryofJohnnyRebaviableanddiscerniblesoldiers'home"movement"developed.

Soldiers'homeswerebuiltlongbeforethe1880s.TheHoteldesInvalides,believedtobethefirstinstitutionofitskind,wasconstructedinParisbyLouisXIVin1670,andin1682theChelseamilitaryasylumwasestablishedbyCharlesIIofEngland.IntheUnitedStates,Congressfirstauthorizedanasylumin1811forveteransoftheAmericannavy;fortyyearslaterSenatorJeffersonDavisintroducedlegislationthatresultedinthefoundingoftheU.S.Soldiers'Home,withbranchesinLouisiana,Mississippi,Kentucky,andWashington,D.C.DuringtheCivilWar,theU.S.SanitaryCommissioncreatedtemporarysoldiers'homesorlodges,andintheSouthprivateresidenceswereconvertedintomakeshiftconvalescenthomestomeettheneedsofwoundedmen.Butthese"soldiers'homes"wererelativelysmall-scaleendeavorscomparedtotheinstitutionsestablishedimmediatelyafterthewarandduringthenextseveraldecadesinmorethantwodozennorthernandwesternstatestoaugmentthenewlycreatedNationalHomesforDisabledVolunteerSoldiers.

Soldiers'homeswerenot,then,uniquelysoutherninstitutions.Infact,therearestrikingsimilaritiesinthestoriesbehindthecreationandadministrationofConfederatehomesandoftheirnationalcounterparts.TheGrandArmyoftheRepublic(GAR)andtheWoman'sReliefCorpsservedasprimaryadvocatesofsoldiers'homesforUnionveteransinmuchthesamewaythattheUnitedConfederateVeterans(UCV)andtheUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy(UDC)championedhomesforJohnnyReb.AllbutafewoftheUnionveterans'homesestablishedinasmanyastwenty-eightdifferentstatesfromVermonttoCaliforniawere,likesouthernhomes,foundedduringthe1880sand1890s.Thededicationofaveterans'homeforthe"boysinblue,"asfortheboyswhohadworngray,wasan

importantevent,featuringbandsanduniforms,campfiresandspeeches,drumcorpsandreuniontents.The"typical"statehomefordisabledandpoorUnionveteranswaspartmilitarycamp,partworkhouse,partasylum,andpartfinalrefuge,justasitwasforex-Confederates.Andnationaladministratorsandmanagers,nolessthansouthernones,adoptedapaternalisticattitudetowardtheircharges;attimesworriedthattheywerebeingoverlyrepressiveinmaintainingdiscipline;foughtceaselessbattlesagainstinmates'intemperance,filth,andunchasteness;earnestlysoughttocombatthedebilitatingeffectsofwoundsanddiseaseheightenedbyoldage;andweregenerallyreluctanttoallowwomentobeadmittedtothehomesortoserveongoverningboards.Moreover,basedupontheavailableevidence,UnionveteranswhoresidedinthenationalhomesapparentlyhadmuchincommonwiththeirConfederatecomrades.Theseoldsoldiersfrombothsidesofthewarwerepoorandsemiskilled,andtheyweremostlysinglemenwhoeitherhadnevermarriedorhadrecentlybeenwidowed.Inaddition,theyweretoldbytheirsuperiorstoabidebyrulesandregulations,encouragedtoattendworshipservices,warnedabouttheevilsof

imbibingalcoholicbeverages,and,aboveall,enjoinedtoconductthemselvesasgentlemenorriskreceivingadishonorabledischarge.

Atthesametime,Confederatesoldiers'homesandthoseforUnionveteransweredifferentinatleasttwofundamentalrespects.First,despiteyearningsbyagroupofwell-meaningindividuals,thesouthernhomesneverreceivedmoniesfromUncleSam.Bycontrast,inadditiontoregularlegislativeappropriationsandoccasionalcontributionsfromveterans'groups,eachstatehomethataccommodatedUnionveteransreceivedanannualpercapitasubsidyfromtheNationalHomesforDisabledVolunteerSoldiers,afederalgovernmentagency.Forexample,beginningin1888theWisconsinVeterans'HomenearWaupacareceived$100peryearforeveryveteranadmitted.4By1922totalfederalfundingforveterans'homeshadreached$777,757.AstrongerfinancialbaseinvariablyeasedtheeconomicburdenathomescaringforUnionveteransSouthernhomesalwaysseemedtobestrappedforfundsaffectinginthelongrunboththelevelofserviceandthequalityofcareprovidedthere.Furthermore,inacceptingfederalmoney,homeofficialswererequiredultimatelytoreporttoWashingtonandconformtheiroperationstocertaingovernmentalstandards.Confederateadministratorswereaccountabletotheirindividualstatelegislaturesinsteadofacentralizedbureaucracyresponsibleforcoordinatingveterans'careinallsouthernstatesandthereforegenerallyexercisedgreaterautonomy.

Second,theConfederatehomes,unlikenationalones,excludedveteransofotherwars.Thisdifferencehadimportantconsequences,too.BothConfederateandU.S.soldiers'homespossessedsymbolicaswellaspurelyfunctionalroles.Yet,becausesurvivorsoftheIndian

WarsandtheMexican-AmericanWarand,intime,veteransfromtheSpanish-AmericanWarandWorldWarIwereadmittedtothenationalhomes,theycouldnothelplosingmuchoftheirsymbolicsignificance.NolongerweretheyhomesforveteransoftheUnionarmyexclusively.ButtheConfederatehomesremainedforeverConfederate,eveniftheirmilitarycharacterwasalteredwhenmostoftheveteranshaddiedandwidowsandotherfemalerelativeswereadmittedasamatterofpolicy.WhilethefunctionalsignificanceofhomesforbothConfederateandUnionveteransincreasedovertimeastheirpopulationsagedandrequiredgreatercustodialcareConfederatesoldiers'homescontinuedtoserveavitalsymbolicfunctionforsouthernersofallagesevenasnationalhomeswerelosingtheirsymbolicpowerandappeal.

Upuntilnow,theConfederatesoldiers'homemovement,whichbeganinthe1880s,hasreceivedscantattention.WilliamW.White'sstandardwork,TheConfederateVeteran,devotesonlyfourbriefpagestothetopic.JudithCetina'sambitiousdissertation,"AHistoryofVeterans'HomesintheUnitedStates,1811-1930,"apportionslessthanadozenofnearly500pagestothe

ImagesofJohnnyReb,likethisone,helpedinspiretheestablishmentofhomesfor

wounded,poor,butbrave,ex-Confederates.(author'scollection)

ConfederatehomesofLouisianaandMarylandandtheSouthCarolinainstitutionforneedywomen.OnlythreeconcisesummariesconcerningtheVirginia,NorthCarolina,andOklahomahomeshaveappearedinprint.Therefore,anyattempttotreatseveralhomesatonceandtoplacethemintheirproperhistoricalcontextwillenhanceourcurrentknowledgeandunderstandingofthesehomes.

Althoughnotconcerningthemselveswiththesoldiers'homesperse,

atleasttwoscholarshaveinterpretedthemwithinalargerframework.CharlesWilsonviewstheLostCauseasaconservative"culturalrevitalization"movement,arguingthatLostCauseenthusiasts(particularlyex-Confederateorga-

nizations)fearedthatcertainsouthernvalueswerethreatenedandsoughttosafeguardthosevaluesbypreservingorrelivingthepast.Preservationorrevitalization,accordingtoWilson,tookvariousforms:monumentdedication,archivalwork,holidayandreunionrituals.Therefore,ifWilsoniscorrectinidentifyingtheappealoftheLostCause,Confederatesoldiers'homeswerecreatedasmeansofresistingprogressandpreservingtradition.Inotherwords,theConfederatesoldiers'homewasamanifestationofthestruggletoreconcile"progressandtradition."

6Morerecently,GainesFosterhasinterpretedthe"celebration"oftraditionalsouthernvaluesbypredominantlymiddle-classConfederateveterans'groupsinthelate1880sandearly1890sasadirectreactiontovarioussocialandpoliticalupheavalsandtensionsthatgrippedtheSouthfollowingthewar.Theritualsofthiscelebration,hepointsout,aboveallpraisedthecommonsoldierbybuildingmonumentsorwritinghistories,byawardingpensionsorestablishingveterans'homes-asameansofreformingsocietyandpromotingsocialunity.7

Anin-depthinvestigationofConfederatesoldiers'homesnecessitatestestingtheseprevailinginterpretations.Asthisstudyreveals,thesouthernsoldiers'homemovementcannotbeisolatedfromotherattemptsbythepublictomemorializeJohnnyReb,andreactionaryLostCausezealots(orevensouthernersingeneral)werenottheonlyoneswhotookpartinthemovement.Althoughtheyfoundedsoldiers'homesoftheirown,Unionveteransactivelyparticipatedintheestablishmentofsimilarsoutherninstitutions.Also,attheforefrontofthemovementweresouthernerslikeHenryGrady,JohnR.Gordon,Lawrence"Sul"Ross,FrancisP.Fleming,andJulianShakespeareCarr,menwhochampionednationalaswellassectionalvalues.Thus,

Confederatesoldiers'homescannotbeviewedsolelyasanotherritualforpreservingaspecialsouthernidentitybutmustbeseenalsoasavehicleforachievingsectionalreconciliation.

AsGainesFosterhassuggested,theConfederatesoldiers'homemovementwas,indeed,aclass-specificreformmovement.Predominantlymiddle-classmembersofsocietyeagerlyrespondedtotheneedsofindigentbut"worthy"veteransbyfoundinginstitutionsandadministeringthem;anditwasthissamegroupofpeoplewhoconsistentlyviewedtheirchargesasobjectsofbenevolentpaternalismrequiringcomfortandcare,aswellasmoralguidanceanddiscipline.CampNicholls,thesecondsoldiers'homeofLouisiana,8forexample,wasmadepossiblethroughthecombinedeffortsoftwostrongveterans'societiesheadquarteredinNewOrleans.Bornduringaperiodofintensepoliticalstrife,thefirstoftheseorganizations,theAssociationoftheArmyofNorthernVirginia(AANV),wascharteredin1874,aboutthesametimethatmorethanadozendifferentmilitiacompaniesunitedtoopposetheRadicalRepublicanadministrationofGovernorWilliamP.Kellogg.The

WhiteLeagueattractedtoitsranksmenwithmilitarybackgrounds,manyofwhomwereformerConfederatesoldiers.InSeptember1874theyhandilydefeatedstatetroopscommandedby,amongothers,GeneralJamesLongstreet,inwhatcametobeknownasthebattleofLibertyPlace,andforciblyremovedKelloggfromoffice.Thesecondorganization,theAssociationoftheArmyofTennessee(AAT),alsohadtieswiththeWhiteLeague.SomemenalreadybelongingtotheprestigiousWashingtonArtilleryjoinedtheAATwhenitwasformedin1877.ThreeyearsearliertheunithadfoughtalongsideothermilitiagroupsduringthebattleofLibertyPlace.

Inspiteofthepoliticalactivismofsomemembers,boththeAANVandtheAAT,likemostfraternalordersoftheperiod,functionedprimarilyasbenefitsocieties,preferringtoidentifythemselvesas''benevolent"andincorporatingthewordaspartoftheirofficialnames.Benevolencetooktwoforms,oneformembersandanotherfornonmembers.Eachassociationaimedtoprovideitsdues-payingmembersandtheirdependentswithassistanceduringpersonalandunavoidablecrises:suddenunemployment,poverty,and"extremecasesofwantandsickness."Whenamember"ingoodstanding"died,forexample,hecouldcountonhiscomradestogivehimaproperanddecentburialinthegrouptombtheveteranshadpaidforanderected.10Likeotherfraternalorganizations,theAANVandAATinrealityoperatedasexclusivesocialclubsratherthanasfraternitiesopentoallex-Confederates.Morethantwo-thirds(67.9percent)ofAATmembershadproprietaryorprofessionaloccupations.Influentialmenattorneys,physicians,clergymen,merchants,andelectedofficialsalsodominatedAANVmembershiprolls.Eachgroupestablishedandoriginallyenforcedstringentmembershipguidelines:theassociationwasopenedtoanyoneof"goodmoralcharacter"who

hadservedhonorably,subjecttoatwo-thirdsvoteofthemembership.Thebylawsdraftedbyeachorganizationpermittedhonorarymembershipsforlocaldignitaries,particularlyleadersofotherveterans'organizations.YetthesamerulesbarredsurvivorsofdifferentConfederatearmiesfromjoining.Asforneedyveteransnotbelongingtoaparticularsocietyorthosemenentitledtomembershipbyvirtueoftheirmilitaryrecordbutunabletoaffordtopaymonthlyduestheyhadtolookelsewhereforcomradeshipandassistance.11

Nonmembers,butcomradesnonetheless,receivedsecondpriorityinthebenevolentactivitiesoftheAATandAANV.InresponsetotheyellowfeverepidemicthatdevastatedNewOrleansin1878,eachassociationcreatedandmaintainedformanyyearsveterans'benefitsandreliefcommitteesthatsupervisedthedistributionoffundsandotherdonateditemsofclothing,food,andmedicineto"worthy"recipients.Inthedepressioneraofthemid-1890sseveralprominentmembersoftheAANVfoundedajobagencyinordertoassistable-bodiedcomrades(andtheirspousesandchildren)infindingwork.

HeadedbyJamesY.Gilmore,ajournalist,andHamiltonDudleyColeman,alocalplantationmachinerymanufactureranddealer,theConfederateVeterans'EmploymentBureauofNewOrleanspublishedandcirculatedasmallpamphletcontainingthenames,addresses,andoccupationsofscoresof"exemplaryandlaw-abiding"applicants.

12Thetwoveterans'groupssometimescoordinatedreliefactivitiesaswell.Inoneinstanceofsuchadualeffort,in1880theyconvincedstatelegislatorstoenactabillprovidingeitherartificiallimbsorcashpaymentsforcrippledex-Confederates.Bothsocietiescontinuedtolobbysuccessfullyforsimilarlegislationthroughoutthedecade.Beginningin1884,forexample,owinglargelytotheeffortsoftheAATandAANV,thestategrantedaquartersectionoflandtodisabledandindigentConfederateveteransandwidows.Anothercombinedprojectayearearlierhadresultedintheestablishmentofasoldiers'homeinNewOrleans.13

Amongthefirstveterans'organizationstoestablishahomeforthe"invalidandinfirm"wereotherex-ConfederateswhocomprisedtheRobertE.LeeCampNo.1inRichmond,Virginia.Formedin1883,thegroupwasprimarilydedicatedto"minister[ing]...tothewantsof"disabledcomradeslanguishinginpoorhousesthroughouttheSouth.Itsroughlyfortychartermembers,consistinglargelyofskilledcraftsmenandclericalworkers,electedCaptainCharlesU.Williams,anattorney,astheirfirstcommanderandchoseotherformerConfederateofficersincivilianlifeapublisher,adruggist,andadentistastheirexecutivecommittee.Subsequently,Richmond'smayor,WilliamC.Carrington,succeededWilliamsascommander;hewasfollowedbyGeneralsJohnR.Cookeand,in1885,FitzhughLee(whowouldbecomeVirginia'snextgovernor).14Withinafewyearsthecamp'smembershiprollsboastedthenamesofmanymoreprominent

andrespectedindividuals,menlikeformerConfederategeneralPeytonWise,atobaccoinspector;MajorLewisGinter,thecity'slargesttobaccomanufacturer;andJamesB.Pace,abankpresident.Bythe1890sRichmond'smiddleclassclearlydominatedtheveterans'group,whichnumberedabout700members;morethantwo-thirdspursuedprofessionaloccupations.Asmembershipnumbersandoverallsocioeconomicstatusrose,thecampexpandeditsscope,or,inthewordsofmemberHenryR.Pollard,"ennobleditsobjects,"whenitformedahistoricalcommitteetocollectandpublicizethe"gallantdeedsandpuremotivesandhighcharacterofSouthernsoldiers.''15

LiketheLeeCamp,theAAT,andtheAANV,Nashville'sBenjaminFCheathamBivouacNo.1drewitsconstituencylargelyfromtheuppersocioeconomicranks.NamedinhonorofarecentlydeceasedpopularConfederategeneral,atitszeniththisgroupwouldfunctionastheparentsocietyformorethan3,000veteransresidingthroughouttheSouth.Itsstrictbylawslimitedmembershiptomenwhohadfought"honorably,"hadmaintainedan

Confederateveterans,liketheseonthegroundsoftheLeeCampHomeinthelate

1930s,weredressedinuniforms,publiclyexhibited,andrequiredtoplayarole.(courtesyofVirginiaStateLibrary)

"unimpeachable"warrecord,andhadremainedcitizens"ofgoodstanding"sincewar'send.Fullytwo-thirdsofitsmembersheldprofessionalpositionsconsideredcompatiblewiththeemergingNewSouth;onlyaboutone-fourthwerefarmers.Asurprisinglylargenumberwerenotnativesons,butsurnamessuchasCockrill,Overton,andPorterfieldtestifiedtothepresenceoftheoldNashvilleelite.Attorneys,physicians,andbusinessmendominatedthisgroupofNashville'sleadingmen.

16Somememberswereinveteratejoiners,andtheirbehaviorprovedtobecontagious.Forexample,thebivouac'sfirstpresident,GeorgeB.Guild,alsoservedasvice-presidentofthestateveterans'associationand(withhiswife)wasacontributingmemberoftheConfederateMonumentalAssociation.Thelatterorganizationwasatonetimepresidedoverbyanotherbivouacmember,MarcusA.Spurrof

CommerceNationalBank,whosewife(alongwiththewivesandwidowsofotherveterans)wasnumberedamongitsmembers.AttorneyJohnP.Hickmanheldtheelectedofficeofsecretaryinfiveorganizationsconcernedwiththewell-beingofConfederateveteransorthecommemorationoftheConfederatepast;hiswifejoinedthenationwidemonumentalassociationandworkedtirelesslywiththeUDC,

TheConfederatesoldiers'homewaspartmilitarycampandpartartificialcity,asthisviewoftheNorthCarolinaSoldiers'HomeinRaleigh,c.1910,suggests.

(courtesyofWilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,NorthCarolina)

whiletheiroffspringactivelyparticipatedinthecity'stwoSonsofConfederateVeteranschapters.

TheCheathamBivouacresembledtheNewOrleansorganizationsmorethantheLeeCampinthatitadvocatedfromtheoutsetahistoricalandarchivalmission.Accordingtoitsofficialcharter,memberscommittedthemselvestohonoringtheirlatecomradeswhohaddiedinserviceorsincethewarbywritingabouttheirheroicdeedsandcollectingandpreserving"allmaterialofvalue"forlaterhistorians.Atleasttwoofthebivouac'smembersutilizedthiscollectedmaterial:chartermemberWilliamJ.McMurray,aone-armedphysician,formerKlanorganizer,andfuturepresidentofthestatehealthboard,wrotearespectableaccountofhisoldinfantryunit,theTwentiethTennessee,andPresidentGuildwroteahistoryoftheFourthTennesseeCavalry,aregimentformerlycommandedbyhisbrother-in-law,ColonelBaxterSmith.AtonemonthlymeetingtheCheathamBivouacunanimouslyadoptedaresolutionpresentedbyitshistorycommitteechairman,NashvilleBannereditorGideonH.Baskettecondemningastatetextbook,JohnJ.Anderson'sHistoryof

theUnitedStates,as"mischievousintoneandsentiment,untruthfulinstatementandtendingtoperpetuatetheresentmentofthecivilwar."Atanothermeetingoftheorganization,severalprominentmembersproposedestablishingaTennesseesoldiers'home.

Thus,manyoftheleadingmenofsuchNewSouthcitiesasNewOrleans,Richmond,andNashvillewerethepeoplewhostartedConfederatesoldiers'

homes,formedtheirgoverningboards,andbecameofficersoftheinstitutions.Theyweremotivatednotonlybyasenseofcomradeshipandhumanitarianismbutalsobywhattheythemselvesdefinedastheir"sacredduty."Fortotakecareoftheirlessfortunatebrethrenwhohadfoughtinagloriouscausewasnotjustamatterofregionalprideforsoutherners;itwasamatterofhonor.

InaspeechattheopeningoftheLeeCampHomeinRichmondin1885,ArcherAndersonpraisedthe"suprememanliness"ofthe"devoted"Confederatesoldier,whobyvirtueofself-disciplinehadattained"moralperfection."Notallsoldiers,headmitted,hadreachedthisideal,but"theystrovetoattainit.''AsaresultmanyveteranswhohadfoughtunderRobertE.LeeandJosephE.Johnstonhadbecome"useful,loyalandzealouscitizens"sincethewar.

18AfewdaysafterabilltoestablishTennessee'ssoldiers'homewasintroducedinthestatelegislaturein1889,theNashvilleBannerprintedanaddressdeliveredtotheCheathamBivouacbythepaper'seditor,GideonBaskette.Hisspeech,asmuchrhetoricalasitwasautobiographical,focusedontheConfederateprivatesoldier,"whoboresolargeashareofhardship"duringthewar.Basketterecountedhowhehadseenwithhisowneyescomradeswhowerepoorlyarmed,barefoot,andhatless,withclothingthatmadethem"oftenthemoreraggedthananybeggar."DespiteJohnnyReb'ssometimes"picturesque,grotesque,unique,"appearance,Basketterecalled,hewasthe"modelcitizensoldier,themilitaryheroofthenineteenthcentury!"Confederateveteransare"themenwhomadethegrandestfightthattheworldhaseverseen,"exclaimedformergovernorE.W.RectorofArkansasatameetingtodiscusserectingahomeinhisstate."Thewholeworldwastheirenemiestheyfoughttheuniverse!"Surelymenofsuchcalibermeritedspecialcareandattention.19

"Theseoldsoldierscannotbewith[us]muchlonger,"wroteGeneralJosephWheelerin1902,somefouryearsbeforehisowndeath."Theyarerapidlynearingthesunsetoftheirlives,andthepresentgenerationmustbesavedtheremorsewhichinafteryearstheywillfeel,if,lookingback,theyseethatduringtheshorttimethesebraveheroeswerewiththem,theywereallowedtospendtheirlastdaysinwantandsuffering."20ItwasthisimageoftheConfederatesoldier,ifnotofanyspecificgroupofindividuals,thatsoldiers'homeadvocateswantedtoprotect,preserve,and(assomewouldcharge)exploit.ThemythofJohnnyRebwaspersistentlyconjuredup,nurtured,andpromotedasameansofadvancingahostofcauses,includingthebuildingofConfederatesoldiers'homes.21Tothepredominantlymiddle-classmenandwomenwhosoughttoperpetuatehismemory,JohnnyRebservedasalivingrelictheverysortrepresentedbyTennesseeFlintlockSashfromamythicpasttobepreservedandenshrined.

CHAPTERTWOSouthernPoorBoysAftervisitinganoldacquaintanceinChimborazoHospitalNo.4inRichmond,Virginia,onAugust23,1864,ColonelWilliamWardhastilyscribbledinhisdiary,"Poorfellow,hewillneverbewell."WardaptlysummarizedthemilitarycareerofHenryJ.Dawson,aprivateintheSeventhTennesseeInfantry,whospentfullyhalfofthewarincapacitatedbyahostofailmentsdysentery,bronchitis,chronicrheumatism,somethingdiagnosedas"catarrah&debility"unableeventowalkorattimestofeedhimself.Hisweightplummetingtoonlyninetypounds,DawsonwasmercifullygrantedamedicaldischargeinJanuary1865atPetersburg,wherehelingereduntilafterLee'ssurrender.

1Inthelatespringof1865,Dawson,likethousandsofotherformerRebelsoldiers,finallyreturnedhome.Intendingtogetbacktotheroutinesoflifeinterruptedbywar,manywouldhavelittletimeleft,forlessthanhalfsurviveduntil1890.2Miraculously,Dawson,thoughonlybarely,hadbeatentheoddsandpersevered.InJanuary1894,hissixty-secondyear,nolongerabletosupporthimselfbypaintinghouses,hisconstitutioncompletely"brokendown,"illiterate,nevermarried,andlivingwith''poorrelations,"DawsonhadnootherchoicebuttoapplyforaConfederatepension.Hewasnotabletosubsistonthepension,however,sothefollowingyearheenteredtheTennesseeConfederateSoldiers'Home,wherehebreathedhislastin1906.3

Dawson'spostwarcareertypifiesthatofmanyindigent,homeless,anddissatisfiedex-Confederateswhoeventuallyappliedtoreliefagenciesforhelp.Theyweremenwhoduringtheprimeoftheirliveshad

bravelyshoulderedamusketandmarchedofftodrivetheYankeeinvadersfromtheirlands.Perhapsthemoststartlingcharacteristicofthesemenwastheirrelativeyouth.Amongthefirstbeneficiariesofthehomesforex-Confederatesweremenwhohadbeenborninthelate1830sormid-1840s,whohadtakenuparmsindefenseofthesoutherncauseintheirlateteensormid-twenties,andwho

foundthemselvesoutofworkandimpoverishedintheirfortiesorearlyfifties(seetheAppendix,Table6andFigure1)

TobepooratmiddleagewasdeeplydisturbingtomanyConfederateveteransnotonlybecauseitlefttheminmaterialneedbutalsobecauseitwasthoughttoraiseseriousquestionsabouttheirmanlinessandmorals.Accordingtotheprevailingassumptionsoftheperiod,amanshouldaccumulatewealthwithage;thus,tobecomedependentuponotherswastoadmitfailure."ThethoughtofhavingtogotothePaupersHomeisahoror&adreadtomanyofusoldvets,"anex-Confederatestated,"tobegweareashamed;toexceptthecharityoffriendsincasewehavethem,ishumiliating."Toacceptcharitywaspracticallyunthinkable,for,asaConfederateMemorialDayspeakerinAlabamaputitin1902,honoris"dearerto[theex-Confederate]thanthelaurelwreaththatcrownsthevictor'sbrow."GovernorFrancisP.FlemingofFlorida,aveteranofsuchbloodycampaignsasSevenPines,Gaines'sMill,Sharpsburg,andGettysburg,whosurrenderedwithJosephE.Johnston'sforcesinMay1865,viewedpensionsasan"evil"that"tendstolower''aConfederateveteran"fromthathighstandardofhonorabledistinction."Forthesereasons,charitycarriedwithitanastystigmathatrepelledmanyproudveterans.5

ButthesadrealitywasthatanestimatedoneofeveryfiveConfederatesoldierswaswoundedduringthewar.Soldiers'homeswereplacesforwoundedmenandbrokenlives.IntheTexasandLouisianainstitutions,forexample,fullyoneoutoffiveresidentswascountedamongthe"warwounded."IntheNorthCarolina,Georgia,andTennesseehomes,theratioswereconsiderablyhigher,aboutoneoutofthree(seetheAppendix,Table7).6

Thosewhochosetoacknowledgetheirpovertywerequicktoattributetheirembarrassingfinancialcircumstancestoaservice-relateddisabilityofsomekind."Amanwithonearmcannotbeexpectedtomakeasmuchasonewithtwo,"explainedJohnB.GlynnofFranklin,Louisiana,whosetotalearningsasacarpenterin1885amountedtoonly$245.HundredsofothermenwhoappealedformedicalandmonetaryassistancefromvariousNewOrleansfraternalgroupsinthe1870sand1880sclaimedthatthewoundstheyhadreceivedinthecourseofthefightinghadnotyethealed.Ineachcase,thelossofalimb,blindness,ortheinabilitytostanduprightwithoutflinchinghadseriouslycurtailedaveteran'spostwareconomicactivity.7

Thesamewastruewhereverex-Confederatesresided.DespiteadisablingwoundreceivedatChickamauga,J.E.Roebuck"workedandmanagedtosupport[him]selfhonorablyandverycomfortably"until1906,whenhebecameillandwithoutmeansand"asalastresort"appliedforadmissiontotheMississippihome.ExcruciatingpainplaguedNathanJ.LewisofAlabama,whoserightleghadbeenshatteredatPetersburgsometwentyyearsearlier.By1893WilliamJ.McNairyofAberdeen,Mississippi,stillhadnotfullyrecuper-

atedfromthewoundhehadreceivedatGettysburg,norhadhebeenabletoholddownadecentjob.AsaprivateintheSixthVirginiaCavalry,SamuelCorbetthadbeenwoundedfivedifferenttimesandtakenprisonertwice.Hishealthimpairedandhispropertylostbecauseofthewar,hebecamea"wanderer,"driftingaimlesslyfromVirginiatoMarylandtoTexasandfinallybackeasttoNorthCarolina.S.J.Spindle,formerlyofHarpersFerry,spentnearlytwentyyearsinMexicobeforeshowingupinAustin,Texas,penniless,unemployed,andagonizedbyanoldwarwound.AmongthefirsttoentertheAlabamahomewasoneThomasBrownofMobile,aseventy-one-year-oldIrishmanandveteranoftheSeventeenthAlabamaInfantry.Likemanyveterans,Brownhadbeenunabletorecoverfromtheravagesofwar.Poor,unmarried,andwithoutlivingrelatives,hedecidedthatthestateveterans'institutionwastheplaceforhim.

Thewarhadadverselyaffectedthelivesofveteransinlessvisiblewaysaswell.Beforethefightingbegan,JamesB.Halehadbeena"gentleman,"amemberofoneofthemostprominentfamiliesofEastTennessee.Whenhereturnedhome,hediscoveredthathehadlosteverything:hisslaveshadbeenfreed,hisfieldstrampled,andhisbuildingsplundered.Andwithinafewyearsallofhisimmediatefamilymembersdied.R.A.Toonreturnedafterthesurrender"withoutacenttoliveon."Uponfindinghishomeburnedandhislivestockslaughtered,Toon,likethousandsofotherdispossessedex-Confederates,migratedtothecitytorebuildhisfortunes,butheneversucceeded.Hiswifeforcedhimoutofthehouseandsuedfordivorce.HughL.Fry,onhisjourneyhomeafterthewar,wasarrestedinKnoxvilleonachargeoftreason;hesworeanoathofallegiance,postedbail,andthenhidoutinthemountainsofGeorgiaforthreeyearstoescapefurtherprosecution.Fryneverrecoveredfinancially.

NeitherdidJohnM.Karr,whosefather'sundertakingbusinessinFranklin,Tennessee,hadbeencompletelydestroyedwhentheretreatingFederalssetthetownablazein1864.9

Otherveteranscouldpointtocertainpostwareventsasthesourceoftheirpoorhealthandabysmaldeprivation.AfterayellowfeverepidemicstruckNewOrleansin1878,scoresofneedyveteransandtheirfamiliesappealedformonetaryassistanceinordertotofillprescriptions,purchasegroceries,payrent,ordischargedebtstoundertakersandothercreditors.NapoleonSaucierandGeorgeBodenlosttheirwivesandchildrentotheepidemic.TheyoungestofCharlesE.Caylat'sdaughtersdied.Tooinfirmtoreporttowork,Caylatlosthisjob.Forthenextsixyearsheremainedoutofwork,subsistingonthescantycontributionsofhismorefortunatecomrades.10Otherveterans,likeJamesT.Holt,werevictimsoffinancialpanics.LosingthousandsofdollarswhentheNationalBankofPetersburgfailedin1878,Holtspentfourmonthsinjailowingtobankruptcyandneverrecoupedhislosses.WilliamO..Reeseof

StandinginfrontoftheArkansasConfederateHomenearLittleRock,c.1908,aresomeofthedeserving

butdown-on-their-luckveteransthehomewasestablishedtocarefor.(author'scollection)

Trenton,Georgia,sawallofhispostwarsavings,earnedasaprisonguardandconvictleasewarden,vanishinthepanicof1893.Afewyearslater,helostallofhispropertyinbankruptcycourtaswell.

11InMarch1902ThomasW.BoothofMontgomeryhadamostunfortunateaccident.Whileworkingasacarpenteruponahightrestleofastreetcarline,helosthisbalanceandfelltotheground,adistanceoftwentyfeet.Bothofhisfeetwerecrushed,andhe

sufferedmultiplebreaksinbothlegsthesamelimbsthroughwhichaminiéballhadpassedatSevenPinesnearlyfortyyearsearlierrenderinghimparalyzedbelowthewaist.Livinginadaywhentherewasnosuchthingasworkers'compensation,Boothhadnomeanstosupporthimselfandhisfamily.

Duringeconomicallydepressedtimessomeagingveteransexperiencedevenmorehardships,andcountlessnumbersofdisplacedmengravitatedtothecity.JohnM.DeSaussurewenttoNewOrleansin1893,afterhisformeremployerhadreplacedhimwithaboyworkingathalfwages.WilliamE.Todd

trekkedfromNewOrleanstoBirminghamandfinallytoWashington,D.C.,insearchof"honest"workbutsucceededinobtainingonlylow-payingtemporarypositions.H.C.Belcher,afterbeingforcedtoretirefromhisjobasateacherinMonroeCounty,Tennessee,relocatedinNashville,wheretheonlyworkhecouldfindwasasastreetpeddler.

13Otherex-soldierscomplainedofwhattheyregardedasblatantlydiscriminatoryacts.Sixty-four-yearoldW.T.VaughnofLouisville,Kentucky,wasdischargedfromhisbridgebuildingjobonaccountofhisgrayhairs.R.B.Clements'sbossinformedhimhecouldnolongerkeephisjobasajanitorinaRichmondarmorybecausehehadonlyonearm."Trulyitseemstomethatthetimehascomewhen'NoMaimedConfederateNeedApply,'"observedCharlesMoore,Jr.,ofAlexandria,Louisiana.Forsometimeafterthewar,Moorehaddoneremarkablywellforhimselfandhisfamilyoffive,despitehavinghadhislegamputatedatGettysburg.Butin1878Moorelosthisclerkingjob.ForthenextfewyearsheappliedforpositionsalloverRapidesParish,onlytobetoldoverandoveragainthatthesituationhadbeenawardedtosome"Planter'sSonorRelative."EventuallyMooreappearedinNewOrleanswithonlyfourdollarsinhispocket,hishealthcompletelybroken,andhisfamilyevictedfromtheirhome.14

Postwarlifeforotherveteransresidinginruralareashadbeenjustasunrewarding.Incontrasttothemorerecentmisfortuneexperiencedbysomeplanters,theirswasmerelyonelinkinanunbrokenchainofdisappointmentanddeprivation.AlthoughmorethanhalfofallConfederatesoldiershadgiventheiroccupationas"farmer"uponenlistment,manyhadactuallyownednorealestate.Infact,anumberhadheldnorealorpersonalpropertyatall.Therankandfileofthesouthernarmyhadconsistedlargelyof"wool-hatboys,""crackers,""hayseeds,""strawfoots,''and"clay-eaters":whateverderisive

sobriquetswereappliedtothemortheyusedtorefertothemselves,theywerelandless,impoverishedcommonfolkwhosefamilieshadforyearsekedoutahardscrabbleexistence.15Thewarhaddonelittletoimprovetheireconomiccondition.Downwardmobilitywasmorecharacteristicoftheirexperiencethanupwardmovement,andintheyearsfollowingthewarmanycontinuedtoownnoland,subsistinginsteadassharecroppers,tenantfarmers,ormeniallaborers.Plaguedbydeclininghealthandplummetingcropprices,marginalfarmersmovedofftheirlands,whichoftenhadbeentoopoortocultivatesuccessfullyanyway.Itwasfromthisratherlargepoolofdisplacedcommonpeoplethatthesoldiers'homeswoulddrawamajorityoftheirresidents.Morethanone-half(58.6percent)ofallex-Confederateswhoresidedintheseinstitutionshadbeeneitheryeomanfarmers,agriculturalworkers,orotherunskilledlaborers;onlyarelativelysmallfraction(16.4percent)formerlyheldprofessionalorclericalpositions(seetheAppendix,Table8).

Exactlywhowerethesesoutherncommonpeoplewhowoundupinsoldiers'homes,andhowdidthewarcreatethepreconditionsfortheirapplicationforpoorrelief?AnanalysisofaselectedgroupofveteranswhoultimatelyresidedintheTennesseeSoldiers'Home(seetheAppendix,especiallythetablescitedinthefollowingparagraphs)providessomeanswers.Itreveals,forexample,thatattheoutsetofthewarmorethanone-fifth(23.8percent)ofthe143veteransandtheirfamilieshadowned,onaverage,estatesworthonly$376.Thatfigurefellfarbelowthemean($3,978)reportedlyheldbyallsouthernadultwhitemalesin1860.

16Inaddition,asomewhatlargerproportion(27.9percent)hadownednopropertyatall.Thestarklyunevendistributionofwealthisattestedbythefactthat30.6percentofthosesampledcontrolled94percentofthe1860totalfamilywealth;veteransinthepoorerhalfofthesampleownedslightlymorethan1percent(seetheAppendix,Table9).17

TreatingtheConfederatemilitaryrankoftheinmatessampledasaproxyfortheirantebellumsocioeconomicstatus,onecanconfirmhistorianFredBailey'sfindingsthatahighproportion(85.6percent)ofmenfrompoorTennesseefamiliesservedasprivates,whilemenfromelitefamiliesdominatedarmyleadershippositions.Baileybroadlydefines"poor"asthosehavinginsignificantornopropertyand"elite"asthosepossessingprewarassetsgreaterthan$5,000.18Ofthosewhoserankcouldbepositivelydetermined,menwhoseprewarwealthfellinthelowertwocategoriesofthesample(zeroand$1,000orless)servedpredominantlyasprivatesintheConfederatearmy.Ontheotherhand,menfromfamilieswhoseantebellumestateswereconsiderablymorevaluabletendedtoholdhighermilitaryranks.Infact,Bailey'sfiguresfortheservicerankof188menof"elite"standingandthefiguresresultingfromtheanalysisofthesoldiers'

homesamplewhichisamuchsmallersamplethanBailey'sarenearlyidentical(seetheAppendix,Table10).19

ThegeneraleconomicdisparitythatmarkedtheprewarconditionofsoldiersintheTennesseehomesamplepersistedfiveyearsafterthewar.Fourofthefivegroupsthathadownedpropertyin1860weresomewhatpoorerin1870,undoubtedlyreflectingtheirlossofslavesandotherpersonalassets,aswellasdepreciatedrealestatevalues.Nevertheless,therichestveteransandtheirfamiliesin1870controlledapredominantshare(82.9percent)ofthewealth,whilethoseintheotherthreewealthcategoriesheldontotheremainingfraction.Ofthosesampled,40percentownednothingin1870,eclipsingthepercentage(27.9)ofthepreviousdecade(seetheAppendix,Table11).

AlthoughtheforegoingresultsoftheanalysisoftheTennesseehomesamplecannotbeconsideredstatisticallyreliablebecauseoftherestricted

InmatesandstaffoftheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmaryaredisplayedalongwithotherrelicsofthewar

inthisgroupportraitfromthe1920s.(courtesyofSouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Columbia)

samplesize,togethertheysuggestthatmanyofthosewhowouldonedayoccupythewardsofConfederatesoldiers'homeshadbeenpoorattheoutsetofthewarandthatthesesamemen'sfortuneshadnotimprovedtenyearslater.Asoneex-soldierremarked,theseveteranswere"pennilessbeforethefightandaresoyet;buttheyfoughtforus."

Whathappenedtotheseveteransintheensuingdecades?Unfortunately,

familywealthcannotbetracedbeyond1870sincesubsequentmanuscriptcensusesexcludeindividualeconomicdata.Availabletaxlists,deedbooks,andotheralternatesourceswouldprobablyconfirmwhatisalreadyknown;byallaccounts,theyearsfrom1870to1890werecharacterizedbyincreasingimpoverishmentanddependency.Thefinancialconditionsofmostsouthernwhitefarmfamiliesdeterioratedsteadily.Thesefamiliesincreasinglyfailedtoraiseadequatefoodstuffsformarket,becameheavilyindebted,andlosttheirland.Indeed,itseemsinconceivablethatthematerialwell-beingofmenwhohadalwayslivedonthemargin,withabareminimumofland,education,and

worldlygoods,wouldsignificantlyimproveduringaperiodofgeneraleconomictribulation.

21TheTennesseeveterans'economicandphysicalconditionsimmediatelypriortoenrollinginthehomesupportthisconclusion.Ofthe143menwhosecaseswereexamined,nearly20percenthadbeenconfinedinpoorhouses,whileanother20percenthadbeenoutofworkforatleastfiveyears.Ninetypercentofthesemenhadbeenonthedole,andfullytwo-thirdsreportedhavinghadnofamilytosupportthem.Estimatedincomeamongthosewhohadbeenemployedrangedfrom$1.00adayto$5.00plusboardamonth.Lowbodyweightandpoorhealthatthetimeofenrollmentwerefurtherindicesofthedebilitatingconsequencesoftheseveterans'poverty.22

Afewveteransinthesample,however,didappeartoovercomeadversityandattainsomemeasureofsuccessafter1870.WhenJohnYoung,whohadspentmostofthewarinaUnionprisoncamp,returnedhometoNashville,theex-Confederatehadtorelychieflyuponhisownresourcesforeconomicadvancement,ashisfatherhaddiedyearsearlier.ForawhileYoungworkedasafarmlaborerpickingcotton,andheeventuallyputawayenoughmoneytopayformedicaltraining.In1878hemovedtoTexas,wherehepracticedmedicineforthenextthirty-eightyears.WilliamWade,adaylaborerinantebellumMemphiswhowaswoundedatShiloh,securedapositionasbookkeeperforaMinnesota-basedrailroadby1880andcontinuedtoworkforthesamecompanyuntilheretiredatageseventyin1910.AndrewJ.DentonofMauryCountyandClementNanceofBedfordCountywerepropertylessagriculturalworkerswhentheyjoinedtheConfederatearmy,butby1880thetwoTennesseanshadpurchasedtheirownmodestfarms.Alloftheseveterans,withtheexceptionofWade,ultimatelyfoundrefugeintheTennesseehomeforindigentex-

Confederates.Youngwasadmittedin1916,havingobtainedatransferfromtheTexashome.Hisbodywaswrackedbyrheumatism,andatageseventy-twohewasawidowerwithnochildren.NanceandDenton,bothintheirseventiesandbachelors,wereadmittedin1905and1909,respectively.Reportedly,familyproblemsmorethananythingelseledtoWade'sapplicationtothehomeinMay1911.Accordingtoonesympatheticobserver,theveteranhad"veryfoolishly"marriedawomansomefortyyearshisjunior,whowas"indolent&selfindulgent"andconstantlyupbraidedhim.Althoughhisapplicationwasapproved,Wade,acting"veryplucky,"refusedtoenterthehomeinNashville,protestingthathewouldratherstayputand"takecareofhimself."Hedid,however,acceptthewinterclothingtenderedhimbytheMinneapolischapteroftheUDC,whicharrangedaproperburialandceremonyforWadeuponhisdeathinFebruary1912.23

ForthemajorityofTennesseeveteranssampled,theyearsfrom1860to1870playedapivotalroleinfosteringthepreconditionsforhomeadmission.Three-fourths(75.8percent)ofthosewhoresidedinorappliedforadmission

totheTennesseesoldiers'institutionduringitsfirstdecadeofoperationhadownedpropertyvaluedat$1,000orlessattheoutsetofthewar.Fifty-twoyear-oldAndrewJ.Bonner,thefirstinmateadmitted,inFebruary1890,hadbeenalandlessdaylaborerinBedfordCountysomethreedecadesearlier.In1870Bonner,thenafarmerandschoolteacherresidingnearShelbyville,possessed$300inpersonalpropertybutstillownednorealestate.Apparently,veteranswhohadformerlyheldsubstantiallymorewealthmanagedtoavoidtheinstitutionlonger.Therichestandoldestveteraninthesample,ninetyyear-oldWilliamH.Maney,whosefather'sprewarWilliamsonCountyestatewasvaluedinexcessof$85,000,wasadmittedin1909,sometwentyyearsafterBonner.Menwhogainedadmittancetothehomeafter1901hadbeen,ontheaverage,aboutthreetimesmoreaffluentthanthemenwhoprecededtheminenteringthehome(seetheAppendix,Table12).

Thewaryearswerecrucialinotherrespectstoo.Earlyadmittancemayalsohavedependedonwhetherandhowbadlyasoldierhadbeenwounded.Thewiryconstitutionsofsomeveteransallowedthemtoremainactiveandselfsupportingformanyyearsdespitetheirphysicalinfirmities.Forexample,SamuelRoe,agunsmithfromTiptonCounty,hadbeenwoundedfourseparatetimesduringthewar,buthedidnotapplyforadmittancetotheTennesseehomeuntil1910whenhewaseighty-twoyearsold.25Nevertheless,oftheforty-eightTennesseeveteransinthesamplewhoclaimedtheysufferedfromawarwound,58.3percentwereadmittedtothehomebefore1901.Slightlymorethanthree-fourths(77.5percent)ofallknownConfederatesoldiers'homeresidentswhoclaimedaservice-relateddisabilityhadbeenadmittedduringthefirstdecadeoftheirrespectivehomes'operation.Inallprobabilitymanyofthesesamemennever

married;nearlyone-third(31.8percent)ofallinmatesremainedsingle,andabouthalfofthemappliedforadmissionbeforetheturnofthecentury(seetheAppendix,Table13).Thereisalsosomeevidencetosupportthecontentionthatasignificantnumberofthosewhodidmarryafterthewar,regardlessofwhethertheywereadmittedbeforeorafter1901,mayhavebeensterileandconsequentlyproducednolinealdescendantstocareforthemastheygrewolderormorefeeble.Whethertheyhadneverbeenmarriedorwererecentlywidowed,someveteransalsomayhavesufferedfromseveresocialandpsychologicalproblemsthatsignificantlyreducedtheirabilitytoadapttoastressinducinginstitutionalenvironment,therebyincreasingtheirvulnerabilityandheighteningmortalityrates.26

Someveterans,assonsofplanters,hadaccesstoenoughwealth,education,andfamilysupporttoaidthemintheirpostwarrecoveryanddeferinstitutionalizationuntilrelativelylaterintheirlives.Forexample,WilliamNevinsofRutherfordCountyrelieduponhisfather'swealthandfamilyconnectionstotakecareofhimformanyyearsafterlosinghislegatMurfreesboroin1863.

TennesseelawmakerssetasidepartofAndrewJackson'sHermitageestateforconstructionofahomeforthestate'sindigentandhomelessConfederate

veterans,someofwhomposebeforethehomeinthisphotographtakenlateinthe1890s.

(courtesyoftheHermitage-HomeofAndrewJackson)

Whenthewarclosed,ThomasStokleyVinsonworkedasanoverseeronhisfather'sriceandsugarplantationsnearCenterville,Louisiana,forseveralyearsbeforehereturnedtohisbirthplaceofGallatin,Tennessee,wheretownspeoplewhostillrememberedhisgrandfatherandfatherelectedhimtovariouspublicoffices.HenryClayNolen'sfatherhadbeensheriffofHaywoodCounty.Afterthewarended,youngNolenreturnedhome,gotmarried,hadsevenchildren,andservedasmayorofBrownsvilleforanumberofyears.GreenberryDobbins,aformermemberoftheNinthTennesseeCavalry,borrowedmoneyfromhisfatherand"wentwest."Eventually,eventheseveteransfrommoreaffluentbackgroundsappliedforadmissiontotheTennesseehome.In1911Nevins,atageseventy-one,withonlyhisunmarriedsisterresidingwithhim,wasfinallyforcedtoentertheTennesseeinstitution.Vinson,atagesixty-five,andNolen,atage

seventy-six,enteredthehomein1908and1918,respectively.AfterDobbinsreturnedtoTennessee,hefellonhardtimes.In1913hiswifedied,andhehadsufferedastrokenotlongbefore

herdeath.WithhisestatetotallyexhaustedandhisnearestkinresidinginUtah,Dobbins,atageseventy-seven,finallyappliedforadmissionin1918.Atleastsomeveteranswhohadbegunlifewithrelativeadvantagescouldpointtopersonalfailingsasthesourceoftheirpostwareconomicdownfall.AfterhisreleasefromtheprisonerofwarcampatJohnson'sIsland,Ohio,JosephB.Scobeyreturnedtomanagehisfamily'sWilsonCountyplantation.Nevermarried,hesquanderedmuchofhisinheritanceonracehorses.EdwinWhitmore,whohadbeenoneofGeneralNathanBedfordForrest'smen,ascionofaformerlyprominentFayetteCountyfamily,lostthebulkofwhathadbeenbequeathedtohimbytaking"toomuchliquoroccasionally."

Whateverthereasonsfortheircondition,veteransnotonlyinTennesseebutacrosstheSoutharousedattentionintheearly1880s.Bythattimethedisabledandindigentex-Confederatehadbecomeavisibleproblem.Inurbanareasheappearedonthescenejobless,half-starved,weary,ragged,excessivelydirty,andsorrowful.Hesatwithshoulderssagginginavacantdoorway,desperatelywaitingforsomeonetopassbyandofferhimajob,ameal,orsomesparechangeandperhapsanotherdrink.Orhehuddlednexttoameagerfireinavacantlotbytherailyard,reflectingonpainfulmemories.Orhelaydyingofconsumptionamidthefoulconditionsofthecityalmshouse.Anunidentifiedpoetdescribedhimandhisplight:

Abattle-scarredoldveteranOnewhohadwornthegray,

AndfoughtbeneaththeSouthernflagWithgloryashispay;

Nowbentwithageandwornbytime,Standswaitingatthedoor,

AndaskstheStateforshelter

He'shomeless,oldandpoor.28

WherevertheSouth'spoorboyswerefound,theirsufferingprickedtheconscienceoftheirfellowcitizensandmovedthemtoaction.

CHAPTERTHREETheSacredDutyOn11April9,1884,thenineteenthanniversaryofthesurrenderatAppomattox,anenthusiasticaudience,comprisedmostlyofveterans,assembledtohearaseriesofspeakersdiscusstheestablishmentofahomeforneedyex-Confederates.PerhapsthemostunusualaspectofthemeetingwasthatittookplaceneitherinRichmond,theproposedsiteoftheinstitution,norforthatmatterinanyothercityoftheSouth,butinNewYorkCity.

1Thelarge,flag-drapedhalloftheCooperUnionInstituteresoundedwithcheersandheartyapplausethatevening,asseveralluminariesheldforthfromthespeaker'spodium.Amongthem,ironically,wastheso-calledHeroofAppomattoxhimself,arecentlyretiredGeorgiasenator,GeneralJohnB.Gordon,whochairedacommitteeofConfederateandUnionveteranspromotingtheRichmondhome.2Gordonspokeatgreatlengthaboutasouthernhome"movement"thathadcommencedwiththedeterminationofmenofopposingarmiestobecomecomrades.ThegeneralwasreferringtotheBlue-Grayreunionsoftheprevioustwosummers,duringwhichUnionveteransvisitingNewOrleansandRichmondhadtoldofnationalhomesgenerouslysubsidizedbya"gratefulgovernment"andhadvolunteeredtocontributetosimilarprojectsintheSouth."Thismovement,"Gordonpredictedconfidently,"willdomoretocementareunitedcountrythanallpoliticalharanguesandplatforms."3

EchoingGordon'sconciliatorykeynotewasleglessCorporalJamesTanner,Brooklyn'staxcollector,thefutureGARcommanderinchiefandU.S.commissionerofpensions,aswellas"movingspirit"behind

theestablishmentoftheNewYorkSoldiers'HomeatBath.Tannerdeclaredthatitwasthe"sacredduty"oftheGARto"dosomethingforthepoorsoldiersoftheSouth."Humandecencyandthe"commondoctrinesofChristianity"demandingit,"letusreachoutthehandofsympathy,''Tannerconcluded,"nowthatweareonecountry,oneflagandonedestinyfromMainetotheGulf!"4MorethanhalfadozenotherpreparedspeechesbyOhiocarpetbaggerJudgeAlbionW.Tour-

gee,forexample,andbyformerUniongeneralWagerSwayneandbrevetbrigadierJamesR.O'Beirne,thelatteracongressionalmedalofhonorrecipient-filledthehallthatnight.Allofthespeechesexpressedthethemeofreunion,asdidthered,white,andbluebuntingwiththegildedinscriptionBLUEANDGRAYthatstretchedbehindthespeakers'platform.ReunionwaslikewisethethemeofamedallionspeciallydesignedforthemeetingthatfeaturedJohnnyRebandBillyYankshakinghands,amedallionproudlywornbymanyintheaudience.

TheCooperUnionInstitutemeetingwasbutoneofseveralremarkablefund-raisingextravaganzasplannedandcoordinatedbyGordon'scommitteeonbehalfoftheRichmondhome.ThefollowingmonthTannerandtheGARsponsoreda"TestimonialandEntertainment"attheAcademyofMusicinBrooklyn.ThemeetingfeaturedanopeningaddressbyformerabolitionistHenryWardBeecherandastirring"lecture"byanAndersonvilleprisonerofwar.Throughouttheeveningmusiciansplayedsuchcrowdpleasersas"TheStar-SpangledBanner,""Dixie,"and"MarchingthroughGeorgia'';theaudienceespeciallycheered"AKnotofBlueandGray,"superblyrenderedbyaRichmondtenor.Whenitallended,nearly$2,000hadbeenraised,muchmorethantheamountdonatedduringaspecialperformanceofRichardIIIattheMetropolitanOperaHousethepreviousweek.6Beforelong,Gordon'seffortsonbehalfofthesouthernsoldiers'homeatRichmondhadcapturedthenation'sattention.PresidentGroverClevelandendorsedtheproject.FormerpresidentandgeneralU.S.Grantgavehis"heartyapproval"intheformofa$500check.WilliamW.Corcoran,aninfluentialWashingtonbanker,donatedtentimesthatamount,andtheAppletonpublishingfamilypresentedacomparablegift.DozensofUnion

veterans'organizationsscatteredfromSingSing,NewYork,toButte,Montana,contributed.AtheatricaltroupeinSt.LouisandanothercompanytouringtheSouthsetasideone-halfoftheirproceedsfromspecialperformancesforthehome.ColoradanC.A.Spencer,aformerofficerintheEleventhVermontInfantry,whosaidheconsideredRobertE.Lee"theGreatestGeneralofmoderntimes,"donatedhisentire$1,200annualpension,claimingthathevoiced"thefeelingsofnine-tenthsofall"hisoldcomradeswhenheassertedhehad"nobetterandtruerfriends"thanthe"oldSoldiersoftheConfederacy."Formonths,similarpromisesofbothmoralsupportandfinancialcontributionspouredintotheR.E.LeeCampNo.1headquarters,temporarilylocatedatMonticelloHall,onBroadStreetindowntownRichmond.7

Withasuccessfulfund-raisingdrivebehindit,theLeeCampmovedrapidlytoestablishthehome.FitzhughLee,asexpected,acceptedthecamp'snominationtoheadtheboardoftrustees(soonrenamedboardofvisitors),whichbyNovember1884hadpurchasedfor$14,000athirty-six-acrefarmandhome-

steadformerlybelongingtoChanningRobinsonlocatedontheoutskirtsofnorthwestRichmond.EventuallycottagesbearingthenamesofprominentbenefactorsCorcoran,Pace,AppletonandGinterwereconstructedadjacenttotheRobinsonHouse.OnFebruary22,1885,Washington'sbirthday,theLeeCampSoldiers'Home(itsofficialname)openedwithaprocessionthatcommencedatMonticelloHallateleveno'clock.Activecampmembersingrayuniformsmarchedtothesite,wheretheyheardArcherAndersonsonofConfederategeneralandTredegarironworksownerJosephReidAndersonandtreasureroftheTredegarworksaswellasafellowmemberoftheLeeCamppresentthededicatoryaddress.

8Andersonpaidhomagetothosewhohadfulfilledtheir"sacredandsolemnduty"bycontributingtothe"piousandbeneficentwork":fellowveterans;southernwomen,withtheir"magicfingers"and''witchingwill";andespeciallyGrant,"TheGreatCaptain,"who,afterhaving"wagedfierceandrelentlesswar,stretchedoutafriendlyhandandbadeushopeandprosper."Hethenturnedhisattentiontothehome'sfuturebeneficiaries,or"recipients"ashepreferredtocallthem,privatesoldiersof"honorablerecord"whohadsincebecomedisabled,poor,and"unfittoearntheirownlivelihood."Theynowlackedfood,clothing,andshelter.Andersonrhetoricallyasked:"Shallweletthesemenstarve,whilewewritebookstoemblazontheirheroicdeeds,anderectstatuestotheirleaders?"Itwouldbeashameformorefortunatefellowsoldiersnottocometotherescue.AndersonconcludedbyemphasizingthattheLeeCampSoldiers'Homewasnotonlyabuildingbutalsoa"monumenttoare-unitedcountry,"thesamethemethatGordonandtheotherCooperUnionInstitutespeakershadstressedsometenmonthsearlier.9

Tospeakofa"movement,"asGeneralGordonhaddone,impliesa

coherentprocesswithabeginningandanend.YetatthetimewhenGordonspokenooneaccuratelycouldhavepredictedthatthemovementthathaditsoriginsintheseconddecadefollowingtheendoftheCivilWarwouldfinallyendmorethaneightyyearslaterwhenthelastConfederatesoldiers'homeformallycloseditsdoors.Norcouldithavebeenproperlystatedthatthemovementwaslimitedtoonestate,anymorethanitcouldhavebeentruthfullyassertedthatGordonandtheVirginiansweretheinitiatorsofthemovement,sinceex-Confederatesinasmanyassixteendifferentstatesultimatelygotinvolvedandactedlargelyindependentlyofeachother.Infact,theinaugurationoftheso-calledConfederatesoldiers'homemovementthatGordonsoproudlyheraldedin1884didnotbegininVirginia,orinanyoftheformerConfederatestatesforthatmatter,butinsteadcommencedsomethreeyearsearlierintheborderstateofKentucky.Admittedly,nothingmuchbecameoftheConfederateSoldiers'HomeandWidows'andOrphans'AsylumatGeorgetown,Kentucky,thoughitsfounder,CaptainJamesE.Cantrill,oneofJohnHuntMorgan'smen

Fromtheperspectiveofthoseonthe"outside,"Confederatesoldiers'homeswereidyllicandsereneplaces,astheLeeCampHomeappearstobeinthis

photographfromthe1890s.(courtesyofVirginiaStateLibrary)

andaformerlieutenantgovernor,predictedduringthesummerof1881thatthehomewould"standasanenduringmonument"forthereliefofthe"crippledandindigentConfederate."Afteronlyafewyearsinoperation,withmorethan$5,000remainingtobepaidonthebuildingsandgroundsand$8,000stillowedbysubscribers,thehomesuspendedoperationsindefinitelyinNovember1883.

Perhapsthemainprerequisitefortheestablishmentofasoldiers'homewastheexistenceofastatewideConfederateveterans'organizationtosupplytheinitialresources,manpower,andpoliticalcloutneededforsuchanendeavor.Surelyonecontributingfactorforthefailureoftheshort-livedKentuckyinstitutionhadbeenthelackofaneffectiveorganizationliketheLeeCampofRichmond.TwodecadespassedbeforeaConfederatesoldiers'homewasrefoundedinKentuckyin1901,whenmembersofthestateUCVadoptedareportproposingtheinstitution'sestablishment.InMarchofthefollowing

year,thelegislaturepassedanactincorporatingtheKentuckyConfederateHomeandappropriating$10,000fortheendeavor,tobeaddedtothemorethan$17,000previouslyraisedthroughprivatesubscriptions.Inaddition,A.W.Gordon,aveteran,donatedVillaRidgeInnanditsforty-acreplatatPeweeValley,aboutsixteenmilesoutsideLouisville,foruseasahome.But"itisnocharitableinstitution,"proclaimedthespeakeratthehome'sdedicationceremoniesonOctober23,1902,asacrowdestimatedat10,000lookedonand

cheered,amidthestrainsof"Dixie,""MyOldKentuckyHome,"andothersouthernairs.Not"sincetheCivilWar,"reportedtheCourierJournal,"hastherebeenagatheringofoldConfederatesoldiers,oftheirfamiliesandfriendsinKentuckyfilledwithmoreenthusiasmfortheSouthandallthingsSouthern."

InLouisianathereweretwostrongveterans'organizations,theAATandtheAANV,eachcapableoforganizingbenevolenceforasoldiers'home.Infact,itwasduringameetingoftheAATinNewOrleansonJune13,1882,thatWalterH.Rogers,astateappellatejudgewhoseobituaristcreditedhimwithhavingplayedaprominentroleintheWhiteLeagueRevoltof1874proposedthattheveteranspetitionthelegislatureagain,astheyhadbefore,fortheestablishmentofahome.TheAATandAANVhadjustspent,collectively,$35,000onatombfortheirownmembers,buttheywereunabletoallocateenoughfundstomeetthemorepressingdemandofcaringfortheirlivingcomrades.Astate-supportedreliefprogramoffered,intheveterans'view,atwofoldpanacea.Theirimpoverishedcomradeswouldbecaredfor,whileatthesametimetheveterans'organizationswouldbesparedthebruntofthefinancialburden.WhentheAATpresident,JosephA.Charlaron,puttheproposaltoavote,theforty-fiveAATmembersinattendanceseveralofwhomheldstateSenateandHouseseatsvoicedtheirapproval.CharlaronthenappointedJudgeRogerstochairajointcommitteeofAATandAANVmemberschargedwithdraftingtheappropriatelegislation.12

TheamendmenttoActNo.103(themeasurethathadcreatedtheoriginal,abortivesoldiers'homeofLouisianain1866)mandatedamodestappropriationof$5,000overatwo-yearperiod.Some"sticklers,"asCharlaronlaterreferredtothem,consideredthe

enablingact,HouseBillNo.309,unconstitutional.MostnotableinthiscampwasSenatorWilliamW.Leake,ofWestFelicianaParish.Regardedbyhispeersasa"devotedandgallantConfederatesoldier,"LeakearguedagainsttheamendmentbecausehebelieveditviolatedArticle51oftheLouisianaConstitutionof1875,which,accordingtohisinterpretation,prohibitedthestatefromfundingprivatecharities.TherightfulresponsibilityforthewelfareofLouisiana's"infirm,disabledpaupers,"hepointedout,belongedtotheparishes.Hadthebillbeenwordeddifferently,soastoforcetheparishesratherthanthestatetoappropriatethemoney,Leakedeclared,hemighthavebeenpersuadedtosupportit.13

WereLeake'sargumentsonlyaruse?Didhisrealobjectionactuallylieinhisunspokenconvictionthattruemenareresponsiblefortheirownlivesandshouldneverlooktoothersforassistance?Giventheoverwhelminglynegativeattitudeofmanyveteransandthepublicatlargetowardinstitutionalrelief,oppositiontothehomeisunderstandable.14Infact,Charlaronremarkedinahistoricalaccountwrittenin1901thatthetrusteesofLouisiana'sfirstsoldiers'

TheTexasConfederateHomeforMen,shownhere,stoodatopaneminenceoverlookingtheColoradoRiverinAustinthatisnowoccupiedbymarried

studenthousingfortheUniversityofTexas.(courtesyofAustinHistoryCenter,AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Texas)

homehad"founditnotriflingtask"toovercomeamongveteranstheirown"disinclination"towardthehome;thenewboard,headded,encounteredtheidentical"prejudice."Asoneveteranrevealed,hefeltacertain"humiliation"inapplyingforadmissiontoahome,becauseoneinvariably"losescaste''whenenteringsuchaninstitution.Forsimilarreasonsmanyex-Confederatesrenouncedpensions.Apparentlynothingarousedanex-Confederate'sindignationmorethanaperceivedassaultonhismanhood,regardlessofthesource.WhenGilmoreandColemanpublishedtheirlistofunemployedNewOrleansveteransin1895,theycarefullyemphasizedthatthemenlistedthe"worthyclassofcitizens"whodesiredan"opportunitytowork,"notcharity.Astatesupportedhomeorindoorreliefofanykindviolatedtheprincipleofmanlyself-sufficiency.WhenAATandAANVmembersreadamistakenreportthatLeake,indebatingthebill'slegality,hadpubliclycalledthem"paupers,"eachassociationpassedresolutionscondemninghis"unjustifiedlanguage."

Thebill'sproponentsemployedpotentoratoryinordertocountersuchattacks.Theyspokeofthestate'slong-standingobligationtoprovide"compensation"anda"dignifiedretirement"tothe"brave,worthymen"one

senatoractuallydubbedthem"livingmonuments"whotookuparmsinthestate'sdefense.Times-DemocrateditorJohnAugustin,aformerCrescentCityWhiteLeaguer,currentlyAATexecutivecommitteechairman,wrotethatthehomewouldprovideaplacewherethe"maimed,crippledanddestitutesurvivorsofsomanygloriousbattlefields"couldfind''restandpeacefortheiroldage."FuturegovernorMurphyJ.Fosterechoedtheeditor'sremarks,statingthatLouisianiansowedthe"helplessanddependentchampionsofourrightsandliberties"notonlyadebtofgratitudebutalsoa"fullshareofvenerationandlove."AnAANVofficerconceivedofthehomeasa"restingplace"for"deserving"ex-Confederates.

16Eachofthespokesmenemphasizedthattheproposedhomewouldbethepaymentdueforservicesrendered,notanoutrightgift.Thisimportantdistinctionservedasthecruxoftheirargumentsandarationalefortheirenterprise.ThesensitiveissueapparentlydoggedtheLouisianahomefounderslongafterthelegislaturehadpassedthebillandGovernorSamuelD.McEnery,aveteran,hadeagerlyapprovedthemeasureonJune30,1882.Nearlythirtyyearslater,inareporttotheAANV,JulianS.Levy,amemberoftheboardofdirectors,concludedthatitdishonorednomantoresideinthehome,for"thatinstitution[was]nocharity,butamonumenterectedbythestateofLouisianaforthebenefitofherbravedefenders."17

ThecontestinLouisianawouldnotbethelastoccasionforpeopletoobjecttoastate-supportedConfederatesoldiers'home.InTexas,forexample,theestablishmentofahomewasnotgreetedwithuniversalacceptance.TheTexasinstitutionhadadirectlinkwiththeRichmondendeavor:inNovember1884,afterprocuringacopyoftheLeeCamp'sconstitutionandbylaws,MajorJosephH.Stewart,aMaryland-bornbankerandattorney,summonedanumberoffellow

veteranstohisofficeintheoldstatecapitolbuildingtoformtheJohnBellHoodCamp.OriginalmembersincludedtwoformerTexasgovernors(SenatorRichardCokeandStateTreasurerFrancisR.Lubbock)andafuturegovernor(Congressman-electJosephD.Sayers)aswellasseveralstateofficials,TravisCountybusinessmen,andahandfulofex-Confederategenerals,oneofwhom(R.LindsayWalker)thegroupelectedasitsfirstcommander.18DuringthenextyearandahalftheHoodCampconcentrateditseffortsonfund-raising.ByJuly1886theveteranshadpurchasedaseven-roomhouseandmorethanfifteenacresatopahighknolloverlookingtheColoradoRiverinAustin.ThehomeadmitteditsfirstinmatesinNovember1886.FourmonthslatertheHoodCamphelddedicatoryceremoniesfortheTexasConfederateHomeforMen.19

TheattempttoobtainpublicfundingfortheTexashomeofficiallycommencedinMarch1887,aboutaweekaftertheinstitutionhadbeenformallydedicated,whenSenatorJohnH.HarrisonofWacointroducedabillthatset

asideproceedsfromstatelandsalesasan"endowment"fortheinstitution.BythistimeConfederateveteranspracticallycontrolledthestategovernment,occupying60of131HouseandSenateseats,aswellasthegovernor'sofficeandallofthepostsinthecabinet.AlthoughreferredtotheCommitteeonPublicLands,whichinturnrecommendeditspassage,Harrison'senablinglegislationsawnofurtheraction.Apparentlymanylegislatorsdoubtedthebill'slegality,ashadlawmakerssomesixyearsearlierwhentheynarrowlydefeateda$2.5millionappropriationforartificiallimbsforex-Confederates.AustinattorneyFredCarleton,afoundingmemberoftheHoodCamp,joinedbyothersympathizers,hadvotedagainstthemeasure,becausehebelieveditviolatedtheTexasConstitution,onearticleofwhichstrictlyprohibitedthestatefromallocatingpublicmoniestoany"individual,associationofindividuals,municipalorothercorporationswhatsoever,"exceptincasesinvolving"publiccalamity.''

20Thearticledidnot,however,restrictformsofassistanceotherthantheexpenditureoffunds.Thus,in1881theTexaslegislaturehadbeenabletograntlandcertificatesof1,280acresforeverypermanentlydisabledandindigentConfederateveteranandwidowresidinginthestate,althoughtheacthadtoberepealedin1883,afterthepublicdomainwasdeclared"exhausted."21

Stymied,theHoodCampeventuallyfiguredouthowtocircumventtheconstitutionalbarrier.UnderaplandevelopedbyAttorneyGeneralJamesS.HoggandapprovedbyGovernorLawrence"Sul"Ross,thegroupobtainedinMarch1889aten-yearleaseoftheoldcapitolbuilding,at$5.00perannum.Thisarrangementenabledtheveterans'organizationtorentofficespacetovariousprivateindividualsand,therefore,deriveapermanentrevenueforthehome.22Butmuchmorefundingwasneeded.Inthe1890generalelection,theHoodCampand

otherTexasex-Confederateorganizationsmadefullstateappropriationsacampaignissue.Theveteranspledgedtovoteagainstanycandidatewhofailedtosupporttheendeavor.TheyeasilyobtainedtheendorsementofGovernorRoss,whobelievedthestatemustfulfillits"sacredduty."TheyalsosucceededinhavingtheirdemandsfashionedasaplankintheplatformadoptedbyDemocratsconveningatSanAntonio.DuringaspeechatRusk,Texas,inApril1890,DemocraticgubernatorialnomineeHoggdeclaredthatthestateshould"endow,supportandmaintainaConfederateHome."PerhapsHogg,aveteranhimself,intendedtoeaseconservatives'qualmswhenheaddedthat"noinmatewouldfeelasapauper"inthehomebutwouldinsteadfeelasifhewere"anindependentproprietorsurroundedbyallthecomfortsofthehomehelostwhenherespondedtohiscountry'scall."AfterHoggwaselected,hecontinuedtopressforastate-supportedhome;inhisinauguraladdressofJanuary21,1891,hecalledthecreationofahomea"nobletask"thatlay"deepintheheartsofTexans."When"astateordersher

Inmateshadplentyofopportunitiestosit,talk,andreminisce,astheseveteransatLouisiana'sCampNichollsappeartobedoing,c.1902

(courtesyofHoward-TiltonLibrary,TulaneUniversity,NewOrleans)

mentofight,"hereasoned,"itacceptstheobligationtocarefor...maimed,totteringhelplessmen...tooproudtoacceptpity."

TwodaysafterHogg'saddress,AustinrepresentativeAlexanderW.Terrell,aVirginia-bornex-Confederatecolonel,introducedlegislationauthorizingtheestablishmentofthehomeasastateinstitution.HouseBillNo.242stipulatedthat,inreturnfor$75,000inpublicfunds,theHoodCampwouldtransferthehomepropertytothestate.Undertheplanaboardoffiveex-Confederateswouldretaincontrolofthehome'smanagement.BythethirdweekinFebruary,thelegislaturepassedthebillbyacombinedvoteof101-16.Thebill'sfewopponentsrightfullydoubteditsconstitutionality,whilethemajorityoflegislatorsconsideredit"adebt"thestateowed."Itissigned.Bully!,"aHouseclerkscribbledonthebillbeforeforwardingittoGovernorHogg,whosigneditintolawthefollowingday,March6,1891.24Butthehome'slegalstatusremainedinjeopardyuntiltheconstitutionwasofficiallyamendedseveralyearslatertopermitthelegislaturetolevyaspecialtaxforthebenefitofthestate'sdisabledandindigentConfederatesoldiersandsailorsandtheirwivesand

widows.RatifiedintheelectionofNovember6,1894,theamendmentwasproclaimedadoptedsixweekslater.InApril1895theConfederatehomebillwasapprovedalloveragain,thistimewithlegislatorsvotinginfavorofthemeasure109-2.25

BythistimetheLouisianahomewasbeginningitsseconddecadeofoperations.InApril1883,ayearbeforeGeneralGordon'sCooperUnionspeech,theAATandAANVhadjointlyelectedtenmanagerstoservewithoutrecompenseashomeadministrators,financialconsultants,andanadmissionsreviewboard.Forchairmantheboardchose,unanimously,thecurrentAANVpresident,

FrancisT.Nicholls,aone-armed,one-legged,one-eyedex-Confederatebrigadier,aformer(andfuture)governor.TheboardmembersalsoappointedAATpresidentCharlaronandsecondvice-presidentAlfredJ.Lewisashometreasurerandsecretary,respectively.Dulyorganized,theboardthenproceededtoaccomplishthehalfdozentasksprescribedforitbylaw.

26ByJune1883themanagershadfoundasuitablelocationintheNewOrleansvicinityforthehome.Theyboughtalargelotnicknamed,ironically,"LaFolie,"onBayouSt.John,offEsplanadeAvenue,fromex-ConfederatenavallieutenantJosephR.DeMahy.Thatpurchasehavingabsorbedthelion'sshareofthestate'sannualappropriation,themanagersthenappealedtoparishpolicejuries,aswellastothepublicdirectly,forcontributions.Uponhearingoftheproject,GeneralGordonhimselfdonated$600inlectureproceeds.Otherrevenuesoriginatedfromalotteryandatwo-dayshambattleheldatthestatefairgrounds.Beforeanestimated7,000paidspectatorsatthefairgrounds,thecombinedforcesoftheStateNationalGuardandalocalGARpost,oncue,repeatedly,butfutilely,"charged"aConfederatefortmannedbyAATandAANVmembers.Thebattleorganizersnaturallyassumedtheroleofdefenders,and,befittingtheoccasion,somegallantveteranssufferedslightcasualties,includingoneAANVmembertemporarilydazedbyashellburst.Anticipatingsuchinjuries,theAANVchaplain,theReverendDariusHubert,couldbeseen"everywhereonthebattlefield"resuscitatingsoldiersbygivingthemafewsniffsofa''veryvaluableandimportantcanteen."27

Themuchpublicizedfund-raisingstunts,likethe"medicinal"therapy,hadprovenremarkablysuccessful.Homemanagersnettedmorethanenoughprofits(about$7,000)tocoverthecostofseveralbuildings,

designedbylocalarchitectWilliamA.Freret,whichconstructioncrewshadcompletedwithineightmonths.OnFebruary5,1884,theinstitutionadmitteditsfirstinmate,JamesAdams,aone-leggedveteranoftheFirstLouisianaInfantry.Aboutfiveweekslater,theLouisianasoldiers'homeknownasCampNichollsofficiallyopeneditsdoors.Theopeningceremonies,attendedbymorethan600people,centeredaroundthehome'sseventy-footflagpole,infrontofthemainbuilding,wherethedaughtersofGeneralsLee,Jackson,andD.H.Hillproudlypresentedandhoistedthehome'sadoptedblueandwhiteflag,handmadebyStonewall'swidow.Applause,hoorahs,andRebelyells,accompaniedbyathirteen-gunsalutefiredbytheWashingtonArtillery'showitzer,"Redemption,"filledtheair.Onthisspringday,March14,inNewOrleans,theConfederacylivedagain!28

Morecelebrationswereforthcoming.ThephilanthropiceffortssoauspiciouslyconductedbytheNewOrleansveteransandtheLeeCampprovidedanimmediatemodelforex-Confederatesresidinginseveralotherstates.TheearliestknownattemptatorganizingbenevolenceinNorthCarolina,for

example,occurredinCharlotteinMay1884,whenseveralprominentArmyofNorthernVirginiaveteranspubliclyannouncedthattheywouldbeginsolicitingandacceptingdonationsforthe"unfortunatevictimsoftheLostCause."TherecognizedleadersbehindthemovementwereundoubtedlywellacquaintedwithJohnGordonandcertainlymindfuloftheRichmondandNewOrleanshomes.ZebulonB.Vance,aformerConfederategeneralandNorthCarolinagovernor,thenservingasaU.S.senator,andJulianShakespeareCarr,apopularDurhamentrepreneur,werechosentoserveasthefirstchairmanandsecretary,respectively,oftheNorthCarolinaConfederateHomeAssociation,asthegrouppromotingahomeinitiallycalleditself.Theassociationattractedmanyofthestate'spremierconservativeDemocrats,includingGovernorAlfredM.Scalesandotherelectedofficials,whowillinglyvolunteeredtheirreputationsandinfluenceasdirectorsandtrustees.Inspiteofaformidablestart,however,themovementstalledandwaspracticallyabandoneduntilMarch1889,whenthegroupreorganizedunderthenameConfederateVeteransAssociationofNorthCarolinaanddedicatedthemselvesanewtocompletingtheirtask.

WiththeaidoftheWakeCountyLadiesMemorialAssociation,theConfederateVeteransAssociationraisedenoughmoneybySeptember1890toleaseaneight-roomhouselocatedonPolkandBloodworthStreets,neardowntownRaleigh;bythefollowingmonth,fiveveteranshadbeenadmitted.FurtherorganizationtookplaceonValentine'sDay,1891,wheneighty-eightmembersoftheConfederateVeteransAssociationofficiallyconstitutedtheSoldiers'HomeAssociationofNorthCarolinaasanadministrativebody.Accordingtothetermsofthecharter,thestatedeededCampRussell-afive-acreplot,alsoinRaleigh,uponwhichaConfederatehospitalhadformerly

stoodtotheassociation.A$3,000annualappropriation,paidinquarterlyinstallments,accompaniedthemeasurethathadbeenapprovedintheNorthCarolinaGeneralAssemblybyaunanimousvote.AsJulianCarrlaterrecalled,"direnecessity"hadfinally"impressedupon[the]heartsof[the]people"theneedtoprovidearesidenceforunfortunateex-soldiers.30OnMarch24,1891,the''people"celebratedtheopeningofthenewfacility.Speakingontherefurbishedhomegrounds,LieutenantGovernorThomasHolttreatedlistenerstoanaccountofthe"patrioticmovement"thathadculminatedinthemost"importanteventinourhistory."HepraisedColonelWilliamF.Beasley,aformerpresidentoftheNorthCarolinaConfederateHomeAssociation,andsalutedfutureinmatesofthehomeas"honoredguests."Laterthatafternoon,intheofficeofRaleighmayorFabiusBusbee,theSoldiers'HomeAssociationselectedaboardofdirectors,withoneofGeneralLee'sformerlieutenants,WilliamP.Roberts,aschairman,andSamuelA'CourtAshe,awell-knownhistorian,assecretary.TheboardalsorewardedCarrandWilliamC.Stronach,

aprominentRaleighmerchant,byappointingthemtoservewithBusbeeontheexecutivecommittee.InApril,afterconsiderablepreparation,thesuperintendentwelcomednineinmatestotheirnewquarters.

Withinthenextfewyears,ex-Confederateorganizationsinseveralmorestateshadestablishedhomesoftheirownbutnotwithoutadditionalcontroversy.InTennessee,forexample,duringaNovember1888meetingoftheCheathamBivouacinNashville,veteransdiscussedforthefirsttimeahomeforthestate'sdisabledandinfirmex-Confederates.NashvillephysicianRobertG.Rothrock,oneofthebivouac'soriginalincorporators,whoservedatthetimeasthebivouac'ssurgeonandasthethirdvice-presidentoftheAssociationofConfederateSoldiers,introducedtheproposal.32Theproposalwasagreedto,andpresidentJohn"Jack"Mooreappointedafive-mancommittee(consistingofNashvilleBannereditorGideonBaskette,physicianWilliamJ.McMurray,merchantFurgesonS.Harris,formerjudgeFrankT.Reid,andRothrockaschairman)toformulateplans.Then,theveterans'groupnotifiedtheeightotherbivouacsthatcomprisedthestatewideConfederateveterans'organizationoftheirplanandrequestedtheircooperation.33InFebruary1889ShelbyCountyDemocratJamesM.Crews,aformerprivateunderGeneralForrest,introducedtheprojecttotheTennesseeGeneralAssemblyasSenateBillNo.210,"anacttoprovideahomefordisabledex-Confederatesoldiers."TheenvisionedhomewastobeonthegroundsoftheHermitage,theformerestateofAndrewJacksonandhisheirs,whichhadlongsincebeendeededtothestate.ThepropertywastobeentrustedtotheAssociationofConfederateSoldiers,TennesseeDivision,foraperiodnottoexceedtwenty-fiveyears,inreturnforwhichtheveteranspromisedtoprovideandmaintainhomesforneedy

ex-Confederatesof"goodcharacter,"withtheir"widowsandtheirorphanchildren."Allable-bodiedresidentswouldbeexpectedtowork.Incomegeneratedthroughthepropercultivationofthelarge,morethan400acrefarm,orthroughthedevelopmentofsuitablecottageindustries,wouldbereinvestedinthenonprofitenterprise.Finally,inorderforthe''charity"tobesetonafirmbasis,thebillstipulatedanoutrightgrantof$10,000.34

ApprovaloftheCrewsbillappearedhighlylikelyin1889.Intheprecedingsixyears,inresponsetoveterans'demands,thestateofTennesseehadimplementedtwomodestpensionprogramsfordisabledex-Confederates.Inaddition,proponentscouldnowpointtothehomesalreadyoperatinginLouisiana,Virginia,andTexas,aswellastothoseintheplanningstagesinMissouri,Arkansas,andFlorida.Numbersweredecidedlyontheveterans'side.Ex-Confederatespervadedstategovernment,whileconservativeDemocratsthosemostlikelytobesusceptibletoOldSouthloyaltiesoverwhelminglycontrolledboththeSenate(24-9)andtheHouse(66-26)inthestatelegislature.35Ifselectednewspapereditorialsaccuratelyreflectedpopular

sentimentontheissue,thenmostTennesseansfavoredtheundertaking.TheMemphisDailyAppeal,forexample,regardeditas"ameasurewhichcomrnend[ed]itselftoeveryrightthinkingcitizenofthestate."EvenGovernorRobertL.Taylor,fromtraditionallyRepublicanEastTennessee,referredtothepublic'ssupportoftheproposalasa"sacredobligation"andcouldbecountedamongtheveterans'staunchestallies."Ourlegislature,''hedeclared,owedaspecialdebtofgratitudetothestate's"decrepitheroesoftheLostCause."

Theveterans'lobbyrepresentedaformidableforceindeed,butsurprisinglythemeasuretocreateanoldsoldiers'homedidnotglideeffortlesslythroughthelegislature.Dissentersobjectedtothebillforavarietyofreasons.Severalsenatorsarguedagainstfurnishingtheneededappropriation,claimingthatthestatecouldillaffordtosubsidizetheventure.OtherlegislatorstookexceptiontoanactbenefitingonlyformerConfederates;theyurgedthatdeservingMexican-AmericanWarveteransaswellashonorableFederalvolunteersfromTennesseewithservice-relateddisabilitiesbeadmittedonanequalbasis.OneEastTennesseelegislatorwentsofarastorecommendadditional,butseparate,facilitiesforblackveterans.Horrifiedatthelattersuggestion,Confederatehomesupporterssucceededinhavinghismotiontabledimmediately.IntheHousechallengersformallymanagedtoamendtheCrewsmeasureinfavorofallwhitesoldiers,butultimatelytheirparliamentarymaneuversfailedandex-Confederatesaloneremainedtheobjectsofthebill'sprovisions.37Ironically,themostseriousroadblockoriginatedfromanunlikelyassortmentofmenandwomeninNashville,manyofwhomwereConfederateveterans,wives,orwidowsorex-Confederatesympathizers.Asoneoftheoriginalorganizersofthis

grouprecalled,"Wewereall...Confederates."38TheyworriedthatusingtheHermitagegroundswould"detract[from]orovershadow"OldHickory'smemory.()nememberfearedthat,iftheCrewsbillpassed,"theremainsofJacksonandhiswifewouldberemovedtoMt.Olivet,theirrelicsandheirloomsscatteredtofourcornersoftheearth,andthehomewouldforeverpassoutofexistence."Bymid-January1889thegroup,whichhadcometobeknownastheLadiesHermitageAssociation,petitionedthelegislaturetosellthemasizableportionoftheJacksonestate.Therevenuethestatederivedfromthesale,theypointedout,wouldbesufficienttoestablishasoldiers'homesomeplaceelse.

AnxiousCheathamBivouacrepresentativesimmediatelyrequestedaconferencewiththeHermitagegroup.DuringamassmeetingonFebruary11,veteranJohnHickmanproposedthattheCrewsbillbeamendedsoastoentrustthemansionandtheadjacenttwenty-fiveacrestotheassociation'scaretakers,butMrs.AndrewJacksonIIIreportedlyrefusedtoagreeto"anythingofthekind."Thetwoorganizationsremaineddeadlocked,untilthe

LadiesHermitageAssociationreluctantlyacceptedtheHickmancompromise.

39Asexpected,theex-Confederatelobbyistsultimatelytriumphedinthelegislaturebyacomfortablemarginofthirty-threevotes.ConsistentsupportersoftheCrewsbillasamendedwereeitherDemocratsorconfirmedindependentswhohailedprimarilyfromthestate'smiddleandwesternregions;roughlyone-quarterofthesemensatisfiedbothcriteria.40MiddleTennesseesenatorClementJ.Moody,thoughnotaveteran,spokeforthemajority.Inhis"brief,earnest[and]eloquentappeal"beforeachamberfilledwithmanyvisitors(includinganumberofHermitageladies),theDemocratsaidthatitwashightimeforthestatetodemonstrateitsappreciationforthebravemenwhohadreturnedfromthewar"intattersandragstolookupontheashesoftheirruinedhomes."HousememberJoelBattleFortofRobertsonCounty,also''tooyoungtoknowwhichsidewasright,"votedaye,hesaid,becausethefederalgovernmenthadalreadyhelpedUnionsoldiers,whilethestatehadpractically"donenothing"forex-Confederates.EastTennesseeRepublicans,Unionveterans,andrepresentativesfromcountiesthathadvotedagainstsecessioncomprisedthebulkoftheforty-onelegislatorsvotingagainstthebill.ThomasO.Morris,thebill'sHousesponsor,attemptedtowinovertheirvotesbystatingthat"Republicansshouldshowmanhoodanddojusticetomenwhogavetheirlivesandpropertyinbehalfofacausetheybelievedtoberight."RepublicanStephenC.PyottofHamiltonCountyapparentlylistenedtoMorris'sarguments,forhesupportedthe"justandproper"measure,maintainingthatsincetheformerConfederateleaders"hadbeencaredfor"byelectingthemtopoliticaloffice,itwasonlyfairthatthe"menwhoborethemuskets"shouldbegivenahome"toresttheirwornoutbodies."AnotherEastTennesseeRepublicansenator,callingex-Confederatesthe"brave[st]menaseverlived,"endorsedthebill.OnceitclearedtheHouseandSenate,

theactbecameofficialwithGovernorTaylor'ssignatureonApril4,1889.41

AlmostayearlatertheTennesseeSoldiers'Homeadmitteditsfirstveteran.ByFebruary1891thetotalinmatepopulationrosetotwenty,whileatleastthreetimesthatnumberawaitedentranceintothehome.Believingthatfutureinmatescouldnotbeadequatelycaredforintheavailablefacilities,theboardofdirectorsrequestedanendowmentof$25,000towardtheconstructionofasinglelargebuildingandanadditional$10,000formaintenanceduringthenexttwoyears.Eachrequestexperiencedlittledifficultygainingstatelegislativeapproval.42

ThemainbuildingofficiallyopenedwithdignifiedfanfareonMay1,1892.Thededicationactivitiesbeganearly,withanumberofNashville'sleadingcitizens(includingDr.andMrs.J.BerrienLindsley,oftheLadiesHermitageAssociation)asparticipants.Representativesofveterans'groupsandladies'auxiliariesfromacrossthestatecongregatedinthecapitalinordertoattend

FullyoneoutoffourveteranswhoresidedintheConfederatehomeshadbeenwoundedduringthewar,

ashadsomeofthosepicturedhere,inthe1920s,infrontoftheMississippihomeatBiloxi.

(courtesyofMississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistory)

thelong-awaitedcelebration.TheyrendezvousedatthenewheadquartersoftheCheathamBivouac,at31BaxterCourt.Shortlyaftereighto'clocktheprocessionof"pleasurewagons"startedmovingthroughthestreets,anditarrivedattheHermitageaboutanhourlater.TheceremoniescommencedsharplyatelevenwithaninvocationgivenbytheCheathamBivouac'schaplain,whowasfollowedbyCaptainMarkR.Cockrill,presidentofthehome'sboardoftrusteessince1889.ProfessorWilliamR.Garrett,theday'sorator,deemeditperfectlyfittingthatTennessee'sConfederateveteransshouldbecaredforandburiedontheestateformerlyownedbyJackson,whohadlovedthesoldiersoftheVolunteerState.

43AfterabrilliantspeechbylocalattorneyAllenG.HalloftheYoungMen'sDemocraticClub,GeorgeB.Guild,Nashville'smayor,offeredahostofresolutions:onepraisingthe"blessed"menandwomenwhoconceivedoftheideaoferectingsucha"monument";anotherinhonorofthehome'sarchitect,W.C.Smith;andathirddeclaringthehomeas"anasylumofperfectrest,joyandcomforttotheold,indigentanddisabledConfederatesoldierwhogavehisallforthecauseofhispeople."Beforethedayended,threechartermembersoftheCheathamBivouac(MarkR.Cockrill,McMurray,andRichardH.Dudley,aprominentNashvillemerchant)werepubliclycommendedfortheir''indefatigable"efforts,time,andmoneygiventothehome.44

ActingalmostsimultaneouslywiththeTennesseanswereveteransinArkansas.Thefirstpublicdiscussionofahomeinthatstateoccurredin1888duringaninformalmeetingofanumberofprominentex-ConfederatesinLittleRock.ParticipantsinthemeetingincludedGovernorJamesP.Eagle,aBourbonDemocrat,whochampionedrailroadlegislationaswellaseducational,penal,andtaxreform;R.A.

Little,publisheroftheArkansasGazette;JohnD.Adams,bankpresidentandboardmemberofthestateinsaneasylum;W.P.Campbell,clerkofthestateSupremeCourtandformercommissionerofstatelands;andJohnGouldFletcher,oneofthestate'smosteminentcitizens,aformermayorofLittleRock,whowasatthetimesheriffforPulaskiCounty.ThegroupissuedacallforotherveteranstomeetwiththemtoeffectapermanentorganizationofArkansasveterans,sothattheymightbettercareforthestate'sinfirmanddisabledConfederatesoldiers.Notingthat"therearemovementsalloverthecountrylookingtowardtheprovisionofmeansfortakingcareofthedisabledsoldierswhofoughtforthe'LostCause,'"theveteransvowedthat"Arkansaswillnotbebehindinthis."45

Thecalled-formeetingtookplaceinthehalloftheHouseofRepresentativesonMay8,1889,whenforty-five"goodcitizens"assembledshortlyafter8:00PM.Assumingthechair,formergovernorE.W.Rectordeclaredthathewasin"heartyandentiresympathy"withthemovement.Confederateveterans,hesaid,were"aproudraceofmen,"whowouldrather"sufferfrom

Confederatesoldiers'homeofficialsendeavoredtomeetinmates'everyphysicalneed;

thisreceiptindicatesthatFloridahomeinmateJ.S.Cooleywasprovidedwith"1fullsetofteeth"for$20.00in1902.(courtesyofJacksonvillePublicLibrary,

Jacksonville,Florida)

hungerandcoldintheirlittlecabinsbytheobscureroadside"thanaskforaid,buttheynowhadnootherchoice.Campbellannouncedthathepersonallyknewmanyveteranswhowerepooranddisabledandwho,hefeared,would,attheirdeaths,"sinkintoobscuregravesunnoted,unhonoredandunmourned."Hewascertainthatthelegislaturewouldhelp,however,once"itseeswhatwearedoing.''Fletcherpredictedthat$25,000couldberaisedbythecitizensofLittleRockalone,andanother$25,000bypeoplealloverthestate.Thewhole$50,000couldthenbeusedasasinkingfundonwhichthehomewouldoperate.Thehomewouldbeopentoall,Fletchervowed,whethertheybelongedtotheRepublicanParty,theKnightsofLabor,or"anythingelse."Acommitteewasthenappointedtobeginenlistingsubscriptionsfortheproposedhome.Some$3,400waspledgedthatday,withLittle,Adams,andFletchergiving$500each,andGovernorEagle,$200.

Laterthatsummer,whentheEx-ConfederateAssociationofArkansashadbeenformallyorganizedinLittleRock,aboardofmanagersforthehomewasappointedandempoweredtocontinuereceivingsubscriptionsandselectasiteforthehome."Nomatterwhereyoulocateit,inHamburg,Bentonvilleorelsewhere,mymoneyandaffectionwillgowithit,"pledgedboardpresidentFletcher.Bythefollowingsummer,withnearly$9,000inhand,theassociationpurchasedtheOtisPattonhomestead,whichincludedmorethanfiftyacresoflandafewmilessoutheastofLittleRockontheSweetHomePike.Theold

framehousewasremodeled,severaladditional"barracks"wereerected,andthehomewasformallyopenedonDecember1,1890.

47ThefollowingAprilthestatelegislaturepassedanact,approvedbyGovernorEagle,thatnotonlygrantedapensiontoConfederateveteransbutalsoappropriated$10,000fortheerectionandmaintenanceofanimprovedhome.Withthecompletionofthenewandlargerbuilding,ownershipandcontrolofthehomewereofficiallytransferredtothestateinAugust1892.48

Duringthatsamemonth,ex-ConfederatesinFloridamadeadownpaymentof$1,500towardaten-acrelotandseven-roomhousesituatedalongtheSaintJohnsRiver,aboutthreemilesfromJacksonville.FormalopeningoftheFloridaOldConfederateSoldiersandSailorsHometookplaceonApril6,1893.MakingthededicatoryaddresswasMajorAlbertJ.Russell,thestate'ssuperintendentofeducation,whohadservedaspresidentoftheFloridaSoldiers'HomeAssociationsinceitsfoundingin1888.Russellwasalso(accordingtoGovernorFrancisP.Fleming,oneofthemembersoftheassociation)theoriginatoroftheefforttoobtainstatefundingforthehomethatcametofruitionwithpassageofanactbythelegislatureinJune1893.49

Bythespringof1893thededicationofasoldiers'homehadbecomeafamiliarritual.AlreadyConfederateveteransliterallyacrossthenationhadcelebratedtheachievementsofJohnnyRebaswellasthoseofpeoplewhosemoralandmaterialcontributionshadrenderedinstitutionssuchasthesoldiers'homespossible.Bythistimeinstitutionshadbeenestablishedinninestates,includingsomethathadnotbelongedtotheConfederacy.InMaryland,forexample,onJune27,1888,theMarylandLineConfederateSoldiers'Home,underthedirectionofGeneralBradleyT.Johnsonandotherofficersofthe

stateveterans'association,hadopeneditsdoorsamovemadepossiblebya$5,000appropriationfromthestate,aswellasthegiftoftheoldbarracksattheU.S.arsenalinPikesville,wherethehomewaslocated.50ThefollowingyearacharterforaConfederatehomeinMissourihadbeensecuredbyrepresentativesofthestateConfederateveterans'association.In1890theassociationselecteda365-acrefarm,locatedaboutonemilenorthofHigginsville,asthesiteforthehome.Withinafewyearsamainbuildinghadbeenconstructed,paidfor,andappropriatelydedicated,owinglargelytothedeterminedeffortsofthestate'sDaughtersoftheConfederacy."NoConfederatesoldierinMissourineed...gotothepoor-houseorbegonthestreets"anylonger,commentedoneMissouriex-Confederate.Anotherboastedthatthehomewas"amonumenttoMissouri."ButtheveteransandladiesofMissouri,soonfindingitmoredifficulttoruntheinstitutionthantobuildit,reluctantlyappealedtothestatelegislatureforemergencyrelief.BeginningonJune1,1897,thestateassumedcontroloftheinstitution,fundingthehomeforthenextfifty-fouryears.51Therewaseventalkonatleasttwoseparateoccasionsof

establishingaConfederatesoldiers'homeinWestVirginia,butthatprojectnevermaterialized.

Thusfar,withtheexceptionofthefalsestartsinWestVirginiaandKentucky,the"movement"fororganizingbenevolenceonbehalfofdestituteConfederateveteranshadbeenaremarkablesuccess.Sympatheticsouthernersandnorthernersalikehadrespondedwithmeasuredalacrityandzealoncetheyperceivedtheneedsofhomelessanddisabledex-Confederates.Formerenemieshaddemonstratedtimeandagainthatitwasthesacreddutyofacivilizedpeopletocompensatethosewhohadforfeitedtheirhealthandfortuneindefenseofacause.PerhapstheuniversalacceptanceofthisprinciplemadeeventsinJohnB.Gordon'shomestateofGeorgiaallthemoreincredible.AndthefactthatConfederateveteransresidingintheDeepSouthstatesofAlabama,Mississippi,andSouthCarolinahadyettobeheardfromwasjustaspuzzling.

CHAPTERFOURTheHomeThatGradyBuiltAteighto'clockinthemorning,onSeptember30,1901,theGeorgiaSoldiers'HomeinAtlantasuddenlyandmysteriouslycaughtfire.Withinanhourthewholestructurehadbeenreducedtoajumbledpileofsmolderingasheslandblackenedchimneys.Fortunately,thenightwatchmanhadalertedthestaffandresidentsintime,andeveryoneescapedunharmed.Butthebuildingitself,whichhadlongbeenembroiledincontroversy,hadvanishedinsmokeandflames."Itseemedthatthefateswereagainstit,"bemoanedoneobserver,"anditsfuturedarkanduncertain."

Indeed,thehomemusthaveseemedjinxed.Ithadbeeninactualoperationforonlyafewmonthsbeforetheconflagration,thelatestinaseriesofmisfortunesthathadbesettheinstitutionsinceitsformalinceptionoveradozenyearsearlier.Formostofthetimebetweenthecompletionofitsconstructionin1891andthefirein1901,itsdoorshadbeenclosed,andtheedificehadbeenallbutabandoned.Onfourseparateoccasionsthestatelegislaturehadrefusedtoappropriatemoneyforit;forcedintobankruptcy,itwasorderedauctionedtothehighestbidder.Noothersoldiers'homeexperiencedasmuchtroublegettingstarted.Georgiafarmershadbeenfrightenedbyit,politiciansvieweditasanunnecessaryexpense,andevensomeConfederateveteransrailedagainstit.Butforthesheerdeterminationofahandfulofdedicatedmenandwomen,thehomewouldnothaveopenedatall.

Amongthehome'smoststalwartproponentswasHenryW.(Grady,theeditoroftheAtlantaConstitution,who,inadditiontoespousing

thebenefitsofmodernizationfortheSouth,alsopromisedthatthe"New"Southwouldalwayshonorthe"Old."Grady'sinvolvementbeganasearlyasMarch1889.Atthattime,MajorJosephH.StewartwasinNewYorkCitydirectingafundraisingcampaignfortheTexashome,afterhavingcompletedasuccessfulwintertourinBoston.StewartmetwithinfluentialGARmembersandprominentex-ConfederatesandtentativelysetApril9,thetwenty-fourth

anniversaryoftheAppomattoxsurrender,asthedateforthekickoffeventinNewYork.Twodaysbeforethescheduleddate,however,anarticleappearingintheNewYorkHeraldproducedsucha"howl"thatitforcedStewarttopostponetheeventindefinitely.Thenewspapercarriedaneditorialentitled"ShallWeGoBeggingforThem?"asithadappearedoriginallyintheAtlantaConstitutiononApril6.MorethantwoyearsearlierGradyhadcausedquiteastirwhenhedeliveredhislandmarkaddress,"TheNewSouth,''beforeNewYorkCity'sfashionableNewEnglandSociety.NowGrady'seditorialregardingtheConfederatehomeinTexashadasimilareffect.

Gradyopenedhiseditorialbystatingthatthe"sorrytale"of"ouroldveterans"hadbeen"draggedthroughtheNorth"longenough,andhecalleduponMajorStewartto"comehome!"HeclaimedthathehadneversupportedStewart'scampaign,inwhichex-Confederateswereexploited.AlthoughoperatinginNewYorkforoveramonth,Stewarthadlittletoshowforit.HadNewYorkersbeenmoresympathetic,andhadtheygivenmorefreely,Gradyexplained,thatwouldhavebeenacceptable;butthe"painfulspectacle"of"prolong[ed]begging"wasdisgraceful,ifnot"humiliat[ing]."Therefore,"ComeHome,MajorStewart,"hedemanded,andallowsouthernerstofulfilltheir"sacredduty"oftakingcareoftheirown"poorandhelplessheroes."Grady'sscathingremarksdidnothingtoboostStewart'seffortsintheNorthand,infact,asonecontemporaryrecalled,they"greatlychilledtheardorofthepeopleinthatsection."TheNewYorkJournalangrilyretortedthattheAtlantaeditorwasunjusttocriticizetheslowresponsebynortherncitizens,sincesouthernersthemselveshadtakennearlyaquarterofacenturytodoanythingfortheirveterans.Gradyagreed.Indeed,thedelayhadbeen"piteous,"but"thatispast,"hevowed;Georgianswouldnowcommencebuildingahomeoftheir

TheideaofaConfederatesoldiers'homeinGeorgiahadbeendiscussedforalmosttwoyears,butnooneseemedtohavemademuchprogress.Supposedly,E.J.Roach,anAtlantaphysician,hadsuggestedahometomembersoftheConfederateSurvivorsAssociation(theEighteenthGeorgiaInfantry)meetinginAcworthinAugust1887,buttheveteranstooknodefiniteaction.StatesenatorTomMassengalelaterboastedthathehadargued,whilestumpingatWarrentonsometimethefollowingsummer,thatGeorgia"owed"veterans"amonument...buildinginwhichtheymightfindshelter."4IncontrasttotheAcworthmeeting,anothermeetingthattookplaceinAugust1887,intheparlorofAtlanta'sYoungMen'sLibrary,featuredplentyofspeechesandaction.MembersoftheAtlantaLadiesMemorialAssociationandoveradozenmembersoftheFultonCountyConfederateVeteransAssociationdiscussedfoundingahomeinordertoamelioratetheconditionofneedyex-Confederates.SomeofAtlanta's"firstcitizens"attended,includingCaptainJohnMilledge,

thestatelibrarian;ex-GovernorAlfredColquitt,oneofGeorgia'sU.S.senators,wholessthanayearlatergaveoneofthededicatoryaddressesfortheConfederatehomeinMaryland;W.LowndesCalhoun,FultonCounty'sordinary;W.A.Hemphill,ConstitutionPublishingCompanytreasurer;andSamuelM.Inman,reputedlyoneofthestate'srichestmenandGrady'sconfidant.Thegroupproposed"promptsteps"forraisingmoney;butwhenthepublic'sresponsewasnotasfavorableasanticipated,thegrouppondereditsnextmove.

Grady'sso-called"immortal"editorialinjectedapotentdosageofenthusiasmandpublicityintotheproject.Philanthropicmotivationsnotwithstanding,theeditor'sinvolvementwiththehomeappearstohaveemergedfromabasicdesiretofosterhisownimageandtoinfluenceandmobilizepopularsupportforanotherschemealtogether.GradywascertainlynotaversetoexploitingtheLostCause,forhehadplayeduponex-Confederatesympathiesbefore.6Althoughnotaveteran(hisfather,aConfederateofficer,haddiedfromwoundssufferedduringthebattleoftheCrateratPetersburgin1864),heheldanhonorarymembershipintheFultonCountyConfederateVeteransAssociation.InmanandHemphillwere,forthatmatter,chartermembersoftheassociation,whileJudgeCalhounwasitspresidentin1887.Originallynumberingabout200strong,thegrouphadorganizedinresponsetoacallfromMilledgeonApril19,1886,justpriortoawidelyacclaimedvisittothecitybyJeffersonDavis,whohadacceptedaninvitationtodedicateastatuetothelatesenatorBenjaminH.Hill.IncharacteristicfashionGradyseizedtheopportunitytoresurrectthepoliticalcareerofGeneral(andformersenator)JohnB.Gordon,who,havingabandonedhisbusinessventuresinNewYork,agreedtoreenterGeorgiapolitics,runningforgovernor.GradyarrangedforGordontoaccompanyDavisona

specialtrainforhisjourneyfromMontgomerytoAtlanta.Thetrainalsocarriedasanhonorguardahostofotherdignitaries,includingGrady,Hemphill,andEvanPHowell,theprincipalownerandeditorinchiefoftheConstitution.ThepublicitystuntensurednotonlyGordon'sgubernatorialvictorybutalsothecontinueddominanceforatleastanothertermofGeorgia's"NewDeparture"Democrats-Democratswho,likeGrady,continuedtolaudtheConfederacyandtheLostCausewhilepromotingtheNewSouth.7

The1886stateelectionhadalsobeenatriumphforthe"AtlantaRing,"aloosepoliticalfederationwithbroadinterstateconnectionsbasedprincipallyinNewYork.Theringrepresentedmerchant,banking,railroad,andplanterinterests.Grady,Howell,andGordon,joinedbySenatorColquittandhiscolleagueJosephE.Brown,dominatedthegroupthatconspiredfirstandforemosttomaintainandtightenitscontroloverstatepoliticsand,secondly,tomakeAtlanta,the"GateCity,"thepremiercityofGeorgiaoreventhecapitaloftheNewSouth.OpposingtheAtlantaRingwerehordesofdisaffected

farmersalreadymobilizinginMarch1887.Gradyfearedthat,ifwhitefarmersformedathirdparty,thenRepublicans,supportedbyeasilydupedblackvoters,couldinfluenceorwinelections.

8Inordertoavertsuchadisaster,Gradysoughttomollifydisgruntledfarmersbystrenuouslyadvocatinganagriculturalprogramthatfeaturedcropdiversification,scientificmethods,andaprotectivetariff.Farmers,however,balkedattheattempttoput"newwineinthebottlesofringpoliticians."TheConstitutiongrudginglyadmittedtheprogram'sfailure,butnotbeforeJune1888,whenGradyandGordon(seekingreelection)finallyembracedtheGeorgiaAlliancemovement.Thestrategyworked:Gordonremainedinthechiefexecutive'soffice,thepartyoftheNewDeparturewonanothervictory,andtheincipientpopulistrebellionsubsided,temporarily.

Grady'sadvocacyofasoldiers'homeinApril1889mustbeplacedagainstthiscomplexbackgroundofpoliticalintrigue.Immediatelyfollowingthe1888election,theConstitutionembarkedonanothermassivecampaigntoconvincefarmersthattheAtlantawastheirfriend.ForthreemonthsGradysetasideafullpageinSundayeditionsandoccasionaldailiestodiscusstheplightoffarmersandreassurethemthatthefuturelookedbright.BeginninginlateMarch1889,andthroughoutthesummer,GradypersonallydeliveredhismessagetofarmersatmassmeetingsinGeorgia'spiedmontandwesternblackbeltregions,Alliancestrongholds.EarlierinMarchhehadurgedex-ConfederateWilliamJ.Northen,awealthyplanterfromHancockCounty,toadopttheroleofpeacemakerbetweenGeorgia'scommercialandagriculturalinterests.NorthensubsequentlyobtainedtheendorsementoftheAllianceandin1890wonthegovernor'schair.9SothemovementtobuildaGeorgiahomemayindeedhavebeenyetanothereffort,atleastonGrady'spart,todemonstrateto

farmersthat"wool-hatboys"and"silk-hatboys"sharedcommoninterests.Theinstitutionwouldprovideshelterforcountlessimpoverishedveterans,manyofwhomresidedinruralGeorgia.Alargenumberofex-ConfederatesandtheirsonsfilledtheAllianceranks.Intheforthcominglegislatureof1890,knownAlliancememberswouldholdasmanyas102of175(58.3percent)Houseseats;morethanhalf(59.8percent)oftheAlliancelegislatorswereConfederateveterans,andanother30percentweresonsofveterans.SurelyGradymusthavethoughtthatfarmerswouldnotopposethestate'sestablishmentofahome.10

HeinitiatedtheGeorgiaConfederatehomesubscriptiondrivein1889onthedayhepennedhiseloquentappealofApril6withadonationof$1,000.VariousmembersoftheAtlantaRingfollowedsuit.GovernorGordonendorsedtheproject,thoughhecautionedGradyabouttheshortsightednessofeschewingnorthernphilanthropy.SenatorBrownmatchedGrady'sgift,asdidJamesSwann,theabsenteepresidentofAtlantaNationalBank;MarionC.Kiser,awealthyshoemanufacturerandcloseassociateofbothGradyandHowell;Sam

InrnanandhisyoungerbrotherJohn,therenowned"CarpetbaggerinWallStreet";andrailroadlawyersPatrickandJohnC.Calhoun,grandsonsoftheGreatNullifier,bothstaunchsupportersofGrady.

11Othercompeersofthering(notably,formermayorsGeorgeT.HtillyerandJamesW.EnglishandcurrentmayorJohnThomasGlenn)gaveliberallytothecause.JohnTempleGraves'sRomeDailyTribuneannouncedthatitstoodsolidlybehindthe"movement,"adding,"itisbettertobuildhomesforliveheroesinneed"thantomemorializethedead.Asexpected,membersoftheFultonCountyVeteransAssociationwelcomedtheassistance.AmosFox,arespectedphysician,policecommissioner,andpart-timeelixirsalesman,thegroup'streasurer,dubbedGrady'scampaignthe"grandestmovement,"whileLowndesCalhounreemphasizedtheveterans'desiretobuildahome,nota"poorhouse.''12

Theproject'sabilitytotranscendpublicizeddisagreementsbetweenGradyandhislongtimenemesesseemedevenmoreremarkable.FormerRepublicangovernorRufusB.Bullockdonated$750onbehalfoftheAtlantaCottonMills.l)iehardex-ConfederateCharlesC.Jones,Jr.,whointhepasthaddecriedGrady'svisionofaNewSouth,wrotethatthe"sacredobligationhastoolongbeenneglected."AugustaChronicleeditorPatrickWalsh,oneofGrady'sfiercestintrastatecritics,viewedthehomenotasacharity,butasa"holyduty."FellowAugustanJamesC.C.Black,anotherGradyantagonist,sentafewdollars,somefavorablewordsofencouragement,andthepromiseofaspeechinsupportoftheinstitution.13DonatingmoneytoGrady'shomesoonbecametherage.ByApril14nearly$35,000hadbeenpledgedbyover3,000people,abouthalfofwhomresidedinAtlanta.OnthenightofApril16,a"veryenthusiasticgathering"oflocalhomesubscribersconvenedatthecity'sChamberofCommerce

building.Calledtothechair,EvanHowellspokebrieflyabouttheheroismoftheConfederatesoldier.WhileHowellwasspeaking,Gradywalkedintotheroom,greetedbyapplauseandcheersbeckoninghimtoaddressthecrowd.Adeptatmakingimpromptuspeeches,Gradyspokefornearlyanhour.14

Gradyremindedhisaudiencethatithadassembledthateveninginordertoestablisha"different"kindofinstitution.Hethenreiteratedthefour-pointplanhehadoutlinedinhiscolumnsafewdaysearlier.First,an"ideal"soldiers'home,asheenvisionedit,wouldpermitfamiliestoresidewithveterans."Don'tmakeahomeforveteransonly,"hewarned.Southernwomenshared"suffering"and"poverty"whentheirhusbandsreturnedhome"crippledanddisabled,"sodonotseparatethemnow!Second,herecommendedthatthehomeshouldofferemploymentopportunities."Giveeverymaninthehomeapatchofground,"headvised(anobviousappealtoAlliancemembers)"sothatvisitorsmayfindthemtillingthesoil,themostancientandhonorableofall"trades.(Agreatstandingovationfollowed.)Third,headvocatedadop-

TheConfederatesoldiers'homeswereobjectsofsectionalprideandofcommercialismlongafterHenryGrady'stime,asdemonstratedinthis

1928advertisement.(author'scollection)

tingacottagesystemratherthanacentralbuildingplan.Finally,GradyfavoredlocatingthehomeintheAtlantavicinity.Heclaimedhehadpersonallyreceivedproxies"fromalloverthestate"approvingsuchalocation,andhewasconfidentthatthelegislaturewouldagreetomaintainthehome;severalmembershadalreadyassuredhimofsupport.Gradythensatdown,butafterwardhefrequentlyinterruptedthemeeting,delightingtheaudiencewithseveralamusinganecdotesandwithannouncementsofnewpledges.

Ahostofotherspeakersfollowed.LegislatorAugustusM.FouteofCartersville,whosecitizenshaddonatedover$400,promisedtodoallthathecouldintheAssembly."Onlyonemanvotedagainstthesoldierspensionbillinthelastsession,"hebragged,"andhehasbeensorryeversince!"''Establishthehome,"MayorTomGlenncrieddefiantly,"andifthestatecan'torwon'tsustainit,Atlantawill!"AttorneyWilliamD.Ellis,anex-ConfederatecolonelfromSouthCarolina,assuredeveryonethatGeorgiahadnoconstitutionalbarriersthatwouldpreventthehome'spublicsupport.Cheeredasheenteredtheroom,GeneralJohnR.Lewis,aVermonter,assertedthathespokeonbehalfofevery"trueUnionsoldier"whenheconsideredit"aprivilegetostandshouldertoshoulderwith[them]inacauselikethis."ErstwhilecarpetbaggerHannibalI.Kimball,theownerofAtlanta'sgrandesthotel,confessedthat,hadhebeensouthern-born,hecouldnothavebeen"morebehindthemovement."Afterthespeechesended,SamInmanproposedthatthesubscribersproceedwiththebusinessathandandelectaboardoftwentyfivedirectors.ThirteenwouldbefromFultonCounty,andMayorGlenn,GovernorGordon,andSenatorsBrownandColquittwouldserveashonoraryvice-presidents.Themotioncarried.Aspeciallyappointedcommitteethenretiredfromtheroom,onlytoreturnwithinafewminuteswiththe

namesofitsnominees.ThecommitteetappedGrady,Howell,andInman,aswellasothermenwhohadbeenassociatedwiththehomefromthebeginningLowndesCalhoun,Hillyer,Fox,English,Massengaletoholddirectorpositions.16

Meetingonthefollowingday,thenewboardelectedofficers.Forpresident,Howellproposed,nomorequalifiedmancouldnotbefoundthantheonewhohadconceivedthewholeideaand"pushedtheboatoutfromtheshorehimself,"HenryGrady.Allseventeenofthedirectorsinattendance,exceptthenominee,stoodupandvoicedtheirunanimousconsent.Gradyprotested,preferringinsteadthatthegroupbestowthehonoronaveteran,butthemenwouldhavenoneofit.Speakingforthegroup,EllisansweredthatthehomewouldproperlybeconsideredagiftfromGeorgia's"risinggeneration,"whomtheyoungeditorrepresentedmarvelously.Withthis,Gradyaccepted.17

UnderGrady'sdirectiontheboardwenttoworkimmediately,fearingthatanydelayswouldcostbetween20and30percentinpledges.OnMay8it

decidedtolocatethehomeonMadameEmmyVonderHoyaSchultze'sprime119-acrefarm,aboutthreemilesfromdowntownAtlantaandonemileeastofGrantPark.ByJune1theboardcompletedthetransactiontopurchasethefarm,whichrequiredanimmediateoutlayofmorethan$9,000.Thefirstsignoftroublecameintheformofadisputeovertheinstitution'sproposeddesign.Grady,joinedbyTipHarrisonandotherdirectors,hadenvisionedandpubliclyadvocateda"community"ofcottages,eachinhabitedbyaveteranandhisfamily,arrangedaroundacentraladministrationbuilding.Butcostprojectionsforsuchalayoutgreatlyexceededcapitalearmarkedforconstructionofthehome.Accordingtothemostconservativeestimates,fifteencottages,eachwithfourroomsandakitchen,couldbeconstructedforabout$1,000perunit.Ontheotherhand,forapproximatelythesame$15,000,alargebuildingthatprovidedamplespaceforaroundonehundredresidentswithoutfamiliescouldbecompleted.So,whendreammetreality,or(toborrowfromsocialhistorianDavidRothman)whenconsciencemetconvenience,thelattertriumphed,astheboardvotedtoconstructthemainbuildingfirstand,iffundspermitted,toaddthecottageslater.

ThecompromiseprovedespeciallycostlywhenGrady'sclosestfriendsHowell,whoservedasbuildingchairman,andSamInman,thefinancecommitteeheadresignedoverthedisagreement.Nevertheless,thedirectorsproceededasbesttheycould.JudgeCalhoungrantedachartertotheConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia,astheinstitutionwasofficiallycalled.Countycommissionersapprovedandsupervisedtheconstructionofaroadtothesite.Workcrewsclearedandsurveyorsmarkedofftheland.TherespectedarchitecturalfirmofBruceandMorganthesamecompanyresponsibleforGrady'sandHillyer'sresidencesandthegovernor'sestate,aswellasdowntown

storesandofficesforSenatorBrownandSamInmandesignedahandsomeseventy-fiveroom,three-storymansion,modern,imposing,andefficient.ByDecembertheAtlantaconstructioncompanythathadbeenawardedthecontract,hadfinishedthehome'sfoundation,begunerectingthewoodenframework,andprojectedacompletiondateofsometimeinJuly.Then,unfortunatelyforthehome,onthedaybeforeChristmasEve,1889,Gradydied.19

Theboard's"saddestmeetingever"occurredonJanuary21,1890,whenthedirectorsconfrontedtheunthinkabletaskofchoosingasuitablereplacementforGrady.Certainlytheywouldhavetopresson;Gradywouldhavedemandedthat,remarkedLowndesCalhoun,whowasselectedashissuccessor.Moreover,thehomewouldnowbemorethanabuilding,foritwouldbealivingmemorialtoanesteemedcomrade.Astheyearspassbyfortheoldveteranswhowillinhabitthehome,theboardsuggestedineulogizingtheirdepartedcolleague,the"verylastsurvivorwillgodowntohisgraveworshippingattheshrineofLeeandJackson,andlovingthememoryofGrady!"20

OnApril26,1890,ConfederateMemorialDay,a"vastmultitude"participatedinthehome'scornerstonededicationceremonies.Hymnsinging,bandplaying,prayers,andMasonicritescomprisedtheliturgyforthesolemnaffair,andcherishedrelicsfromacollectivepasthadbeenlovinglyplacedinsidethefour-foot-squarewhitemarblestone.Seatedonthespeaker'sstagewereGovernorGordonandhisstaff;thefeaturedorator,Augusta'sJamesC.C.Black;newboardchairmanCalhoun;andseveraldistinguishedvisitors,nottheleastofwhomwereGeneralsEdmundKirbySmith,JamesLongstreet,andJosephE.Johnston.NearthestageandthescaffoldingthatbuttressedtheunfinishedhomesatGrady'smother,Mrs.AnnE.Grady,whocommentedaftertheactivitieshadconcludedthatherson"wouldhavebeentrulyhappy."

Theslowprogressmadebytheworkcrews,however,wouldnothavepleasedGradyatall.WhenJulycame,thebuildingwasstillnotready:theverandahadnotbeenerected,andtheinteriorwasonlytwo-thirdscompleted.Furthermore,workonthehome'scisternshadnotbegun,andgaslightinghadnotyetbeeninstalled.ThecontractorsaidhefullyexpectedtohavethefacilityopennolaterthanSeptember1.Therewaslittletodobutwaitandhopethathewasright.Meanwhile,acommitteeappointedtotenderthepropertytothestateproceededwiththedraftingofabilltobepresentedintheupcomingtermoftheAlliance-controlledlegislature.OnNovember21,1890,ColonelAllenS.CuttsofAmericus,a"prominentAllianceman"himself,introducedthemeasure,whichprovidedforthestatetomaintainthehomefortwenty-fiveyears,afterwhichthepropertywouldreverttothestate"forcharitablepurposesonly."AlreadyGeorgiaDemocratshadapprovedanactprovidingartificiallimbsandapensionbillfordisabledandindigentveterans;andinthelegislature'spreviousfall

sessionmodestbenefitshadbeenextendedtoasmallgroupofConfederatewidows.ButCutts'ssoldiers'homebillwouldbelostinthefinancecommittee,whencommitteemembers,convincedthatthestate'stitletothehomeoughttobe"absoluteandunconditional,"struckoutthecharityproviso.Ratherthanagreetothecompromise,thehome'sdirectors,duringacalledmeetingatthecapitolonDecember6,recommendedthatthebillbewithdrawnandresubmittedwhenthelegislatureconvenedthefollowingsummer.22

BymidJuly1891,ayearbehindschedule,thebuildingwasfinallycompleted.Evenso,halfadozendifferentcostoverrunshaddepletedGrady'ssubscribedendowmentofmorethan$39,000andleftthedirectorswithoperatingcapitalofonly$41.01.Nevertheless,ClarkHowell,Evan'sson,thenewConstitutioneditorandSpeakeroftheHouse,expressedconfidencethattheupcominglegislaturewouldpassthebillbya"bigvote."23

CuttsreintroducedaslightlymodifiedversionofthehomebillonAugust

13,1891.MadespecialorderofthedayforAugust19,themeasurewasputofftwiceuntilthewholeHousehadanopportunitytoconsideritforthefirsttimeonAugust25.Proponentsmarshaledanddeployedwhathadbecomethestandardargumentsinfavorofaveterans'home.Cuttscalleduponallthosewhoharbored"anyillfeelingtowards"Atlantatopushitasideanddo"theirdutytotheoldsoldiers.""Itisalaborofloveaswellasofduty,"addedE.W.MartinofFultonCounty.Albany'sWilliamE.WooteninvokedthenameofGradyandremindedhisfellowlegislatorsthat''everyotherstate[was]movinginthesamedirection,"citingVirginia,Tennessee,Texas,andLouisianaasexamples,sowhynotGeorgia?Macon'sJohnT.Boifeuilletfavoredtheventureas"asoundbusinessproposition,"whileWilliamH.FlemingofAugustaexplainedthatthebillwouldprovidefora"class"ofhomeless,unmarriedveteransrendereddependentbypovertyanddisability.FairburnbankerWilliamT.Roberts,whosefatherhadbeenkilledatGettysburg,vowedthathewouldneverseethedaywhenaConfederateveteranlanguished"inthecountypoorhouse."

Suchstrainsofeloquence,admittedly,hadlittleeffectuponcertainrealists,manyofwhomresentedtheAtlantaRingasmembersoftherulingclassandviewedthehomeasameansofliningitssubscribers'pockets.LongactiveinGeorgiapolitics,Dr.IsaacA.Hand,anAlliancemanandafiscalconservative,viewedthehomeasa"whiteelephant,"notworththecostsandof"norealbenefit."WebsterCountyrepresentativeW.M.Sears,aveteranandamemberoftheAlliance,arguedthatthestatecouldillaffordbeingsaddledwithsuch"unnecessaryexpenses."Ofthe$15,000appropriatedfortheproject,hepredicted,fullyone-thirdwouldgotowardadministrativecosts,nottoveteransdirectly."Don'tletsentiment"foolyouintovotingforthe

bill,warnedJamesT.Chappell,aveteranfromLaurensCounty,whoquestioneditsconstitutionality.W.C.Bryan,aPrimitiveBaptistpreacherfromFloydCounty,declaredthatthehomewasa"wasteofmoney";besides,thesoldiersinhisdistrictwouldratherreceiveadditionalpensionbenefitsthanthis"classlegislation."VeteranM.L.EverettofLumpkinboastedthathisconstituentsinStewartCountycouldbuilda"farbetterhome"forafractionofthecost."Moneyisnottheobject,"roaredoneAlliancemanfromBrooksCounty,"itisamatterofprinciple":we"don'twantthehome";we"neveraskedforit!"25

FormerMaconmayorWilliamA.Huff,theHousefinancecommitteechairman,decidedhehadwithstoodtherhetoricalbarragelongenough."IamnotanAllianceman,"heproclaimedashetookthefloor.Thefarmers"cameheretoprotecttheirrights,andIsympathizewiththem."But,hecontinued,theymustunderstand,"itisahome"thatisbeingproposed,notapoorhouseoraprison;"thereisnotrickaboutit!"Nevertheless,M.A.Baldwin,aveterananda"zealous"Allianceman,interruptedHuffwiththepointedinterrogatory:

thenwhyforceveteranstoleavetheirfamiliesforthehome?"Doyouknowofanysoldierswhowouldgothere?"Huffrespondedbyproducingalistofseventy-fiveneedyapplicantsfromalloverthestate.HealsosentacopyofGrady's"ShallWeGoBeggingforThem?"editorialofApril6,1889,totheclerk'sdesktoberead,adding:"Themenwhocometothehome"are"wanderingabout"withoutfamilies,wives,sisters,orauntstocareforthem.''Itisnotaquestionofmoney....It'saquestionofhonor!"

Suchlively,oftenintense,debateragedfornearlytwodays,untilonAugust26themeasurefinallycameupforavoteintheformofalast-minutesubstitutebill.Itresembledtheonethehomedirectorshadalreadyrejectedintheprevioussession.SubmittedbyhomeantagonistJamesChappell,thebilltenderedthehomepropertytothestate,infeesimple,unconditionally.Housemembersalsoagreedtoreportthebilladversely;thatis,an"aye"votewasconsideredavoteagainstthebill.Augusta'sFlemingabruptlymovedthatthevotebebyrollcall,andhisparliamentarymaneuveralsocarried.Intheend,ninety-fourmembersoftheHousesoundedoutinfavorofthebill,sixty-twoopposedit,andnineteenabstainedfromvoting.ThelegislationacceptingonbehalfofthestatethehomethatGradybuilthadbeenkilled.27

"Defeated!...OldSoldiersRepudiated.AndThePeople'sGiftToThemTheStateRejected.ADayThatWillBeRemembered":thusfumedtheConstitutionthenextday.SeveralGradyassociatesexpresseddisbeliefandregretoverwhathadhappened.Havingobservedthedebateswith"deepconcern,"LowndesCalhounwas"exceedinglysorry"andthoughtthelegislaturehadmadeagraveerror.SimilarsentimentswereregisteredbyHemphill,English,and

Ellis."ForsomereasontheAlliancemembersfighteverymeasurethatwouldbenefitAtlanta,"Ellisgrumbled.Thehome"isnotanAtlantaproject,but...abroad,philanthropicenterprise!"28

ReactionfromacrossthestateandthroughoutthenationvirtuallyechoedEllis'sremarks.Americus,Savannah,Macon,andAugustawere"disgusted,""indignant,"and"astonished."LaGrangeconsideredtheaction"niggardly,""unwise,"and"unpatriotic."Sparta"deplore[d]"thebill'sdefeat,whileAlbany"condemned"thefollowersof"Mrs.[MaryE.]Lease,"anAllianceleader,and"othersoftheilk.""Oh!ForawordfromthelipsofdeadGrady,"remarkedtheAthensDailyBanner,Grady'shometownnewspaper,"tosaytoGeorgiaveterans:'Bepatientyetawhile!Chidenotyourpeopleforthisdeed,foritisnottheirown.'"OnereportfromNewYorkCityhadex-Confederateswalkingthestreets"withbowedheads";supposedly,noeventsinceGrady'sdeathhad"causedsuchasensation."ConfederatecarpetbaggersinChicagowere"dumbfounded";thecity'sInterOcean,forexample,condemnedthe"discreditableact"andclaimedtohaveneither"sympathy...norrespectforalegislaturesodevoidofhumanesentimentorofmoralprinciple."TheCincin-

natiGazettedismissedtheargumentthatveteranswouldnotgotothehome,pointingoutthatthosewho"seekrelief"usuallyhaveneitherfamiliesnorshelters.NewOrleansveteransbelievedGeorgianshadeveryrighttobeupset,fornoonewasfondofapartythat"forgetsitsobligationtoConfederatesoldiers."InNorthCarolina,whereColonelLeonidasL.Polk'sSouthernFarmers'Alliancehadnoqualmsaboutsponsoringthefoundingofasoldiers'homeinRaleigh,peoplethoughttheactionoftheGeorgialegislaturewas,indeed,abit"strange.''AndaLittleRocknewspaper,decryingthe"miserable,cheapJohneconomyanddemagogy"atworkinthebill'srejection,speculatedthatifsomeonehadtoldaGeorgiasoldierin1864thatsometimelateraGeorgiafarmerwouldobjecttothestate'sacceptanceofahome,hewouldhave"shotdowntheslandererinhistracks."

Atan"indignationmeeting"heldinAtlantaonthenightfollowingthebill'sdefeat,a"greatcrowd"numberingperhapsasmanyas5,000wastoldwhomtoblame:itwasLeonidasF.Livingston,thepresidentoftheGeorgiaFarmers'Alliance,and"Sockless"JerrySimpsonorperhapsMrs.MaryE.LeaseofKansas,notoriousAllianceorganizers,whohadconspiredtodefeatthemeasureandwerethecauseofthis"treachery."30This"iswhatwemightexpectofthethirdpartyshoulditgetintopower,"onespeakerdeclared."Gradyhasbeenmocked,"exclaimedthedemagogicReverendSamSmall,adding:"LetussendourCincinnatussesofthealliancebacktotheirplows!"Anotheroratorsuggestedthatthenamesoftheninety-fourwhovotedagainstthehomebeinscribedonamarbletablet."Makeitblackmarble,"anothermanyelled,"andturnitsfacetothewallinshame!"31

Whenthelegislatureconvenedthenextmorning,"excitementranhigh"afterCuttsmovedtohavethevoteagainstthehome

reconsidered.Severalmembersprotestedthattheywere"personallyinsulted,"havingbeen"branded"traitorsattheindignationmeeting,whicheventuallyresultedinatleasttwoseparatechallengestoaduel.WarnerHillofGreenville,oneof"theNinety-Four,"asthehome'sopponentscametobecalled,condemnedthe"ragingmob"asabald-facedattemptto"bulldoze"thelegislatureandvowedthatheandhiscomradeswouldnotcapitulate:"No!Letthemindignate.Wehavesworntosupporttheconstitutionandwewilldoit!"Hillthenrevealedthatsixtyoneveteranshadvotedwithhimagainstthehomeandtwenty-ninehomeadvocatesweremembersoftheAlliance.Bothgroupshadindeedsplittheirvotes.AmongthosevotingforthehomewereRobertH.Jackson,thefirststatepresidentoftheGeorgiaAlliance;formerGrangerJohnL.BranchofPolkCounty;futurePopulistLuciusC.MattoxofClinchCounty;and,ofcourse,CuttshimselfallfourofwhomwereConfederateveterans.AlthoughneitheraveterannoranAlliancemanhimself,HilladmittedthathehadansweredGrady'scallandcontributedhis"littlemitetobuildthehome."

OutragedovertherejectionoftheGeorgiasoldiers'homebillinAugust1891,theAtlantaConstitutionpublishedthisdrawingbasedonanactualphotographofoneVirgeMosesofDahlonega,Georgia,whilehewasaprisonerofwaratCampChase,Ohioasaneditorialcommentonthenecessityofcaringfor

thestate'sindigentveterans.(author'scollection)

Evenso,hehadvotedagainstthehomeandhecalledonhisfellowmembersto"standbytheirconvictions...andshowtheworldthat[they]didwhat[they]thoughtwasrightinthesightofGodandmen!"(Criesof"We'lldoit,we'lldoit"resoundedthroughoutthechamber.)

FuturegovernorWilliamY.Atkinson,thesonofaplanterfromCowetaCounty,andafriendofHill,alsomadeaviolentspeechagainstthehome."Don'tbeinfluencedbytheyellsofmobsandthecriesofdemoniacalpreachers,"Atkinsonwarned.Althoughwe"havenothingagainstAtlanta,"heinsisted,"wewillnotaccepta"littlekitchenapartment''locatedinthatcity.HomechampionsE.W.MartinandJohnGoodwin,aformerAtlantamayor,counteredbydenyingthattherewasanythingsaidordoneatthemeetingthatcouldbeconstruedas"disorderlyorundemocratic."Atkinson'scross-staterival,WilliamFleming,addedthatithadbeen"anhonestmeeting"composedof"honestcitizens"whohadexercisedtheirconstitutionalrightofpeacefulassembly.(Thisstatementbroughtthoseseatedinthegallerytotheirfeet,cheeringandapplauding,forseveralminutes.)AftertheHousefinallycametoorder,Atkinsonaskedwhetherhisninety-threeallieswouldstandbyhimindefeatingCutts'smotiontoreconsider.("Yes!Yes!,"couldbeheard.)Wouldtheydefendtheirhonoranddemonstratethattheycouldnotbebullied?("Yes!Yes!,"theclamorgrewlouder.)"Let'svotedown"themotion,heconcluded,andtheHousedidjustthat,overwhelmingly(94-44),beforeadjourning.Thus,onAugust28,1891,threeofthe"wildestandmostexciting"daysinthehistoryoftheGeorgialegislaturecametoanend.33

Whenthehome'sdirectorsmetwithGovernorNorthenonSeptember9,somewhatcoolerheadsprevailed.PresidentCalhounanalyzedthe

situationinthismanner:eventhoughthebuildinghadbeencompletedandwascurrentlyoutofdebt,therewasnomoneylefttomaintaintheinstitution.And,sincethelegislatorshadintheir"wisdom"deemeditpropertoreject"thegift,"whatactionshouldtheboardnowtake?Aproposaltoorganizeajoint-stockcompany,withcapitalsetataquarterofamilliondollars,evokedsomediscussion.Buttodothat,accordingtoEvanHowellandothers,wouldtakeayearormoreoflitigationandwouldultimatelyinvolvethousandsofpeople.NelsonTiftsuggestedsellingthepropertyanddividingtheproceedsamongitsincorporatorsataproratashare.Thedirectorsagreedthatdosowouldbe"impracticable,"ifnotpremature.TheboardalsodismissedamotiontohavethecityofAtlantaassumeoperation,optinginsteadforaplantoclosethehometemporarilyuntilthenextlegislatureconvened.Waituntilthepeoplecan"expresstheirwill,"counseledSamInman;thenifthehomeisrejectedagain,theboardwouldacceptthefactthatthepeopledonotwantaveterans'home.Meanwhile,directorClementA.EvansofAugustaissuedanaddresscallingonallGeorgianstorallybehind"thisgoodandgreatcause."Theunoccupied

building,guardedbyaloneConfederateveteran,hesaid,deservedabetterfate,andwouldbeopened,nomatterhowlongittook.

Thedirectorshopedtosucceednotonlybycultivatingpopularsentimentbutalsobyprofitingfrompartyloyalty.Bythetimethenewlegislatureconvened,thewisdomofthewait-and-seestrategyhadbecomeapparent.Thehotlycontestedhomeissue(aswellasothersthroughoutthesession)hadrevealeddeepdivisionswithintheAlliance.Farmershadfailedtogivesolidsupporttotheirownplatform.OnlyasmallminorityofAlliancemenboltedtheDemocraticfoldandformedanewparty.Thelegislaturethatemergedwasindeed"new":only17ofthe175Housemembersfromtheprevioussessionretainedtheirseats.Ascantelevenofthemuch-malignedNinetyFour-headedbyWarnerHillandW.M.Searswereback;meanwhile,homeadvocatesMartinandBoifeuillethadalsoreturned.35

Afterathirteen-monthrecess,theboardmetagainandgaveunanimousconsenttotheproposedsoldiers'homelegislation.Thedirectorsvotedtoamendthepreviousbillbyreducingthestate'sannualmaintenanceappropriationfrom$25,000to$20,000andgrantingthestate"absolute"controlfiveyearsearlierthanhadbeenoriginallyrequested.Tointroducethemeasure,theboardhandpickedWilliamFleming,whopresentedthebillatrollcallonOctober27,1892.Therewaseveryreasontobeoptimisticaboutthebill'sfate,remarkedtheConstitution,sincemanynewmembershadpledgedtheirsupport.WithadifferentHouse,Flemingwasmoreconfidentandemboldenedthanever,predictingthathisbillwould"gothroughlikeagreasedstreakoflightning."Atthesametime,LowndesCalhounandothermembersoftheFultonCountyVeterans

Associationwagedanaggressivecampaign,culminatinginapre-debatehomeinspectiontourarrangedspecificallyforanumberof"antagonistic"representativesandsenators.36

ThedebateonthebillfinallybeganonNovember23,1892.Flemingspoke"calmly"fornearlyonehour,emphasizingthe"soundinvestment"theprojectrepresentedduringaperiodofeconomicuncertainty.Accordingtohiscalculations,thepropertywouldquadrupleinvalueintwentyyears.BillSmith,aveteranfromGwinnettCounty,adoptingamoreemotionaltactic,appealedtothe"youngmen"oftheHousetoapprovethebillforthesakeofGrady,ofneedyex-Confederates,andofthe"dear,deadoldSouthoflongago.''SearsofWebsterCounty,thefirsttospeakfortheopposition,claimedthatheknewofrelativelyfewoldsoldierswhowerewillingtoenterthehome.AnotherrepresentativefromsouthwestGeorgiasaidhedisapprovedoftheinstitutionbecausehefearedthatveteranswouldinvariablyhaveto"knuckle[under]tothenodsandwiles"oftheirformer"superiorofficers."HarveyJohnsonofFultonCountydisputedtheseassertions,arguingthatitwouldcostlesstosupporttheveteransinthehomethanoncountypoorfarms.Butthemost

impressivespeechonbehalfofthebillcamefromWilliamH.StylesofLibertyCounty,oneofonlytwoblackmembersoftheHouse.AformerbodyservantofaConfederatesoldier,Stylesassertedthathewaswillingtodoanythinghecouldtorelieve"thedistresses"ofConfederateveterans.IfthefederalgovernmentprovidedhomesforUnionveteransand"hundredsofcoloredsoldiersbenefitfromthese,"StylesdeclaredthencertainlyGeorgiashouldhaveahomeofitsown.Infact,hisfellowblackswould"bewillingtobetaxednow"tosupporttheinstitution.Forthisreason,Stylescheerfullycasthisvoteforthe"monument"tothepatriotismofGradyandallotherGeorgians.

EndorsementsbyStylesandothershelpedpushthesoldiers'homebillthroughagauntletofamendments.First,onelegislatorwantedtolimitappropriationstonomorethan$15,000,asuggestionthattheHouseadopted.Next,WarnerHill,nofriendofthehome,movedthatthebillbesubmittedtoadirectvoteofthepeopleinJanuary1893.Thismotionthemembersgrudginglyapproved(75-71).AmotionthatonlyConfederateveteranswereeligibletovoteinthespecialreferendumfailed,butthelegislatorsagreedtoaprovisionthatonlyveteranscouldserveashomeofficers.TheHousealsodeterminedthataveterancouldnotreceiveapensionandresideinthehomesimultaneously.Finally,itdefeatedarecommendationthatfathersofveteranscouldbeadmitted.WhenthemeasureasamendedfinallycameupforavoteonDecember3,1892,itpassedbyasubstantialmargin(121-43).38

YetitwasaPyrrhicvictory.Inanalyzingtheopposition'svotes,theConstitutionnotedthatallbelongedtothePopulistParty,whichhadrecentlyadoptedaplankagainstthehome.Indeed,sevenmembers

representingthe"terrible"TenthDistrict,incountieslyingnorthwestandwestofAugusta,andninemembersfromcountiessituatedsouthandeastofColumbus(boththirdpartystrongholds)remainedloyaltotheirparty'sdirective.AlsovotingagainstthebillwerefourremainingstalwartsoftheNinety-Four,threeofwhomwerenowactivePopulists."Itisremarkable,"ClarkHowellnotedwryly,thatmenwhosupposedlychampionedpopularreferendumsshouldvoteagainstameasurethatcontainedone.ButthehiddenironyatthetimewasthatnoteveryonewhovotedinfavorofFleming'somnibusbillactuallysympathizedwiththehome.WarnerHill,forexample,andthreeofhiscolleagueswhohadformerlyopposedtheinstitutionswitchedtheirvotesinthe1892session,asadisingenuousployultimatelytoderailtheproject.39

AtleastthatwashowcontemporariesinterpretedHill'samendmentrequiringapopularreferendum.AfewdaysafterthebillhadalreadygonetotheSenateforapprovalonDecember9,FlemingrevealedpubliclythatheandhissupportershaderredbyacquiescingtoHill'samendment.Fearingthatanydisputeoverthis"technicality"wouldjeopardizethehomeentirely,theyhadmadeno"attack,"hopingthattheiralliesintheSenatewouldbeabletostrike

thereferendum.ButthebillhadalreadyemergedfromtheSenatefinancecommitteewithHill'samendmentintact,andonDecember13,justhoursbeforeFlemingmadehisdisclosure,thebillpassed.Ifallowedtostand,Flemingwarned,themeasurewouldinvariablybedeclaredunconstitutional,sincethelegislaturelackedauthoritytodelegateitspower.Moreover,thereferendumfrightenedFlemingandothersintothinkingthat,oncethelegislationhadbeenturnedovertothepeople,"theblackvote"controlledbytheRepublicansandPopulistswouldsurelyrejectit.Reluctanttoriskrejection,SenatesympathizersmovedonDecember14thatthemeasurebeindefinitelypostponed,andtheyprevailedbyavoteof23-16."Thethirdpartywasdeterminedtokillthebillunderanyandallcircumstances,"concludedtheConstitution."Themischiefisdone....Thereislittlemoretosay."

Stunnedbythebill'sfailure,thehomedirectorswhometinthecapitolonJanuary12,1893,wereinnomood,havingbeenthricerejected,to"awaitanotherturn"andaskthestatetohelpagain.Oftheseveralalternativessuggestedthatdayadopttheoldjoint-stockcompanyplan,convertthehomeintoareformschoolfordelinquents,collectvoluntarysubscriptions,orsellthehomeoutrightandrefundthemoneytheboardchose,reluctantly,thelastnamedoption.Towardthisend,onFebruary14,JohnMilledgefiledapetitionincourtfortherighttoamendthehome'scharteranddisposeoftheproperty.Butnotuntilmid-December1894wasabillofequityfinallygranted.Afterward,LowndesCalhounannouncedthathewouldsooncallameetingoftheboardtodiscussthebestmethodofsellingthehomeandproperty(whichhesaidhadcost"somethingover"$50,000)eitherprivatelyorbypublicauction,adding,"Thatisreallytheonlythingwecando."41

AssemblingonJanuary28,1895,afteratwo-yearhiatus,theboarddiscussedforseveralhoursadealwhereinthestate'sFreeArchMasonswouldpay$25,000forthehome,tobeusedasa"refuge"fororphans.SeveraldirectorsincludingJamesEnglishandClementEvansbelongedtotheMasonicorder,whichpromisedtoallowasmanyastendisabledveteranseachyeartoresideinthehome.Butuponfurtherdeliberationthenextmorning,theboarddeclinedtheoffer,fearingthatitlackedauthoritytogivecontrolofthehometo"anyoneoranyorder"unlessthesupportofex-Confederateswasguaranteed.Perhapstheboardwasalsodisappointedbythelowbidandhopedthatthehomewouldfetchahigherpriceinthenearfuture.42

Duringthisperiodofgeneraleconomicinstability,abetterproposalwasnotforthcoming.Overthenextfewyears,asthepropertywasadvertisedforsaleorleaseatvariousintervals,thecommitteechargedwithdisposingofthehomereceivednobidswhatsoever.Inasmuchasthehomehadbeenplaguedbyadversityfromtheoutset,apparentlynoonewantedtoborrowtrouble.Meanwhile,thescantycontributionsreceivedsinceJuly1891weretotally

ThecontroversialhomethatGradybuiltforGeorgia'sveterans,shownhereinan1898photograph,remainedunoccupiedfornearlyadecade,untilitwas

finallydestroyedbyfirein1901.(author'scollection)

exhausted,andthehome,whichstoodvacant,closedandguarded,asa"silentmonument,"felldeeperintodebtasinsurancepremiumswentunpaid.CalhounsuccessfullynegotiatedasubstantialloanatzerointerestthroughfellowdirectorandhometreasurerPaulRomare,whoservedasvice-presidentoftheAtlantaNationalBank.ButthatevasiveactionsucceededinkeepingthehomesolventonlyuntilOctober1897,whenacourtorderfinallyforcedtheboardtoattempttosellthepropertyatpublicauction.

Onthedaybeforethehomewasscheduledtobe"exposedforsale"inApril1898attheFultonCountyCourthouse,theConstitutionreportedthatcertainUDCchapters,headedbythewivesofEllis,Hemphill,andEvans,haddeterminedto"savethehomeGradybuilt."Thenewspaperadmittedthatithadallbutwrittenoffthefailedendeavor."WouldtoGod"thathistoryhadbeendifferent,thearticleread,andthevotesagainstthehomehadbeenfewer,"butno,thedenialcannot

bemade.Theemptyhallways,thecheerlessrooms,theairofwildnessanddesolationanddesertionwhichmarksoutthebuildingasahauntedcastle,forbidsanydenial!"Grady'scallforMajorStewarttocomehome,the''sacredfund"drivethatGradyspearheaded,andevenGrady'sdeathcouldnotovercome"somelittletechnicalitiesofthelaw,somelittlejealousyoflocation."ButtheladiesoftheUDCwillcometotherescue,theConstitutionboasted.44

AccordingtoaprioragreementreachedwithCalhoun,Evans,Romare,andothersmembersoftheboard,theladieswouldpurchasethehomefor$5,000,amodestprice,butonethatwouldneverthelessbeenoughtocoverthehome'sindebtednessandpreventitfromfallingintounfriendlyhands.Ithadbeenrumoredthatseveralindependentpartieswereinterestedinpurchasingthepropertyandmakingitintoareformatory,asanitarium,asummerhotel,orevenacollege.Buttheladiesbelievedthatitwould"disgrace"thestatewerethehometobeusedforanythingotherthanwhatGradyhadenvisioned.

ItisunclearwhethertheboardactuallyintendedtogothroughwiththesaleorwhetheritwassimplyusingtheUDCasameansofdelayingforeclosure.Ineithercase,theApril5auctiondidnotgoastheUDCplanned.FollowingLowndesCalhoun'sproclamationoftheopeningofbidsfortheproperty,Mrs.HallieA.Rounsaville,statepresidentoftheUDC,madeherbidofficialasexpected.Astheauctioneer(William"Tip"Harrison)wasabouttodeclarethatthehomehadbeensold,"anoutsider,"E.G.Willingham,ownerofalumbercompany,startledthecrowdbybidding$10,000.Afterhurriedlyconsultingwiththeothercommissioners,Calhounstatedthatthebidswere"toolow,"andpromptlydeclaredthesaleoff,anannouncementthatthecrowdgreetedwith"heartyapplauseandcheering."Forhispart,Willingham,aveteran,wascensuredbyvariousUCVcampsinthedaysthatfollowed,untiltheConstitution

finallydisclosedthathehadbeensecretlyplantedinthecrowdbysomeofthedirectorstoensurethattheynotlosethehome.InspiteoftheconfusionorperhapsbecauseofittheboardhadsomehowavoidedsacrificingthehomethatGradybuilt.45

Intheensuingmonthsthehomereceivedadesperatelyneededboost.FromJuly20through23,1898,upwardof50,000visitors"invaded"theGateCitytoparticipateinthefestivitiesoftheeighthannualUnitedConfederateVeteransreunion.Inhonoroftheoccasion,theConstitutionpublishedaspecialcommemorativeissuedevotedentirelytothecelebrationoftheConfederacy'sachievements.Thepaperfeaturednumerouspensketchesoffamoussouthernpatriots,personalreminiscencesofthewar,andhistoriesofSherman'smarchthroughGeorgia,thesiegeofAtlanta,andotherimportantbattles.Moreimportant,italsocarriedanaccountofthe"unhappy"and"pathetic"historyofthesoldiers'homeandrelatedhowGradyhadconceivedthe"nobleplan"butthestatelegislaturehadpreventedveteransfrombenefitingfromit.Theauthorofthearticlewrotethathethoughtthehome'shistoryinthecourtswas"toowellknowntoberepeated."Aftertheveteransadjourned,thecommitteeinchargeoflocalarrangementsforthereunionannouncedthatitwoulddonatenearly$4,000insurplusfundstothehome,providedthattheGeorgiaAssemblyacceptitasastateinstitutionbyJanuary1901.Thecommitteewas

headedbyClementEvans,anditsothermemberswereCalhoun,Harrison,Fox,Hemphill,andHowell,allavidsupportersofthehome.

Alsoatworkduringthe1898reunioninAtlantawasthefactthatAmericawasatwarwithSpainandsomeex-ConfederateswereservingundertheStarsandStripes,upholdingthenation'shonor.Veteransatthereunionendorsedthewareffortandcalledontheirfellowcitizenstotakeuparmsagainsttheforeignfoe.Thewarunleashedastrongsenseofpatriotism,ofdutytoone'scountry,and,inturn,ofthecountry'sobligationstoallveterans.47Theextremeformofenthusiasm,pride,andmilitarismgeneratedbytheSpanish-AmericanWarinvariablynurturedtheConfederatesoldiers'homemovement.HomeadvocatespointedtothewarasademonstrationofJohnnyReb'sloyaltyandcourage.WhenmembersofCongressconvenedinDecember1898,theyheardforthefirsttimeproposalsthatnotonlywouldallowex-Confederatestobeadmittedtothenationalsoldiers'homesbutalsowouldpermitConfederatesoldiers'homestoreceivefederalfunding.Inaddition,followingthewarConfederateveterans'groupsinAlabama,Mississippi,andSouthCarolinabeganorganizingbenevolenceonbehalfofsoldiers'homesintheirstates.Asonesuperintendentlaterputit,thesoldiers'homeswere"sustainedbythesentimentofpatriotism,and...reverenceforahallowedandheroicperiodofthepast,deartoeverytrueSouthernmanandwoman."48ThehomethatGradybuiltwouldbenefitfromthesamesentiment.

UnderlegislationintroducedinNovember1898byJoeHallofBibbCounty,thehomewouldagainbeofferedtothestateinfeesimple.TheUCV'scashdonation,togetherwiththestate'sunexpendedwidows'pensionfund,wouldbeenoughtosupportthehomeduring

thefirsttwelvemonthsofoperation.IftoofewConfederateveteransenteredthehome,thepropertywouldthenbesoldordonatedtoanothercharity.Hallwasespeciallyprudentinattachingindependentfundingtothebill,sinceGeorgiathenfacedahugebudgetdeficitandmanylegislatorsfavoredretrenchment.Inspiteoftheseprecautions,however,Hall'sbilleventuallyboggeddowninthefinancecommitteebeforethewholeHousehadtimetoconsiderthemeasure.Understandablydiscouraged,thedirectorswereforcedtorecommitthehometotheauctionblockinMay1899,butinthewakeofanotheroftheConstitution'spublicoutcries,"lightbidding"convincedthecourtcommissionerstodenythesale.AlthoughthehomethatGradybuiltwasclosed,therestillremainedaglimmerofhopethatitcouldsomehowberevivedbeforethe1901deadline.49

Withtimerunningout,MajorWilliamT.Gary,inanapparentlast-ditchefforttosalvagethehomeendeavor,introducedanotherbillonOctober29,1900.Finallyemergingfromthefinancecommittee,thebillwasmadespecialorderofthedayforDecember3.Gary,aveteranandarailroadlawyerfrom

Augusta,madean"impassionedandeloquent"speechonbehalfofthe"unfortunate"menacrossthestatewhohadneithershelternorfamiliesandwouldbenefitfromtheAtlantahome.Heexclaimedthat''God,onMountSinai,hadcommandedthatwehonorourfathers...andtheywouldbehonoredifthehomewasgiventotheveterans."Criticsturnedadeafeartosuchanappeal,replayingascenethathadoccurredintheHouseonseveralpreviousoccasions.Theproposal,theycharged,wasunnecessary,theircountypoorhouseswere"goodenough,"therequested$15,000annualappropriationwould"takeaway"fromtheveterans'pensions,andtherewasnoreason"fromaneconomicalstandpoint"whythebillshouldbepassed.

Thehome'sproponentshadhearditallbefore,thoughconspicuouslymissingfromamongthevariousobjectionsraisedwastherabidanti-Atlantabiasthathadformerlyconsumedthehome'smoststalwartfoes.Evenso,byanarrowtwo-votemarginthebillfailedtoreceiveaconstitutionalmajority.Believingthatmanyofthebill'sfriendswereabsent,andsinceonlythreemorevoteswereneeded,Garymovedforitsreconsideration.Thistime,thebillpassed(106-50)andwastransmittedimmediatelytotheSenate,wherethebill'sco-author,BillSmithofBuford,anadvocateofthehomesinceitsfounding,guidedthemeasurethroughcommitteeandbroughtitsafelytothefloorfordebate.SupportinghimwereClarkHowell,theSenatepresident,andSenatorGeorgeM.Tatum,aformerAlliancemanfromWalkerCounty,oneoftheNinety-Four,whonowconfessedthathefavoredthebill"withallhisheart."Tatum'sself-confessedconversionwas,however,bynomeansindicativeofageneralreversalinsentimentbyhomedetractors.Infact,thefavorableactionintheHousehadprobablyresultedfromasubstantialchangeinpersonnel.Onlyeightmembersofthe1900Assembly,forinstance,hadoccupiedseatsin

eitherthe1890or1892lowerhouse.Althoughthreeadvocatesofthe1892legislationnowsupportedGary'sbill,PopulistsJ.R.HoganandM.L.Everett,amongtheoriginalNinety-Four,casttheirvotesagainstit.Also,threeotherswhohadabstainedfromvotingin1891splittheirvotesin1900,includingLecturedCrawford,McIntoshCounty'sblackrepresentative,whovotedagainstthemeasure.51

RepresentingthePopulistminorityintheSenatewasJamesDennardofWilcoxCounty,who,likeTatum,hadbeenoneoftheinfamousNinety-Four.DennardechoedthereservationsvoicedbyhisHousecolleaguesHoganandEverettandclaimedthattheveterans'institutionwouldneedlessly"burden"thestate.Severalotherssaidthattheyrefusedtobewooedbytheappealtosentiment.Nevertheless,onDecember15,1900,timehadcomefortheSenatetovoteonthemeasure.Alargenumberofveteransseatedinthegalleriesandgatheredontheflooranxiouslyawaitedthebill'soutcome.Finally,tothe

delightofthecrowd,thebillpassed(25-10)andwassenttothegovernor'sofficeforhissignature.

Afteroverelevenyearsof"expectantwaiting,"GovernorAllenCandler,aveteran,whoinhislastmessagetotheAssemblyhadrecommendedthestate'sacceptanceandmaintenanceoftheConfederateSoldiers'Home,signedthebillintolawonDecember19.FourdayslaterCandlernamedelevenofhisfellowex-Confederates,onefromeachcongressionaldistrict,toserveastrustees.AtitsfirstmeetingtheboardelectedLowndesCalhounpresidentandbeganliquidatingthehome'sdebt,makingnecessaryrenovationsonthebuilding"fromgarrettocellar,"draftingtherulesandregulations,interviewingcandidatesforsuperintendent,andreviewingapplicationsforadmission.53

OnJanuary19,1901,RobertE.Lee'sbirthday,duringaspecialawardsceremonyatthestatecapitol,theUDChonoredMajorGary,SenatorSmith,andLowndesCalhounfortheir"magnificentfight"bypresentingeachofthemwithamedalofachievement.Themedal'sprincipaldesignconsistedofalaurelwreathencirclingafacsimileoftheStarsandBars;thereversesideboreaninscriptioninreferencetothehome,"MonumentumAerePerennium"(amonumentmoreenduringthanbronze).InpresentingthemedaltoGary,ClarkHowellstatedthathethoughtit"providential"thattheoriginalbillhadbeendefeatedadecadeearlier,"forit[had]arousedthestatetoarecognitionofitsdutytotheConfederatesoldiers."Nootherstatehadbeenmoregenerousingrantingpensionsduringthe1890sthanGeorgia.Indeed,by1899pensionpaymentstotalednearly$5million,representingonaveragemorethan10percentofthestate'stotalexpendituresduringthedecade.54

Finally,onJune3,1901,JeffersonDavis'sbirthday,theinstitutionforwhichGradyhadworkedsodiligentlyadmitteditsfirstveterans,someforty"grayhairremnants"fromtwenty-sixdifferentGeorgiacounties,includingseveralformerthird-partystrongholds.DuringtheopeningceremoniesGovernorCandlerpraisedthehome,notas"apauper'sretreat""Godforbiditshalleverbelookedoninthatlight!"butasagifttowhichthestate'sveteranswereentitled.WhenLowndesCalhounspoke,heremindedeveryoneofthelongyearsof"strugglingandwaiting"thathadpassed.HepubliclythankedthefinepeoplewhostoodbeforehimtheUCVandUDC,theSonsofConfederateVeterans(SCV),theOrderofRobertE.Lee,andtheChildrenoftheConfederacyforneversurrendering,andhepromisedthoseadmittedthatdaythat''everythingpossiblewillbedonetomakethehoursyoupassherepleasantandagreeable,nottediousandburdensome."BillSmithalsospoke,makingseveralreferencestoGrady,andwas"warmlyapplauded"asGrady'smother,mother-in-law,anddaughter,whowereseatedonthespeaker'splatform,noddedinpoliteapproval.55

AnewhomeforGeorgia'sConfederateveteranswaserectedinplaceoftheonethatburneddown;themainbuilding,shownherein1910,stooduntil1967,

whenitwasrazed.(author'scollection)

Formallyrededicatedandofficiallydeclaredopen,thehome,rejoicedtheConstitution,was"atlastafact!"LittledidanyoneknowthatinafewshortmonthsfatewouldonceagainstrikeaswiftandterribleblowagainstthehomethatGradybuilt.TheSeptember1901fireravagedtheinstitution,butCalhounandthenewboardoftrusteeswereascommittedasevertoseeitopenedagain.LeasingAtlanta'sThompsonHotelasatemporaryfacility,theboardonOctober28hadMajorGaryintroduceabillinthestatelegislaturegrantinganadditional$20,000fortherebuildingofthesoldiers'home.InlateNovembertheHouseapproved(94-36)themeasure,andafewdayslatertheSenateconcurred(29-6).ByOctober1902anewsoutherncolonialstylebrickbuildinghadbeenfinishedandstoodreadyforoccupancy,barringanyotherunforeseentragedy.

Inspiteofthemultitudeofsetbacksandobstaclesencounteredinthepast,Grady'svisionhadbecomereality.Georgiahadfinallyestablishedahomeofitsown,paidforprimarilybysoutherners,in

recognitionoftheConfederatecommonsoldier'sachievements.TheAtlantaRing,wornthreadbarepriortoGrady'sdeath,hadsincecompletelyunraveled.Thedreadedfusionofthestate'sfarmers,blacks,andRepublicanshadneverfullytakenplace.GeorgianshadlargelyremainedloyaltotheDemocraticParty,Populismhadbecomeavanishingcreed,andtheblackvotehadbeeneffectivelyneutralized.Yetthehomeremaineduntilitwascompletelydemolishedin1967andeventually

anestimated1,200veteransresidedthere.Itssurvivalwassignificantlymorethanamemorialtooneman.ItwasatributetothepowerfulandenduringsentimentthathadgivenimpetusandmeaningtothefoundingofallConfederatesoldiers'homesintheNewSouth.

WiththefightfortheGeorgiahomesuccessfullyconcluded,threeotheroriginalConfederatestatesAlabama,Mississippi,andSouthCarolinastilllackedasoldiers'home.Butthatwouldsoonchange.InMontgomery,Alabama,forexample,onNovember13,1901,morethan2,000membersofthenewlyformedstatedivisionoftheUCVunanimouslyadoptedaresolutioncallingfortheestablishmentofahome.Theveteransalsopledgedtheirinfluenceinurgingthelegislaturetoenactalawthatwouldnotonlyprovidesufficientappropriationsbutalso"buildhousesandfurnishstockandfarmingimplements"forahome.SuchaninstitutionhadbeenfrequentlydiscussedintheaftermathoftheSpanish-AmericanWar,butthefirstseriousefforttomakeitarealityhadnotcommenceduntilCaptainJeffersonM.Falkner,aveteranandanattorneyfortheLouisville&NashvilleRailroad,announcedthatheintendedtodonatesomefortyacresoflandnearMountainCreekStationinChiltonCountytobeusedasahomesite.Alreadymorethan$250,000inpensionswerebeingappropriatedbythestateeachyear;Alabama'sconstitutionmandatedthattencentsoutofeverydollarinstaterevenuegotowardConfederatepensions,one-thirdtheamountearmarkedforpublicschools.Buttheveteranshaddecidedduringtheirfirstreunioninthestatecapitalthepreviousyearthatthe"smallpittance"givenbythelegislaturewasnotadequatetomeettheneedsoftheConfederatepensioner.''Thehomefortheoldheroesisatlastinsight,"rejoicedtheMontgomeryAdvertiser,whosepresidentandeditorinchief,W.W.Screws,wasalsoanexConfederateandaformerAlabama

secretaryofstate.

ByearlyApril1902constructionofthemainbuildingbegan,andworkonseveralcottageswouldsoonfollow,financedwhollythroughvoluntarycontributionsandvariouspublicevents,includingahighlypublicizedlecturebyformerTennesseegovernorRobertTaylor,afavoriteoratoramongexConfederatessincehisretirementfrompublicoffice.BoththeSenateandtheHousepassedthebillappropriatingstatemoniesfortheinstitution,withatotalofonlyfivedissentingvotes;andalthoughthestatefacedasevererevenueshortfall(ashadGeorgia),GovernorThomasJelkssignedthemeasureintolawonOctober6,1903.Althoughtherecertainlywereneedlessappropriationsinthestatebudget,explainedtheMontgomeryAdvertiser,theFalknerhomewas"paramount,andwebelievethattheStatecanaffordtomake[theappropriationfor]it."Moreover,Alabama'spoliticianssimplycouldnotaffordtoopposeit."Whatleaderorpoliticianwoulddareopposethe

Confederatesoldiers?,"onerepresentativeasked."GodsavethemanwhobeginsaraceforanyofficeinAlabamafromUnitedStatessenatortojusticeofthepeacebyantagonizingtheConfederatesentiment!""

ThesamecouldhavebeensaidnextdoorinMississippi,whereonDecember10,1903,theJeffersonDavisMemorialHomeforConfederateSoldiersandSailorsopenedatBiloxi.AdecadeearlierpeoplehaddiscussedestablishingahomeinMeridian,andinthemeantimetheUDChadsuccessfullylobbiedthestatelegislatureforthebuildingofaConfederateVeterans'AnnextothestatehospitalatVicksburg.ButtheopportunityforfoundingahomewasnotfullyrealizeduntilFebruary1903,whenVarinaDavis,theformerfirstladyandnowthevenerated"QueenMother"oftheConfederacy,officiallytransferredtheDavishomestead,Beauvoir,tothenewlyincorporatedstatedivisionoftheSCV,fortheexpresspurposeofconvertingthepropertyintoa"perpetualmemorialsacredtothememory"ofherlatehusband.Legislatorsnearly20percentofwhomwereConfederateveteransvotedoverwhelminglyinfavorofacceptingtemporarycontroloftheinstitution,andGovernorJamesK.VardamaneagerlysignedthebillcreatingthehomeonMarch4,1904.Inhisinauguraladdressthreemonthsearlier,Vardaman(amemberoftheSCV)hadwarnedhisfellowcitizensthat"aslongasthereisone[veteran]left...IwantitunderstoodthatIcarenothowheavytheburdensoftaxationmaybe,justaslongasthemoneyisneededandproperlyexpendedforthesupportofthehelplessex-Confederatesoldier."Withthegovernor'simprimaturonthesoldiers'homebill,Mississippianshadlittlereasontoquestionhisresolve.58

Meanwhile,inSouthCarolina,inthethreedecadesfollowingthewar,

millionsofdollarsinartificiallimbpaymentsanddisabilitypensionshadbeenappropriatedforneedyveterans,andahomeforConfederatewidowsanddaughtershadbeenstartedinCharleston.Thefirstknownattempttoestablishahomeforex-soldierstookplacein1900,whenaveteraninLaurensCountyannouncedafund-raisingcampaign,becausethe"poorhouse[wasnoplace"forex-Confederates.Inthefollowingyear,theUDCandtheboardofregentsoftheStateHospitalfortheInsaneinformedGovernorMilesB.McSweeneyofapotentialsiteforthehome.TheregentsdeclaredthatBellvuePlace,propertynearColumbiaformerlybelongingtoColonelWilliamWallacebutrecentlyacquiredbythehospital,couldbe"adaptedtoalltheusesoftheveterans,"sincetheexistingfarmhousecouldformthenucleusfora"fewwoodenbuildings."Butthelegislaturedidnotactupontherecommendationuntilseveralyearslater,whenSenatorJ.HampdenBrooksofGreenwood,adistinguishedveteranandbrotherofthelatecongressmanPrestonSmithBrooks(ofBrooks-Sumnerfame),introducedabillcreatingtheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary.59

AccordingtoBrooks'sbill,thestatewouldprovide$12,000,whichwastobe

usedtoconstructafacilityonthelanddonatedbythestatehospital.SenttotheHouseonFebruary9,1907,butheldoverandmadespecialorderinthesecondsessionayearlater,thebillwassoonapprovedinaclosevote(55-47)andratifiedbytheSenateshortlyafterward.Somelawmakersobjectedtothehome'sbeingestablishedatColumbia,whileothersnolongersawaneedforthehomeandworriedthatitwouldnotbeagoodinvestment.Asforthosewhovotedagainstthemeasure,fumedoneangryveteran,they"oughttobeashamed,...andiftheyarenot,Ifeelsuresomeoftheirconstituentsareashamedforthem!"WhenthenewAssemblyconvenedthefollowingyear,afterBrookshadretiredfromoffice,thirty-nine-year-oldMendelLafayetteSmithofKershawCounty,aformerHousespeaker,introducedabillrepealingtheactestablishingtheinfirmary.WhenthebillreachedtheSenate,theUDCmade"suchabeautifulplea"thatitwaskilledwithoutadissentingvote,andeverypennyoriginallysetasidefortheprojectwasrestored.

OnMemorialDay,May10,1909,thehomeopened,andthreeweekslater,onJune3,JeffersonDavis'sbirthday,formaldedicationceremonieswereheldatthehome,featuringaspeechbyGovernorMartinF.Ansel,appropriateremarksbyBrooks,andanemotionaltributebySenatorFrancisH.WestonofRichlandCounty,oneofthehome'smoststalwartproponentsandanofficerintheSCVThetwenty-oneoldmenwhowerenowinthehome"seem[ed]perfectlycontent,"commentedaColumbiareporteraftertouringthebuilding."Theyaretreatedwithasmuchconsiderationasiftheywerelords.Theirroomsarecomfortable,theirtablefareadequateandwholesome,theirsupplyofliteratureelevatingandpleasing."Andnooneatthetimehadanyreasontodoubtthatthiswasalltrue.61

Exactlywhyex-Confederateswerelateinestablishingsoldiers'homesinAlabama,Mississippi,andSouthCarolinatheveryheartofDixieisopentospeculation.WhethertherewasadirectrelationshipbetweenGrady'shighlypublicizedanddrawnoutendeavorandthepostponedstartoftheotherthreehomesisunclear.Statefinancesdonotseemtoprovideananswereither.Asnotedearlier,legislatorsinallthreestateswerewillingtoprovidepensions,artificiallimbs,andotherformsofdirectassistancetoneedyConfederateveterans,evenwhendeficitfinancingwasrequired.Apossibleexplanationisthatveteransinthesestateswerenotorganizedwellorsoonenoughtoestablishahomeanyearlier.Ex-ConfederatesinAlabama,forexample,waiteduntiltheturnofthecentury,whentheywerelikelyspurredbytheintensepatriotismandconsciousnessofveteransraisedbyAmerica'swarwithSpain,beforeformingastatedivisionoftheUCV.ButwhatAlabamaConfederateveteranslackedinorganizationandeffectiveleadershipuntil1900,theircounterpartsintheborderstatesofMarylandandMissourihadlackedinnumbersandpoliticalinfluencebeforetheyestablishedhomesintheirstates.

AndthereisnoindicationthatalargenumberofveteransinSouthCarolina,Mississippi,orAlabamaferventlyopposedasoldiers'homeinprinciple,viewingitasdegradingcharity,inthewaysomeex-Confederateshaddoneinotherstates.Insum,thereisnosatisfactoryanswerthathelpsexplainwhythefirststatestosecedewerethelaststatestojointheConfederatesoldiers'homemovement.

CHAPTERFIVEADisciplineforHeroesThemovementtocreatesoldiers'homesintheNewSouthbeganasmuchwithideasabouthonorandsocialresponsibilityaswiththeunderlyingassumptionthatanindigentbutworthyex-Confederatedeservedbetterthanabundleofstrawinacountyalmshouse.Thephilanthropistswhoconceived,founded,supported,andgovernedtheSouth'sfirstveterans'institutionsfeltcompelledtousetheirwealthandfreetimetoamelioratethelotoftheirlessfortunatebrethren.Lifewithinafilthyasylumclutteredwithalcoholics,tramps,blacks,theinsane,and"theroughestsort,"theyargued,wasunnatural,impersonal,anddemeaningforoldsoldiers.Andthealmshousewasnobetteralternative,theyreasoned,representingasitdidalossofautonomy,andbeingaplacewheretheindigentveteranwouldbedegradedandmanipulated.

1Ontheotherhand,thebenefitsofa"home"atmosphereandthesolicitudeof"family"memberswouldprovideidealconditionsforcomfortandrest,withoutthestigmaofpauperism."Itis"indeed''alamentablesighttoseeabattle-scarredsoldieroftheConfederacyinapoorhouse,"exclaimedtheRichmondDispatchin1892."Itisdisgracefulthatanyworthyveteran...shouldbeforcedtolivelikeapauper."AsGeorgia'sClementEvanshadputittwoyearsearlier,"truemen"shouldneverbeforcedintothepoorhousetobecomethe"commonobjectsofuncertaincharity"or"facethefrownofimpatientandheartlessstrangers."2

ThecentralpurposeoftheConfederatesoldiers'home,therefore,wastoprovideaviablealternativetowhatmanyconsideredasubstandard

anddemoralizedinstitutionalcaresystemforaged,infirm,andpoormen.Almshouses,pauperfarms,insaneasylums,hospitals,and,insomecases,jailsweretobereplacedbyanewinstitutionthatbettersuitedtheveteran'sneedsandspecialstatus.Forsomehomeadvocates,providinga"new"institutionmeantsimplyadoptingandapplyingthebestfeaturesofestablished,modernbenevolence.Forothers,however,itmeantbeingwillingtotrysomethingdifferent,

inanefforttoimproveuponexistingconditions.Forexample,JeffersonFalknerofAlabamaderivedhisideaofaveterans'homefromthecottagesystem,whereineachveteranandhisfamilyresidedina"smallhouse"orcottageandenjoyed"homeprivileges,"suchasbeingabletogeta"glassofmilkorarollinthekitchenbetweenmealsatwill,insteadofbeinghousedwithhundredsofothers,[and]eating,sleepingandlivingbyruleandtheclock."Intime,theJeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'HomeatMountainCreekconsistedofmorethantwentydifferentbuildingsofvarioussizesandfunctions:aneclecticmixtureoflargedormitoriesandsmallhousesdistributedaroundacrescent-shapeddrivethatservedasthelifelineofthe"beautifulvillage"inAlabama.William''Tip"Harrison'sconceptionofa"modelhome"forGeorgia'sveteranswasalargefarmingcooperativeof3,000acres,dividedintoten-acreplotsforeachveteranandhisfamily.SidingwithHenryGrady,Harrisonopposedacentraledificedesign,asheexplained,because"thismakestheplaceappearlikeaprisonorpoorhouse,leavesnoroomforemployment[and]createsdiscontentafterthenoveltywearsoff."Yetitwasjustsuchadesignthatwell-meaningandconcernedveteransinTennessee,Arkansas,Missouri,Kentucky,Oklahoma,andultimatelySouthCarolina,adoptedfortheirindigentcomrades.Intheend,Georgiansreluctantlyabandonedthecottageplaninfavorofacentralbuildingtoo.

Althoughindividualcottageswereeasierandcheapertobuild,wereavailableuponcompletionforimmediateoccupancy,andcouldbeconstructedandfurnishedinarelativelyshorttime,acentralbuildingwasmoreeconomical,sincemoreveteranscouldbehousedtogetheratlesscostoveralongerperiodorsoitwasargued.TheTennesseehome,forexample,wasfullyequippedtoprovidesolicitudeand

compassiontolargenumbersofoldanddisabledmenwhomightotherwisehavelivedouttheremainderoftheirlivesalone,uncaredfor,andforgotten.Thebrick,two-storybuildingconsistedofapairofsymmetricalwingsadornedwithwidegalleries,roundedporticoes,andflutedpillars.Whereasthelowerstorycontainedreceptionrooms,aparlor,alibrary,adininghall,andakitchen,theupperlevelhad50bedroomsforamaximumof125occupants.Interiorhallwaysconnectingeachroomconvergedatthecenterofthebuilding.Thehomealsoincludedanengineroom,equippedwithsteamfurnaceandboilers,andlaundryfacilities,locatedinthebasement,whilea10,000-galloncisternsetastridetheroofprovided"running"water,aswellasameansforfireprotectionandwastedisposal.Thehomeresembledacrossbetweenaresthomeandalargecountryhotel,althoughanimposingraised-letterboardstretchedacrossitscentralfacadeannouncedthatitwasthe"ConfederateSoldiers'Home."4TheoriginalbuildingoftheArkansashomewaslikewiseatwo-storybrickstructure.Describedas"neat,comfortableandattractive,"itmeasuredsome60by115feet,withtwolonggalleriesrunning

thelengthofthebuilding,whichcouldaccommodateasmanyassixty-fourpersons.NeithertheTennesseenortheArkansashomewasinexpensivetobuild,eachcostingitsrespectivestatelegislature$10,000-$25,000intheearly1890s.

Nomatterhowmuchitcost,homeadministratorshadonespecificgoal:tosupplypracticallyeverythingwithintheboundsofreasonforthehappinessandcomfortoftheveteran."Ourwholeaimhere,"remarkedArkansassuperintendentRufusMcDaniel,"istomakethelastdaysofthedearoldveteransjustashappyandpeacefulasitis[possible]forhumanstobe."Peace,quiet,comfort,convenience,andanourishingdietwereallfundamentalcomponentsofthehomes'paternalisticvisionofwhattheyweretoprovide.Yetforthoseearnestmenwhoborelegalandfinancialresponsibilityforthem,theinstitutionsalsohadtobemaintainedindueorder.Hopesforeffectiveandefficientcarecouldnotbecomerealitieswithoutanappropriatelyhierarchicalcontrolofeverypersonwithinthehomeandeveryaspectofitsadministration.AsoneSouthCarolinahomeofficialadmitted:"Wecannotexpecttohavearealhomeunlessorderismaintained."SuperintendentMcDanielagreed:"Somedisciplinemustbeadministered."

5Thus,trusteessoughtnotonlyto''shield"veteransfromthetempestuous"outerworld";theyalsostruggledtoimposeadesiredorderwithinthehomewalls.6

Towardthisend,trusteesprescribedworkforveteransundertheircharge.Infact,themanagersoftheFalknerHomeinAlabama,forexample,requiredeachveterantopledgeinwritingthathewouldworkaslongashewasable.TheFalknerboardcouldnothavebeenmorepleasedtofind,duringoneofitsinitialinspections,thattheveteranswereengagedinavarietyof"light"employment:onewas

diggingupastump;anotherwastillingaflowergarden:athirdtookimmenseprideinawoodshedheandhisfellowinmateshadconstructed;andstillotherswerechoppingwoodtofilltheshedforthecomingwinter.Physical,emotional,andmoralbenefitsaboundedinlabor,soitwascontended,evenforthepoorandaging.TheNorthCarolinaboardofdirectorsrequiredresidentstolabor"fortheir[own]comfortandhappiness,"whileLouisiana'sCampNichollsputmentoworkinordertoavoidinactivityandits"perniciousconsequences."The"bittermonotonyofenforcedidleness"would"naturallycausementobecomedissatisfiedwiththeirsurroundings,"warnedtheboardofvisitorsforVirginia'sLeeCamp.Therefore,someformof"lightandcongenialemployment"tohelp"dissipatethespirit[ofself-pity]"seemedappropriate.Apparentlyitwasdifficultforpersons,especiallythoseapproachingretirementthemselvesasmanyhometrusteesweretoaccepttheideathataformerlyindustriousandprudentlaborerwouldnolongerbeabletoprovideforhimself.Withadequatesupervisionanddiscipline,theyseemedtofeel,aninmatemightbecomeindependent.Andatleastoneman

expressedthehopethatifanoldanddisabledveteranenteredahome,perhapshecouldbemade"almostself-supporting."

BothHenryGradyandJohnGordon,twokeyspokesmenforConfederatesoldiers'homes,stressedthataveteranwhoremainedactiveretainedhisself-worth.WhentheConstitutionlauncheditsfund-raisingdriveinApril1889,GovernorGordonrecommendedthatGeorgiansconsiderestablishinga"ConfederateCooperativeIndustrialHome,"essentiallyaworkhouse.Theplanfeaturedanumberof"advantages,"Gordonasserted,forveteransandtheirfamilieswouldworkatmanufacturingclothing,shoes,baskets,orcannedfruits.Bysupportingthemselves,heargued,inmateswouldmaintaintheirself-respectandself-relianceanddevelopbodilystrength.Inaddition,aself-sufficienthomewouldrelievetheGeorgialegislatureoftheburdenoftaxation.Suchaplan,Gordonboasted,is''effectivephilanthropy."EventhoughGradyenvisionedafarmingcommunityinhabitedbysoldiersandtheirfamiliesratherthanamanufacturingcommunity,he,likeGordon,expectedresidentstowork,eitheronindividualfive-acreplotsorcollectively.Thereshouldbe,hesaid,anabundanceof"homecultivation":gardens,orchards,dairies,andpasturesthatwouldallowtheveterantofeelthathewas"helpingatleasttoearnhisdailybread."8

BothGradyandGordonbelievedthatamodelsoldiers'homehadroomfortheveterans'spousesanddependentchildren,andotherssharedtheirthinking.Forexample,duringtheplanningstagesfortheMississippihome,veteransenvisionedan"industrialfarm"forex-soldiersandtheirfamilies.InAugust1890JohnP.MurphyassuredhisfellowdelegatesatthesecondannualmeetingoftheEx-ConfederateAssociationofArkansas,thattheirhomewouldnotonly

beaplacewherehispoorcomradescould"spendtheirdecliningyearsinpeaceandquiet"butalso"wherethewidowoftheoldsoldiercanfindrestandshelter,and...thesoldier'sorphancanobtainamanualtrainingschool."9WhentheArkansashomefinallyopenedtwoyearslater,onlyveteranswereadmitted,butanannexforwomenwasconstructedintheearlytwentiethcentury.Nothingcameoftheschool,however.SeveralofthehomesthateventuallybarredwivesandchildrenfromenteringthoseinFloridaandTennessee,forexamplepermittedfamiliestooccupythehomeuntilitbecameevidentthatsuchanarrangementwasneitherpracticalnorcosteffective.And,althoughJeffFalknerinvitedveteransandtheirfamiliestodwellinhiscottages,relativelyfeweverdid,asmostoftheveteranswhocametolivethereoccupiedthehome'sdormitoriesinstead.10

AlthoughembracingneitherGordon'snorGrady'splan,Georgiahometrusteesdecidedtoincorporatelaborforex-Confederatesasameansof"recreation."Beforethehomefinallyopened,theboardmandated"lightwork"forconvalescingandambulatoryresidents.Dutiesrangedfromwaitingontables,

PlatoftheLeeCampHome,showingthattheVirginiahomewasmuchmorethanasingle

buildingandwasindeedaveritablecommunity.(courtesyofVirginiaHistoricalSociety)

nightpatrol,andbuildingmaintenancetocleaningrooms,scouringhallways,cooking,dishwashing,anddisposingofwaste.Somemenalsorepairedshoesandclothingandtoiledinthehomegarden.

11Othersoldiers'homeadministrators,too,prescribedworkfortheirresidents.Texasmanagers,forexample,requiredeachable-bodiedinmatetoperformhisportionofworkwithalacrityand"goodfaith."Thesuperintendentcouldassignany"reasonablelabor"beyondthemandatorydutiesofkeepingquarterscleanandneat.Refusaltoobeyanofficer'sorders,therulesread,wouldresultin"promptdismissal''fromthehome.VeteransattheTexashomemendedfences,hungshingles,pitchedhay,patchedclothing,andresoledfootwear,inexchangefor"tobaccomoney,"thatis,afewdollarswithwhichaninmatecouldpurchasesmallitems,includingchewingorsmokingtobacco.12LeeCampveteranshadtocleantheirrooms"properly"and"beautifythehome"asdirectedbythecommandant,aswellas"dosuchworkastheirphysicalabilitywillallow,withoutremuneration."In1892WilliamA.Shiplettreportedthat,inthetwoyearshehadresidedattheVirginiahome,hehadbeendetailedtonursesickinmatesandburydeceasedonesandtobuildabarn.Duringthesameperiodanothermanhadworkedintheofficeasafileclerk;athirdhadgrazedhorsesandmindedcows,whileafourthhadshoveledcoal.Thealternativetoworking,theboardofvisitorsallegedlyinformedtheinmates,was"thegatedotheworkorgooutofthegate."13

CampNicholls'sdirectorsalsodemanded"strictobedience"totherulegoverninginmateduties.Theyheldeachmanresponsibleforhisownclothing,bedding,andquarters,enjoininghimtokeepthem"properlycleanedandingoodorder."Thesameruleappliedtothegroundsandbuildings,whileanotherruleprohibitedthepracticeofhiringsubstitutes.AttheLouisianahomeduringthe1890sveteranspainted

cisterns,repairedbuildings,whitewashedtrees,pulledweeds,andcleanedprivies.In1900theboardappointedadozen"suitable"inmatestoformahomefirebrigade,responsibleformanningextinguishersanddrillingregularly.Beginningin1888,directorsevenpermittedinmates,bywrittenrequest,tolaboroutsidethehome,butwhentheybecameconvincedthatoutsidelaborcontributedtolapsesindiscipline,theyrescindedtheruleeightyearslater.14

Homefoundersassumedthatresidentswouldwanttoworkanyway,basingtheirassumptiononoldnotionsofsocialresponsibilityandonthepersistentpopularimageofJohnnyReb.FundamentaltothefoundingofConfederatesoldiers'homeswasanunquestioneddistinctionbetweentheworthyandunworthypoor,betweentheprudentandindustriousobjectsofabenignstewardshipandthelazyandself-indulgentpauperswhohadnoclaimuponpublicbenevolence.And,forhomeadvocatesandadministrators,therewasnodoubtintowhichcategoryJohnnyRebfell.Thoughbattlescarsmayhave

renderedhimunfittoearnalivelihoodandoldageandpovertymayhaveovertakenhim,thecommonsouthernwarriorstillremainedashiningmodelofhonor,valor,andmanlinesstooproud,therefore,toacceptpity.Itwouldnotbeconsideredcharityifmenworkedinthehome.Thus,itwasonlynaturalthatadministratorsexpectedinmatestoworkwhengivenanopportunity,inordertopreventthelossofself-esteem.

VeteranslikeA.B.Carterreinforcedsuchbeliefs.HavinglosthisrightarmatSpotsylvania,hewasunabletoperform"hardlabor."ButtheShelbyCounty,Tennessee,farmerrequestedthatboardpresidentFitzhughLeegivehim"somethingtodo"intheVirginiahometoenablehimtosupporthiswifeanddaughter.Infact,theytoowoulddo"anythingthatcameintheirline,"heaverred.Impressedbytheoldman'sdetermination,LeeforwardedCarter'sapplicationtotheboard,concludingthathisseemedtobea"deservingcase."Otherapplicantsmanifestedasimilardesiretoremainactive.FormerNorthCarolinasergeantDanielC.Hillclaimedthathewould''gladly"workintheVirginiainstitution.OneNashvilleex-Confederateobviouslydelightedintellingtrusteesabouthisvastexperienceingrowingsweetpotatoes.Equippedwiththisknowledge,heboasted,"Icanbeofmuchbenefittoourhome."AfellowTennessean,agedseventy-one,fancyinghimselfa"verycompetent"veterinarian,believedhewouldalsobeof"greatserviceoutthere[atthehome]inlookingafterthehorses,cowsandotherstock."Anotherveteranputitsimply:"Iwanttocome,"but"Idonotwanttobeidle."

Theprocessofdistinguishingbetweendeservingandimprovidentveteransbeganwithadmissionapplications.Formalentrancecriteriaweresimilarinallearlysoldiers'homes.Potentialinmateshadtomeet

severalbasicstandards,andtrusteeshadtobeconvincedthataveteran'sindigencewascausedbyawarrelateddisabilityorothereventsbeyondhiscontrol,andcertainlynotbyidlenessorotherpersonalfailings.Forstarters,trusteesrequiredapplicantstofurnishevidenceoftheirmilitaryservice(noimposterswerewanted).Onlyanhonorabledischargeorimprisonmentbytheenemyexcusedasoldierfromthefighting;thereforedesertersneednotapply.Furthermore,menwhohadrenouncedthesoutherncausebyswearinganoathofallegiancetotheUnitedStateswereineligible.AcaseinpointwasW.T.Vick,whohadbeenasoldierintheFortiethMississippiInfantrybutwho,accordingtoareportbytheAdjutantGeneral'sOfficeinWashington,tookanoathonApril10,1865,beforeenlistingintheFifthU.S.Infantry.VickwasdeniedadmissiontotheArkansashomebecause,asSuperintendentClarenceP.Newtonexplained,hehadsworntheoathbeforeLee'sformalsurrenderonApril12,whichtheboardconsideredtheofficialendofthewar.16

TheapplicationformfortheJeffersonDavisMemorialHomeconsistedofnearlyfiftyquestions,mostofwhichdealtwiththeex-Confederate'smilitary

service.Theformaskedtheveteranwherehehadenlisted,inwhichregiment,andwhatthenameofhiscommandingofficerwas,aswellasinquiringaboutthedateof,reasonsfor,andtermsofhisdischarge,transfer,reenlistment,orsurrender.Washeeverwounded?ifso,whenandwhere?Washeeverabsentfromhiscommand?howlongandwhy?Threesignaturesby"creditable"referencesorapprovalofthecommanderoradjutantofaUCVcamp,aswellasaphysician'scertificate,werealsorequired.ACampNichollsapplicanthadtoprovidetwovouchersthatborethenamesandranksofformercomrades.Inlightofthesequestionsandrequirements,itseemsclearthatafaultymemorycouldjeopardizeapprovalofaveteran'sapplication.Whatifanapplicantcouldnolongeraccuratelyrecallthedetailsofhisenlistment?Insuchcases,advisedAlexanderS.Salley,Jr.,secretaryoftheSouthCarolinaHistoricalCommission,whoroutinelyverifiedapplicationsforadmissiontothehomeinColumbia,officialsshouldasktheveteranthenameofhiscaptain,explaining:"Ifhedoesnotknowthat,thenyoumaybesurethatheisnotwhatheclaimstobe....Everysoldiershouldknowthenameofhiscaptain."Inaddition,Alabamaveteranswereexpectedtoremembereveryoneoftheircommanders,fromcorpsanddivisionleveldowntotheircompany'ssecondlieutenantandadjutant.Virginiatrusteesinsistedonnotarizedaffidavits(preferablysignedbytwomenwhohadservedinthesameregiment)accompaniedbyajudge'scertificate.Iftwo"reputable"witnessescouldnotbefound,Texasapplicantshadtheoptionofsubmittingtheirolddischargepapers.Thesoldiers'homeshouldbeahomefor"WorthyDisabledEx-ConfederateSoldiers,''exclaimedCampNichollsboardmemberFredA.Ober,"notanasylumfortramps"whocannotverifythattheyperformedhonorableservice.

TheformemployedbytheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmaryatColumbiaenabledtheboardofcommissionerstodetermineeffectivelywhetheranapplicant'smilitaryservicehadindeedbeenhonorable.WhenAmosO.BanksofLexingtonCountyappliedforadmission,forexample,heindicatedthathehadenlistedinCompanyF,FifthSouthCarolinaCavalry,atLexingtonCourtHouse,onDecember26,1861.Hehadservedthroughoutthewarexceptforaperiodofaboutsixweeks,until,afterhavingbeenbeenwoundedinJune1864atColdHarborandlosingtheuseofhisrightwrist,hespenttherestofthewarconfinedinahospitalbedinRichmond.HealsostatedthathehadfoughthonorablyandfaithfullyandthathehadremainedloyaltotheConfederategovernmenttothebitterend.Bankswaseightyyearsoldwhenheappliedtotheinfirmary,unmarried,5'11",afarmer,andhisnearestrelativeswereniecesandnephewsatColumbiaandinLexingtonCounty.Bysigningtheapplication,heclaimednotonlythathesufferedfromawartimedisabilitybutalsothathehadnorelative"uponwhomhe[could]rely"forhelp.Moreover,hedeclaredthathewasa"personofgoodcharacterand

habits,"andifadmitted,hepromised"uponpainofexpulsion,"notonlytoabidebyandobeytherulesandregulationsbutto"performsuchdutiesasmayberequired"ofhim,aswellasto"obeyalllawfulorders."BankssignedtheapplicationonMay19,1909,inthepresenceoftwowitnesses.Certifyingtheapplication,theLexingtonBoardofPensionsalsovouchedforBanks'srecord,beforeforwardingthefiletothehome.AftercheckingthatBankshadsatisfactorilyansweredeachquestion,DavidCardwell,presidentoftheboardofcommissioners,approvedhisapplicationandadmittedBankstothehome.Therehediedlessthantwoyearslater.

Homeauthoritiesalsorequiredconfirmationthataveterantrulylackedthephysicalabilityandmeanstoresideontheoutside.AdmissionproceduresattheTexashomeincorporatedaseriesofphysicalexaminations.Bylaw,anapplicanthadtobecheckedfirstbyaprivatephysicianandthenbyahomeexaminingpanelofthree,whodeterminedwhethertheprospectiveinmatewasdisabledtotheextentthathecouldnolongerearnaliving.Ifbyperiodicevaluationthehomesurgeonconcludedthattheinmate'sconditionhadimproved,themanagersreservedtherighttoissueanhonorabledischargetoanymanhaving"sufficientability...tosupporthimself."Suchactionwasnecessary,accordingtothelawestablishingtheTexashome,inordertopreventtheinstitutionfrombecomingarefugefor"lazy,able-bodiedmen."AsoneinmateinformedatrusteeoftheFalknerHome,"theHomeisagoodthingforfeebleandSickmen,butIdon'tthinkthatgreatbigpowerfulStrongmenwhoareabletototeacrosstie,oughttobeallowedtostayhere."InHardeeCottage,whereheresided,thereweretwoIrishmenwholookedlike"prizefighters,''hesaid,andoughttobedismissed.Althoughrequiredtolabor,aTexasinmate,paradoxically,riskedforfeitureofhisrighttoresideatthe

homewhenheexhibitedphysicalwell-beingbyworkingtoodiligently.Nowonderthe"majoritydonothing,"growledtheTexashomephysician,"butmakeupbeds,attendmealsandsleep."19Atthesametime,noneofthehomesadmittedpatientssufferingfromchronicorcontagiousdiseases.Theformerunderminedtheinstitution'slimitedabilitytoprovidebedsforcurableinmates,whilethelatterendangereditspopulationandstaff.

Administratorsappearedequallyconcernedaboutaveteran'sfinancialfitnessbutlackedeffectivemethodsforconfirmingit.Eachhomesoughttoadmitonlytheindigentanddisabled,generallyinterpretedasthoseunabletoprovideforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Theinterpretationof"indigency"variedfromstatetostateovertime.InMississippiin1916aso-calledindigentveteranwasonewhoownedpropertyworthlessthan$2,500.InTexasin1917itmeantowningpropertyvaluedatnotmorethan$1,000.InArkansasaslateas1923thelawprohibitedinmatesfrompossessingmoneyorrealestateworthinexcessof$500.20InLouisianaeventhepaltrysumderivedfromaConfeder-

atepension($8.00permonthin1900)wasenoughtodisqualifyanapplicant;infact,manystatesprohibitedtheirConfederateveteransfromdrawingapensionwhileresidinginthehome.Inmoststates,however,prospectiveinmatesdidnothavetodocumenttheirclaimofpoverty.

21InGeorgia,Virginia,Arkansas,andNorthCarolina,applicantssimplysworeoraffirmedtheireconomicstatusbeforeapublicofficial.InTennessee,respondentsmerelyhadtoanswerinasatisfactorymannersuchquestionsas"Inwhatbusinessareyounowengaged,ifany,andwhatdoyouearn?"or"Whatestatehaveyouinyourownright,realandpersonal,andwhatisitsvalue?"Admissionboardsrarelyinvestigatedresponses,fortheyunderstandablyviewedapplicantsasgenuinelyneedy.Afterall,nonebutthepooranddesperatewouldwillinglyseekthedubiouscomfortsofaninstitution,nomatterhowwellmanaged.22

Howeverpoorhemightbe,anapplicantstillhadtobemorallyworthy.TheLeeCampboardofvisitorsinsistedthat,nomatterhowgoodaman'swarrecordmightbe,ifhisdisabilityhadbeencausedbyhisown"badhabitsandcharacter,"hewouldnotbeadmitted.HenryE.Shelley,presidentoftheTexashomeboardofmanagers,didnotbelievethatthestateintendedtosupport"any...insubordinate,vicious,..obnoxiousanddisagreeable...characters."Rather,addedSuperintendentJamesQ.Chenoweth,inmatesshouldbe"worthy"menwho"cheerfully"conductthemselvesaccordingtothe''highstandard"representedbythe"true"and"honorable"Confederateveteran.23Althoughdisciplineamonginmateswasacommonconcernforadministratorsofallnineteenth-centuryalmshousesandothercharitableinstitutions,onefactorthatsetConfederatesoldiers'homesapartfromotherhomes-includingotherveterans'homes-wasthechief

requirementthatapplicantsnotonlywerebonafideConfederateveteransbutalsoconformedtoapreconceivedideaofwhataConfederateveteranoughttobe.Beforeaveterancouldbeadmittedtoahome,hehadtopledgetoconducthimselfasanyrealConfederatesoldierwould.24OfficialsrequiredanapplicantfortheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmarytodeclarethathewasapersonof"goodcharacterandhabits,"andtopromisethat,ifadmitted,hewouldobeyallrulesand"lawfulorders"andperformsuchdutiesasmightberequiredofhim.Moreover,bysigningtheapplication,hewasdoingso,astheapplicationspecificallystated,with"FULLKNOWLDEDGETHATANYVIOLATIONOFTHERULESWILLSUBJECTHIMTODISMISSALATTEHDISCRETIONOFTHEBOARDOF

COMMISIONERS."InapplyingforadmissiontotheArkansashome,veteranswerewarnedthatno"drunkardordeadbeatoramanofbadcharacter"needapply,andanyonesigningaffidavitsonbehalfofaveteranwasadvisedto"bearthis[policy]inmind"andto"remember[that]youareunderoath!"AllAlabamainmateswererequiredtopromisenotonlythattheywouldobservealltherulesand

regulationsbutalsothattheywouldobeythecommandantandotherofficers,aswellasbecourteoustoandrespecttheirfellowresidents.

Precodedapplicationforms,inwhichanswershadtofallwithinsomeacceptablerangeofresponses,alsoscreenedoutundesirables.Some"closed"questionsread:"Doyouuseintoxicantstoanyextent?";''Isyourmindeverunbalanced?";"Hasapplicantopium,chloraloranyotherdrughabit?"Homeauthorities,ofcourse,automaticallyrejectedanyonewhoansweredintheaffirmativetosuchqueries."Insanepersonsandhabitualdrunkards,"bothdemoralizingelementsinahome,wouldbeexcludedandlefttothealmshouse.Afterall,orsoitwasbelieved,atrueex-Confederatewasthemodelofsobriety.Onlythosewhohadbornesincethewara"goodmoralcharacter"and"goodhabits"wouldbegrantedasafehaven.Thus,endorsementsattestingtothemoralworthofaveteranwereexpectedtoaccompanyhisapplication.AtypicalendorsementbythepensionboardinSouthCarolinaread:

ThisoldmanW.G.ParkerisanativeofYorkCountyS.C.HewasinGeorgiain1861plyinghisavocationasaMachinistandenlistedandenteredtheConfederateServicefromthatState.HelosthislegatthebattleofChancellorsvilleVain1863whichdisabledhimforfurtherserviceinthewar.HemarriedhiswifeinYorkCountywhodiedabout15Yearsago.Hehasonesonwhoismarriedbutisnotabletosupporthisownfamilyandtakecareofhisfather.MrParkerhasalwaysbeenanindustrious,lawabidinggoodcitizenandwecommendhimtoyourcare.

Homeofficialsalsodemandedthateachprospectiveinmateagreeto"abidebyandobeyallrules,"toconducthimselfasa"soldier&gentleman,"and,mostofall,toremainorderly.26"Order"wasawordheldmostsacredbythosegentlemenwhosatontheboardsofConfederatesoldiers'homesandwrotethebylaws.Ordermeant

disciplineandroutine;itimpliedcentralizedcontroloverinmates,aswellasstaff.An"authorizedauthority,"recommendedCampNichollspresidentGeorgeLord,"shouldbeatalltimesreadytopreservegoodorderanddisciplineattheHome."Rulesgoverningtheproperconductandmanagementofthehomewere"absolutelynecessary,"andforthe"bestinterestsofallconcerned,"avowedTexasboardmembersin1892.Ourinstitutioncannotbemaintainedwithout"reasonablediscipline,"stressedGeorgiaboardpresidentLowndesCalhounadecadelater.Twelveyearsafterward,HoratioW.Bell,Calhoun'ssuccessor,claimedthatrulesnotonlyprotectedtherightsofinmatestoenjoythe"advantagesofthe[ir]home"butalsowerenecessaryto"reformandimprovethe[ir]behavioranddeportment."Withoutdiscipline,anothertrusteeinsisted,"youmightaswellgiveup.YoucouldnotmanageaSoldiers'Homeoranythingelse....Youhavegottohaveit."Therefore,fromtheoutset,homeadministratorsexpectedtheirchargesto

TheadmissionformusedtoscreenapplicantstotheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary.

(courtesyofSouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory)

abidebytherules,tobepassive,temperate,quietlyspoken,anddeferential.Tobeaninmatewastoexchangeindependenceforsecurity,tosubjectoneselftothephysicalandmoralauthorityoftrusteesandsuperintendents,aswellastothespecialdietsandrigidschedulesofattendingphysicians,orriskbeinglabeledunrulyorsenileand,onthataccount,dismissed.

Thedesiretoimposeanordereddisciplineinsoldiers'homeswasnotmerelyrhetorical.Administratorsfollowedthroughtomaketheinternalfunctioningofhomesaspaternalisticandorderlyaspossible,whichinpracticemeantdrawingupasystemofregulationsprovidingforsemimilitaryroutinesanddisciplinarycodes,andthenenforcingthem.Unlesssickorexcused,inmateswouldstandinformationatroll

call,twiceaday,answeringtotheirnames.Thecommandingofficerwouldinspecteachman'sdressandappearancetoensurethatinstitutionalpoliciesmandatingweeklybaths,"trimmedhairandbeards,"and"cleanandneat"homeuniformswereobserved.Regulationuniformsincludingofficialshirts,pants,hats,suspenders,shoelaces,underwear,evenbuttonshadtobewornwheneveraninmateleftthehomeonapassorstayedaroundthehomeonSundaysandholidays,timeswhenoutsiderswouldmostlikelyvisit.Writtenpasseswererequiredtoleavethehomegroundsfullyenclosedbya"substantialfence"

andguardedbyanightwatchmansoas"toprotecttheinmateandpreserveorderanddiscipline."Inmateswere,insomecases,almostliterallyincarcerated.Thegrounds,barracks,andquartersweresubjecttocarefulinspection,"dailyifnecessary."Bellsdictateddailyactivities:toriseat6A.M.,toextinguishlightsat9P.M.,toassemblefordressparade,andespeciallytoeat.AttheTexashome,abellsoundedpreciselyfifteenminutesbeforeeachmeal;asecondbelltwelveminuteslatersignaledwheninmatesshould"congregatearound"themesshall;athirdbellrangwhenitwastimeforthemenfinallytoentertheroomandseatthemselves.Inaddition,therulesspecifiedthateachinmate"alwaysoccupythesameseat...andhishatmustbehunguponarackforthatpurpose.''

Everyaspectoftheinmate'slifethuswouldbesubjectedtotheinstitution'spaternaloversight.TheFloridatrustees,forexample,"demanded"oftheirinmates"cleanliness,manliness,[and]purityoflanguage."Swearing,gambling,boisterousconduct,expectoratingonthefloors,defacingthepremises,carryingorconcealingweapons,fighting,panhandling,orexhibitingimpertinencewereallgroundsforpunishment.Admittedly,someprohibitionsseemedfrivolous.Forexample,Texastrusteeswarnedresidentsagainstrecliningontheirbedswiththeirbootson,goingtothesuperintendent'shomeintheir

shirtsleeves,orcommittingany"nuisance"onor"aboutthebuildings."AndatCampNicholls,no"oldsoldier""nomatterhowmanybattleshe[had]fought"wouldbe''allowedtosmokeorchew[tobacco]inbed."Managersineveryhomefoughtaceaselessbattleagainstalcohol.Inmatescouldnotfrequentanysaloonorbarroomwithinamileradiusofthehome,andthosefoundintoxicatedfacedprompt"restraint"ordismissal.Moreover,inmateswereexpectedtoconductthemselvesina"gentlemanlyandorderly"manner,onethatwasbecomingtoatrueConfederatesoldierorsailor,soasnotto"annoyorinconvenience[their]comrades,"andto"yieldrespectandobedience"toallofficers"appointedoverthem."

Imposingorderalsomeantselectingastrongexecutivetooverseedailymanagement.Trusteesenvisionedthehomeasafamilywritlarge,presidedoverbyasuperintendentorsteward,thefatherofthisextendedfamily,throughwhomtheboardexerteditslegalauthority.Inthatfamilytherolesofauthorityanddeferencewouldbecarefullyactedout;homestaffwereexpectedtobe"faithful"and"earnest,"theresidents"contented"and"grateful."Whentrusteessoughttofillvacantsuperintendentpositions,theysolicitedrecommendationsforthewifeoftheapplicantaswellastheapplicanthimself,forshetooboreanappropriateresponsibilityformaintainingtheinstitution'smoralhealth.Servingasmatronorstewardess,sheresidedwithherhusbandonthegroundsoftheinstitutiontheymanaged.Superintendentspossessednospecialtrainingandclaimednone.Mostoften,liketrustees,theywereConfederateveterans.Forexample,WilliamBullittbecameCampNicholls'sfirstsuperintendentowingtohis"soldierlyqualitiesandexcellentadministrativeabilities,"whiletheLeeCamp'ssecondsuperintendent,CaptainCharlesP.BiggerformerlyheadedtheRichmondCityAlmshouse.From1921to1926,

thesuperintendentoftheSouthCarolinaInfirmarywasConfederateveteranW.H.Stewart,afarmer,DavidsonCollegegraduate,andformermemberofthestatelegislatureaswellasoftheKlan.Inmanycases,homeboardspreferredamanwhopreviouslyhadexhibitedsomemeasureofresponsibilityandexecutiveandfinancialability.Hiskeyattributeswouldbehonesty,sobriety,industry,prudence,intelligence,piety,andkindnesscoupledwith"enoughfirmnesstocommandrespect."Suchvirtuesweredeemedindispensableifhewastomanagethehomeastheheadofafamily.30

Whateverhisbackground-farmer,gentleman,bookkeeper,merchant,policeman,prisonguard,orhotelkeeperasuperintendentlearnedinevitablythathiswasa"troublesomeundertaking."Tosaytheleast,confidedGeorgiasuperintendentGeorgeN.Sausseyin1917,itwas"nobedofroses."Hiswasanalmostimpossibletask;thedemandsofthepositionwereextraordinarilydiverseandconsuming.Inpartialtestimonytothejob'smanydemands,turnoverratesforsuperintendentswerealarming.Forexample,overaten-

yearperiod,theFloridahomehadsixdifferentsuperintendents.Inadditiontoenforcingallrulesandregulationsandmaintaininggoodorder,cleanliness,andeconomy,hisresponsibilitiesinvolvedpurchasing,hiringandfiring,andshufflingmoundsofpaperworkinvoices,ledgers,reports,admittancerecords.Inshort,hecontrolledbothpeopleandthings.WhenaskedtodescribehisdutiesassuperintendentoftheTexashome,Dr.JohnC.Logginsrepliedthathesimplytook"careoftheoldmen,seeingthattheyhavethreemealsaday,andseeling]thattheirbeddingisallrightandtheyaresuppliedthethingstheyneed."Moreover,Logginsreported,"Itrytokeepthemclean."Likeagoodfather,thesuperintendentalsoassumedpersonalresponsibilityforthephysicalandmoralconditionofhischildren.Ironically,themoreearnestlyhefunctionedaspatriarch,themoreintrusivehemusthaveseemedtoinmatesandstaff.

Bysuperintendentsandadministrators'ownreckoning,themostdisagreeableandunpleasantdutytheyhadtocontendwithwasdisciplininginmates.Itisindeed"apity,"Georgiatrusteeslamented,tohaveto"correctthesefathersandgrandfathers...withbleachedandbaldheads,butwemust,howevermuchwemayreverethemasheroes."Ideally,noself-respectingConfederateveteranwouldrequirereform.Yet,contendedadministrators,exacting"moderate"or"reasonable''punishmenton"disobedientandrefractory"inmatesserved,regretfully,asanothermethodofwinnowingouttheundeserving.Ourhomeisintendedforthe"worthyandnottheunworthy,"thatis,notfor"thosewhoviolaterules,"remarkedCampNicholls'sco-founder,JudgeWalterRogers."Thegoodandtruesoldieronthefiringline,"claimedLouisianasuperintendentH.H.Wardin1908,"canreadilybedistinguishedwheneverfound....Realsoldierstotheendobeytherulesandregulations."Texas

superintendentChenowethobviouslysharedthesamesentiment."Therulesarenoburdenuponalargemajorityoftheinmateswhowerefaithfulsoldiersandgoodcitizens,"hedeclared,buttheyarefora"fewwhodemonstratetheywereneithergoodsoldiersnorgoodcitizens."Themetaphorofthefamilyappliedhere,too.Whenchildrendisturbthepeaceofahome,sotheargumentwent,theyaredisciplined,sometimes"eventodisinheritance."So,whenoldmenare"childishandhardtocontrol,"advisedGeorgiaofficials,usetherod,"seekingalwaystobejust,"aswellas"forbearing."32

Punishmentsprescribedforthosewhoviolatedorrefusedtoconformtotheregulationsvaried.Dependingupontheparticularinfraction,penaltiesrangedfromcautiontoexpulsion;inbetweenwerereprimand(eitherprivatelyorpubliclyatmorningrollcall),restraintor"quarantine"tothegroundsorquarters,suspensionofpassesorprivilegesforonetofourweeks,andextra"fatigue"orguardduty.Trusteesguaranteedaninmate"underarrest"or"oncharges"a"fairopportunity"tobeheardandtopresent"testimonies"inhis

behalf,alongwiththerightofappeal.Seniormembersoftheboardoraspeciallyappointedinvestigatingcommitteewouldbebothjudgeandjury.Thesuperintendentoroneofhissubalternsfunctionedasprosecutingattorney,whilecounselwaseithertheinmatehimselforanotherinmateactingforhimduringthe"court-martial"proceedings.

33Forinmatesfoundguilty,administratorssoughttoimposepenaltiesinaccordancewiththeseriousnessofviolations.Forexample,theLeeCampstipulatedthat"conductunbecomingaConfederateveteran,"particularlybehavior"calculatedtoinciteinsubordinationandsubvertdiscipline"theequivalentofmutinyasdefinedbytheConfederateArticlesofWarwouldresultfirstinaseverepublicreprimandbytheboardpresident,ortwotofourhoursofextraworkperday,plusfromonetosixmonthsconfinement.Arepeatoffensewouldbemetwithadishonorabledischarge.Habitualdrunksaswellcouldexpectroughtreatment.Aninmatewhoimbibedtoofreelytoofrequentlycouldbesentencedtoninetydaysconfinement,forone-thirdofwhichhewouldbelockedinapunishmentroomequippedwithironbarsandfedbreadandwatereverythirdday.Ifdeemed"drunkanddisorderly,""abusive,''or"incapableofproperbehavior,"aninmateintheTexashomewasplacedunderarrestbythesuperintendent,whowouldthensummonapoliceman"totakehimtothecalaboosetobedealtwithasotheroffendersagainstthelaw."Intheeyesofthosewhowrotethebylaws,disrespectfullanguageandconducttowardhomeofficersorvisitors,disobedienceandtherefusaltowork,"outrageousbehavior,"andbeingabsentwithoutofficialleaveallconstituted"justcause"fordismissal.Expulsionwasnecessaryinsuchcases,warnedoneGeorgiatrustee."Ifyoudon'thavesomethinglikethat...verysoonyouwillhavepandemonium."34

Ifexpelled,aninmatecarriedwithhimataintofhumiliationand

disgrace.Hisuniformwouldbeconfiscatedandreplacedwitha"citizen'ssuit."Allpersonaleffectshehadentrustedtothesuperintendent'sironsafewouldbereturned.Andhewouldbefurnishedtransportationbacktohisformerplaceofresidence.Brandeda"personunfit,"hewouldbebarredfromthegroundsanddeniedtheopportunitytoapplyforreinstatementforaslongastwelvemonthsmaybelonger,ifhefailedtoprovetotheboardthatheintendedtoamendhisways.35

Asoppressiveasthisenergeticandoverbearingstewardshipappeared,officialsgenuinelypreferredto"keepamanintheHome"ratherthanto"turnhimout,"fortheybelievedtheretrulywasnootherplacelikeahome(inthebroadestsenseoftheword)forimpoverishedmentofindrejuvenationandnurture.Soldiers'homefounderssharedtheassumption,heldbymanynineteenth-centuryAmericans,thathomewasasacred,evenredeeming,place,whereinhabitantscouldfindsolicitudeamidshelteredabundance.36

Inmateswhobehavedthemselvescouldexpecttoreceiveanhonorabledischarge,

whichentitledthemtoatransfertoanotherhome.Thisdischargepaperwasissued

bytheLeeCampHometoFrancisDouglasWalker,who,afewmonthsaftertransferringtotheSouthCarolinahome,wasexpelledbythecommandantfor

allegedlyusingtheword"damn"atthebreakfasttable(courtesyofSouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory)

"Thereare,ofcourse,gradationsofworthanddeservingamongtheinmates,"theTexasboardofmanagersconceded,"butitmaybesafelysaidthatthelowestonthelisthasfullyearnedexemptionfromsubsistenceasacommonpauper."ThedismissalofanoldConfederatesoldierfromthehomeisa"punishmentnottobeinflictedexceptinextremecases,whenitisabsolutelynecessaryforthepreservationofpeace,orderanddiscipline,''concludedtrusteeCharlesD.PhillipsofGeorgia.Noveteranoughttobeforced"outuponthecoldcharityoftheworld,destituteandhelpless,"vowedGeorgiaboardpresidentBellin1915,exceptasalastresort.Acknowledgingthatitwasnaturalforageanddiseaseto"causementobecome

dissatisfied"inaninstitution,theLeeCampwarned,however,thatonce"theirexpressionofdissatisfaction"becomes"malicious,add[s]calamityandattribute[s]dishonorablemotivestotheBoard,"then"itbecomesamatterofpublicconcern"andtheinmatemustberebuked.

Werethetrusteestakingtheirresponsibilitiestooseriously?Weretheybeingtooharshanduncharitable?Homeofficialsinvariablythoughtnot,pointingoutthatonlya"handful"ofintractableinmatesposeddisciplinaryproblems,whilea"largeproportion"honorablyconformedandcheerfullysubmittedtoa''fewsimple"rulesandseemedtoappreciatethe"advantages...bestoweduponthem."IntheGeorgiahome,explainedClementEvans,disciplinewasredemptive,notpunitive:"thegoodwouldbemadebetter,andthebadwouldbereclaimedthroughtheinfluencesaboutthem."Theboardsinvitedvisitorstoseeforthemselvesthattheveteranswereconstantlyunderas"proper[a]moralcondition"asamotherwould"provideforherchildren."Superintendentsencouragedinmatestoattendonaregularbasisgospelservicesconductedbyahomechaplainorvisitinglocalminister,whowaschargedwithtakinganactiveinterestinallthatrelatesto"gooddisciplineandthemoralandspiritualwelfareoftheinmates."Offeredforaresident's"amusementandentertainment"werebiweeklyprayermeetings,old-fashionedsingings,memorialobservances,Sundayschoollessons,readingclubs,temperancerallies,andEasteregghunts.Recognizingthattheremustbe"foodforthemindandheart,aswellasthebody,"theLeeCampestablishedahomelibraryfilledwithnearly1,000volumes,aboutone-thirdofwhichwerereligiousworks.TheTennesseetrusteessuppliedtheirhomelibrarywith"good[w]hol[e]somereadingmatter,religiousandsecular,"not"yellowback"literature.In1915theNorthCarolinaboardappealedforcontributionstopurchaseaphonographforitsresidents,to"brightenupidlehourswithstirringmartialmusic,sweetballadsoftheOldSouthandtheinfectiousmusicofto-day."Insum,eachboardaimedtomakeitshomeasecluded,"comfortable,peaceful,delightful,andorderlyabidingplace"forworthyoldConfederateveterans.

Ingratitudefortheirsacrifices,homelessheroeswereaffordedmorethanaroof.Sparedthepauper'scruelfate,destituteConfederateveteransresidinginasoldiers'homewouldhaveeveryneedsuppliedbythosewhounderstoodbesttheir"infirmitiesandidiosyncrasies."Institutionalcarewouldentailmuchmorethanjustescapefromadepressinganddemeaningenvironment.Thebestfoods,clothing,tobacco,medicalcare,and"respectable"companionshipwouldallbecheerfullyprovidedbyformercomrades.IntheGeorgiahome,reportedLowndesCalhoun,aged,infirm,and"wornout"menreceivedthekindestattention.Similarly,GovernorJamesHoggofTexasenvisionedthehomeasan"elysianretreat,"wherethewoundsofasouthernsoldierwouldbe"soothedbygentlehands."Theinmates'"tableissuppliedwiththebestthemarketaffords,"assertedoneofficial,"noraretheylackinginclothing."Residentsreceiveduniforms"tosuittheseason,"shoes,andunderwear,whileafirst-classlaundrykeptthemlookingliketheyhad"juststeppedoutofa

bandbox."Withsuchamenitiesassteamheat,electriclights,hotandcoldrunningwater,andshowersandtubs,theGeorgiahomeprovided"morecomfortandconveniencesthanninetypercentoftheinmateseverenjoyedbefore,"boastedoneofitssuperintendents."OurSoldiersHomeisamodelofcomfort,neatnessandconvenience,"beamedtheUDCofNorthCarolinain1916.

Thelocationschosenforthevarioushomesattesttotheirimportantandnoblefunctions.AccordingtoBromfieldL.RidleyofMurfreesboro,nobettersitecouldhavebeenfoundfortheTennesseeinstitutionthantheHermitagegrounds:"Itisknownas'CloverBottom,'"with"bluegrasscoveredwithmajestichickories,toweringpoplarsandstrong-armedoaks,"seeminglya"sacredplace.''Visitorstothehomecouldnothelpbeingimpressedbythe"handsome"and"comfortable"facility,fullyequippedtoprovidesolicitudeandcompassiontooldanddisabledmenwhomightotherwisehavelivedouttheremainderoftheirlivesalone,uncaredfor,andforgotten.OnewomanvisitingCampNichollsduringitsearlydaysofoperationwaspleasedbyitsproximitytoBayouBridge,attheendofastreetcarlineandwithineasyaccesstodowntownNewOrleans."Uponenteringthegate,"sheremarked,"thefirstthoughtis'howpleasant,howpeaceful,howhomelike.'"Thehomewasshadedbyliveoaks,thegrasswasneatlymanicured,andtheroomswere"delightfullysituated,""perfectlyventilated,"andamplyfurnished.CampNichollswasindeed"anidealplaceforaHome.Anairofcleanlinessisfoundeverywhere,"exclaimeditssuperintendentin1908."Thegroundsarewellkeptandshadedbylargewateroakswithmosshangingfromeachbranch....Amanwhowould'kick'herewouldnotbesatisfiedinparadiseifheshouldgetthere."Infact,itseemedthateveryhomewasideallylocated,somethingtobebraggedabout.TheTexashome,

accordingtothatstate'sgovernorin1911,issituatedupononeofthe"mostinterestingandattractivesitesinthevicinityofAustin."Georgia'shomestoodona"beautiful,healthfulsite,withgoodwater,freshair,pleasantsurroundings...ampleforgardensandorchards."Theclimate,purewater,and"refreshingbreezes"foundinthe"prettywoods"ofMountainCreek,Alabama,locatedabout600hundredfeetabovesealevel,were"unsurpassed"andsurelythe"healthiestinthestate."Florida'shomecommanded"oneoftheprettiestviews"alongtheSaintJohnsriver,whileoneofMississippi'sgovernorsboastedthat"nomorebeautifulspotcanbefoundinDixelandthanBeauvoirbytheSea."40

SouthernerscouldindeedtakegreatprideinallthatwasbeingdoneonbehalfofneedyConfederateveterans.Atleastthatwastheopinionofmanysoldiers'homeapologists.TheSouthwasfulfillinganobligationheldsacredamongallcivilizednationstoprovideforhersons,"whointhefullvigoroftheirmanhood,offeredtheirlivesinresponsetohercall."Inleavingnothing

tospare,soldiers'homeadministratorsalsocreatedaplacethatexertedcontroloverthelivesofthosebelievedincapableoftakingcareofthemselves.Manyoftheelementsthatdefinea"totalinstitution"couldbefoundinthesoldiers'homesoftheNewSouth.

41Homeofficialsobviouslythoughtitnecessarytoadoptdisciplinarymethodsinordertodefineproperbehaviorandnormalizeactivity.Theiremphasisonorderandinspectionreflectedadesirenotonlytopreventdisturbancesbutalsototransformindividuals.Moreover,physicalexertionwasseenaseliminatingthehiddendangersofidletime.Institutionalarchitecturerevealedthesesamebasicattitudes.Roomsdistributedalonginteriorhallwayswithinamainedificewithapairofsymmetricalwingspermittedaninternalsupervisionofinmatemovement.Highwooden,stone,orevenbarbed-wirefences,ostensiblyconstructedforguardinghomeproperty,actuallyconfined"captive"residentstothegroundsandtherebyisolatedthemfromthewidersociety.Removedfromthedemoralizinginfluenceofthepoorhouse,agingex-Confederateswereenclosedbehindprotectivewalls,wheretheycouldbevenerated,preserved,andreformed.

"IthasbeenthepurposeoftheBoard,"readtheCampNichollsreporttotheLouisianalegislaturein1886,"toestablishahome,andinallrespectstomaketheinmatesfeelthatitistheirhome."42Inspiteofthisassertion,basichumanneedscomfort,solicitude,compassionfellunavoidablyunderbureaucraticcontrol.Residentsreapedtheambiguousbenefitsofanenergeticpaternalism;andthemoretheyrecognizedthis,themoretheygrewtoresentit.

CHAPTERSIXInsidetheWallsSoyouwillsee,"ConfederateveteranBenjaminJ.Rogerswrotetooneofhisformercomrades,"wehaveahomeinthetruesenseofthewordfortheoldboys."Rogers,sixty-fiveyearsoldhimself,wasreferringtotheLeeCampSoldiers'Home,wherehehadresidedlessthanamonthin1904."Iliketheplacesofar,''headmitted,fortheaccommodationsprovidedhimcouldnothavebeenmorecomfortable.Hisroom,locatedinJoeJohnstonHall,nearthemainbuildingonthethirty-six-acrecomplex,wasequippedwithelectricity,steamheat,andhotandcoldwater,anditwascompletelyfurnished.Inaddition,homeofficialshadissuedhimalltheclothingheneeded:afulluniform,includinghat,overcoat,shoes,underwear,socks,andcoloredhandkerchiefs.OnMondays,hisclothesweretakentothelaundryroom;theywerewashedandreturnedinpaperbundlesbytheendoftheweek.OnFridays,soapandtobaccoweredispensedfreely.Heenjoyed"goodwholesomefood,"and"plentyofit,"aswellasmedicalcarebyapairofphysiciansandtrainednurseswhowereavailablearoundtheclock.Inreturnforthisbenevolenttreatment,allheandhisfellowinmateshadtodoatthehome,hesaid,was"tofalltoo...andbehavethemselves."Thesuperintendentwasalwaystheretomakesurethattheruleswerestrictlyobeyed.Mandatorylaborwasminimal:eachresidentwasrequiredonlytocleanhisroomeverymorningandperformguarddutyonarotatingbasis."Takenallinall,"Rogersconcluded,itwas"anidealspotforanoldConfedtospendhisdecliningyears."

Normally,inhabitantsofsuchinstitutionswerenotthesortwhokeptjournalsordiaries,orwhowrotetoconcernedfamilymembersorfriendswhocarefullypreservedtheirlettersorpostcards.Forthisreason,personalaccountssuchasRogers'sprovideanalltoorareglimpseoflifeinsidethewallsfromaninmate'sperspective.W.L.Griffing,too,couldnothavebeenmorepleasedwithhistreatmentatBeauvoir,exclaiming,"ifthereisaplaceonearthnearerHeavenIhaven'tbeenabletofindit."Griffinghadnothingbutkindwordsfor

thestaff,particularlythematron,whomhereferredtoasthe"belovedMotheroftheHome,"andthewomeninchargeofthehospital,whosupposedlycould"nursethedeadbacktolife."AccordingtoJohnHaps,anoctogenarianandnativeofHolland,whoenjoyedkeepingaformalgardenattheMississippihome,witheverykindoftreeimaginablepeach,fig,pomegranate,cherry,orange,crapemyrtle,magnolia,andmore"lifehereisaspleasanttomeasitcanbemadeonearth.ItresemblesHeaventome.''Otherveteranswerejustaspleasedwiththeirhome.AnewspapereditedbyandforTexasinmates,butalsointendedfor"oldvetsontheoutside,"praisedtheTexasinstitution."Atalltimes,"thenewspaperbragged,itwasa"goodplace,"whereany"reasonablemancanfeelhappyandcontented,ifhesodesires."J.O.Bradfield,aTexasinmate,passionatelyrejectedtheinferencethatthehomeinAustinwassomekindof"poorfarm"wheretheoldmensuffered"allsortsoftroublesandinconveniences."F.HymelofCampNichollsconfessedthat,althoughhehadfirstthoughtofthehomeasaplaceof"exile"wherehewouldspendhislastdays,hesooncametoappreciateitseverycomfortandconvenience,especiallythelargelibrary,thenumberofUDC-sponsoredentertainments,theweeklyCatholicmass,andthetheatersandracetracksnearby.JohnH.OwensinformedhiscousinthatthethingheenjoyedmostaboutbeingatBeauvoirwasthathewasableto"fisheverydayifIwishandcatchsomenicefishandcrabs,"whilefellowinmateMarcusD.Herring,whospentmorethansixyearsatBeauvoir,enjoyedbeingabletoswimintheGulfofMexicobeforebreakfastandtakeawalkbetweenbreakfastanddinner.Mississippians,Herringasserted,should"beproudofthisHome."

Inthepublicmind,aswellasinthethoughtsofthegreatmajorityoffounders,theConfederatesoldiers'homesoftheNewSouthwere

exactlyasHerringandRogersandtheotherinmatesportrayedthem:peacefulplaceswhereinhabitantscouldindeedfindrest,comfort,andsatisfaction.NellB.Lewis,inspectingtheNorthCarolinaSoldiers'HomeonbehalfofaRaleighnewspaper,witnessedtheinmatesobviouslyenjoyingtheirleisurelylifestyle,spendingmostoftheirtimeseatedabouttheplacealoneoringroups,readingtheBibleormagazines,orwhittlingcanesortoys,butmostly"dozinginthesun"andchewing"AppleTobacco."Theestablishmentseemedafittinglocation,thereporternoted,forelderlymentositandthinkor"jestsit,"and"idlywatchthedayspassby."WillBranum,aDailyPicayunecorrespondenttouringCampNicholls,witnessedbasicallythesamescene:veteranssunningthemselvesonbenches,leadinglivesalmost"monasticin...quietude."AttheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary,accordingtoonereport,the"oldveteransdon'thaveonethingtodobuteat,sleep,chewtobaccoandsmokethat'sall."Theyweresuppliedwithfreeclothing,plus$10.00amonthin

spendingmoneyandfreshvegetablesfromthehomegarden.Moreover,thethree"brothersinblack"(i.e.,theattendantsatthehome),whoare"kindandpolite"totheveteransatalltimes,didpracticallyeverythingforthem.JamesC.Dozier,secretaryfortheSouthCarolinaboardofpublicwelfare,agreedthattheveteranswere"happyandcontented"justsittinginlargechairs,reading,playingcheckers,andgenerallyamusingthemselves.VisitorstotheAlabamahome,too,couldnothelpbeingimpressedwithits"homelikesurroundings.""Thecacklingandsingingofthehens,theshrillcrowofthecocks,...thegrunting,squealingpigs...thesunny,cheerfulgreetingsoftheCommandanttohiscomrades,theinmates,theassiduousandkindlyattentionsofhisgoodwifetothe'oldboys'''everythingabouttheinstitutionindicatedthatitwasa"pleasantandcomfortable"placetolive.AreportintheMontgomeryAdvertiserdescribedtheplacesimplyasa"beautifulvillage,"whereveterans"findpeace,home,andhappiness."AccordingtooneUDCmember,inmatesattheArkansashomehad"norulesandrestrictions"whatsoever;theveterans"goandcomeastheyplease,gotobedandgetupwhentheyplease."Infact,theoldsoldiershad"morecomforts,pleasures,andluxuries...thantheyreceiveathome!"

Buttheestablishmentswerenotsoidyllicandsereneastheyappearedorasadministratorsandsympathizerspretendedtheywere.Thereweresomedepressing,monotonousrealitiesthatagingveteranshadtoaccept.Foritwasinthesehomesthatmenmarkedtime,andwaitedtodie,"likesoldiers,withtheirbootson."4TaylorThompson,aninmateintheTexashomeformorethanfourteenyears,knewthatfactalltoowell,asreflectedinapoemhecomposedandtitled"WaitingForDeath."Thepoembegan:

Justsitting'round,waitingfordeathThat'swhatwearedoing,myboys;Justwaitingtodrawthelastbreath,Forlongsincewehavedonewithlife'sjoys.5

Nooneexceptthosemenwhowereleastenterprisingandmostlackinginselfrespectreallywantedtoenterahomeinthefirstplace,orsoitwasbelieved.WilliamG.RobertsofBristol,Tennessee,didnotwanttogotothesoldiers'homeinNashvilleandalmosthadtobeforcedtogo.IrishmanJohnHuffernanofMemphisopposedpublicrelief"asageneralthing"andhesitatedtoapplyforadmissiontothesoldiers'homeonaccountofits"publiccharacter."6Alongwiththesunniersentimentsnotedabove,BenjaminRogersexpressedsimilarconcernsaboutbidingtimeinaninstitution.Heworriedabout"seeingalotofoldmeninallconditionsofdecrepitudedayafterday,"whichhefearedwouldgrow"monstorous"tohim.Withintheshortperiodhehadresidedin

theLeeCampHome,Rogershadlearnedthattheinstitutionwasanenvironmentinwhichaninmatepaidapriceindignity.Forexample,asheobserved,eachmanwasassignedaseatatlongtablesinthelargemesshall,whilehomeofficersandemployeesateabettermealinaprivatediningroom.Rogersalsodislikedtherigidpracticeofassigningpasses,whereinaninmatewouldbepermittedtoleavethegroundsonlyuptothreetimesaweek,providedthattherewerenochargesagainsthim.

Thesoldiers'homewasanobjectoffearandanasylumforthedependentandsociallyisolated,orsoitseemed,especiallytomenassensitiveasAsaWallofFrederickCounty,Virginia.AnassistantsurgeonintheU.S.ArmybeforecastinghislotwiththeConfederacy,WallobjectedtotheselectioncriteriaemployedbytheLeeCampHomeonitsapplicationformsandfeltparticularlyincensedaboutthepolicybarringhabitualdrunkards,lunatics,andtraitors.UnlikeoneapplicanttotheArkansashomewhosaidthathedesiredtolearnwhetherhewasregarded"asworthyasanyoftheBoysthere,"andthereforehadnoobjectiontotheadmittanceboardinvestigatinghisrecord,Wallwasmadeto"feelalittlequeertosaytheleast"bysuch"interrogations."Firstofall,"thelineofdemarcationbetweensanity&insanityhasneverbeensatisfactorilydetermined,"heargued.Secondly,homeadministratorshadnorightwhatsoevertoinvestigatehis"morals''inthismanner,Wallprotested.Wereitnotforhisadvancedageofsixty-fiveyears,thefactthathehadnevermarried,andthefactthathewasimpoverishedandinpoorhealth,hewouldnothaveappliedforadmission.8Otherapplicantsforadmissionfearedgoverningboardswouldattributetheirpoorphysicalconditionandloweconomicstatustosomemoralincapacityorpersonalweakness.H.O.BassofPowhatanCounty,Virginia,wrotethe

commandantoftheLeeCampHomein1905that,althoughhewasawidower,withoutmoney,andhad"noplacetogo,"hisrequesttoenterthehomewasnot"onaccountofanydissipationfromdrinkorotherwise,"but"justmymisfortuneinsomewayIhardlyknowwhat."ThomasBullockasixty-nine-year-oldex-ConfederatefromSpotsylvaniaCounty,Virginia,threetimeswounded,partiallyparalyzed,andthoughnot"altogetherhelpless,"in"destitutecircumstances"wrote:"[If]IcouldprovideformyselfeveninthepoorestwayIwouldnotaskforentrance."Anotherveteran,J.B.Hodgkin,informedtheVirginiagovernorthatmanyofhisformercomradeshada"greataversion"toenteringthestate'ssoldiers'home,fortheyvieweditas"thelaststep,thenextservicebeingthatoftheundertaker."9

Annoyed,hesitant,desperate,andfearful,Wall,Bass,Bullock,andHodgkin,alleventuallywoundupasinmatesoftheLeeCampHome.Admittedin1896,Wallsoonearnedareputationasa"harddrinker"andwasdishonorablydischargedfouryearslater,having"abused,andassailedtheHomeonalloccasions."Bass,apparentlystilluneasyabouthisdependencyoncharity,was

ThemesshalloftheLeeCampHome,Richmond,asshowninapostcard,c.1910.

(courtesyofVirginiaStateLibrary)

grantedatleasttwofurloughs,sothathecouldmakehis"ownliving,"beforebeingreadmittedtothehomeathirdtimeinJanuary1906.Hediedatthehomefiveyearslater.Bullock,ontheotherhand,survivedonlyfourweeksinthehome.DoctorHodgkin,afteronlyafewmonths,lefttheinstitutioninJuly1913,allegedlyfor"healthreasons."Forthesemen,conditionsinsidethewallswereapparentlylesssatisfyingthanthoseprescribedinbylawsorenvisagedbyfoundersorrepresentedbynewspaperreportersandmembersoftheUDC.

Accordingtoinmatecomplaints,thehomesweretooimpersonalandbureaucratic,trusteeswerecrookedandapathetic,andsuperintendentswereoverbearingincompetents,whohardlyendearedthemselvestotheobjectsoftheirpaternalconcern.Thecookingwasbad,thewaterwasundrinkable,uniformswereshoddy,andthefemaleemployeeswerecoldandcrabby.Moreover,grownmenweretreatedlikechildren;theyresentedaskingforpasses,sleepinginovercrowded

wards,doingwithoutenoughspendingmoney,andbeinglecturedbecauseoftheiroccasionalmisdeeds.Evenworse,thestaffandfellowinmatesphysicallyandemotionallyabusedthem.11InmatesC.M.HooperandEmmettFRuffinpaintedableakpictureofconditionsintheConfederateSoldiers'andSailors'HomeofFlorida,wherelessthanadozenveteransresided.Hoopercomplainedtotheboardthattheinstitutionwasinaterriblestateofdisarray,owingtotheoutrageousconductofsomeofhisfellowinmates.C.C.Haysreportedlyhadbeen"verybadformanyweeks,"butJuliusC.Bridges,Hoopercharged,wasundoubtedly"themostemphaticnuisanceontheplace,aliar,amischiefmaker,breederofdiscord,...whoseloudtalking,

disorderlyconductatthetableandintheHousepreventsanydecorousconversation,orrationalenjoymentwhereverhechoosestogo."InthediningroomHooperhadwitnessedBridgesusing"foulandobscenewords"andfrequentlysittingatthetable"andblow[ing]offhisgastothedisgustofall."Inaddition,anotherinmatewastakingquinineanddrinkingwhiskeytosuchanextentasto"incapacitatehimfromanyintelligentthoughtorstatement,"andstillanotherwas"afeebleweakmindedman,anopiumeater,"andadrunk.Finally,Hoopercomplainedthatoneofhisfellowresidents''whosenoseandfacepublishhisviceandhisdisgrace,withoutotherwitnesses"hadbeenforciblyejectedfromcityhotelsandbarrooms.

Ruffinalsocriticizedthe"innerworkings"oftheinstitutionanddelineateditsproblems.First,hesaid,therewassimplynodiscipline.Second,thehome'ssanitaryconditionsleftsomethingtobedesired,fortherewas"debrisofallkindslayingaroundtheyardandunderthemainbuilding."Third,someinmateslacked"dignityordecorum"andacted"morelikealotofhogsandwildanimals"thanlikegentlemen.Fourth,therewasentirelytoomuchdrinkingandfrequentingofthebarroomsinJacksonville,sometimesasoftenastwiceaday,andcominghomeina"maudlincondition."Fifth,thehomehadsomeseventoeighttillableacres,but"notonefurrowofit[was]undercultivation,"andwhattoolswereavailablewerenotproperlystored.Sixth,thereweresomeinmateswhohadthemeansandpropertyandfamilytoprovideforthemselves.And,seventh,manyseemedphysicallyabletodoatleastfourhoursoflightworkaday,butdidnothing.Insum,Ruffinpointedout,Mr.Daniels,thestewardinchargeofthehome,wasmuchtoolenientandlacked"determinationenoughabouthimtoenforcetherules."Iftherulesofthehomewereactuallyenforcedandrespected,hedeclared,then"everythingwould

runalongSmoothlyandtheinmateswouldbeasoneHappyFamily."13

Administratorswerequicktoacknowledgethatproblemsdidexist;intheirview,however,thattheproblemswerewithsomeofthemenresidinginthehomeratherthanthehomeitself.Throughoutthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,authoritiesofeveryConfederatehome-rangingfromtrustees,superintendents,andphysicians,downtomatronsandchaplainscomplainedagainandagainoffailuresindiscipline.Mostofthesewererelativelyminor,thoughtheywerepotentiallydetrimentaltothehomes'hygieneandmoralstandards.Forexample,inmatesspatwheretheywerenotsupposedto,emptiedslopjarsouttheirroomwindowswithinsouciance,stuffedtowelsdowncommodes,ormisusedsinksasurinals.Someinmatesrefusedtotakebaths,appropriatedfoodfromthemesshalls,orkeptpetsintheirrooms.Asaresultoftheresidents'oftenfilthyhabits,homeadministratorsandstaffwerecontinuallyconfrontedwithdirt,foulodorscompoundedbyfoodandfeces,andthepresenceofvermin,roaches,andflies.14

SouthCarolinalegislatorswhoinspectedthehomeinColumbiareportedin1915that,thoughtheyhad"agreatreverencefortheConfederatesoldiers"anddislikedhavingtospeakofthe"filthyconditionsofmostoftherooms,"theplainfactwasthathaving"tomanagethemenisaproblem,formanyofthemwillnotcleantheirrooms"and"thisisamenacetohealth.''

15Otherinfractions,however,couldbeevenmoreserious.Someinmatescreateddisturbances,vandalizedhomeproperty,brawledwithotherinmatesandstaffmembers,beggedfromstrangersandvisitors,smuggledinforbiddendrink,andscaledthehomewallsforeveningsofcarousing.OnoneoccasionfourCampNichollsinmatesstoleawayona"fishingfrolic,"andonefellintonearbyBayouSaintJohnanddrowned.Alarmedandconcerned,managersdecidedtoerectmoresubstantialfencesandhirenightguardstohelpfoilfutureescapades.Femaleemployeesoccasionallycomplainedofrudeassaultsandthevilestlanguage.BellReid,stewardessoftheGeorgiahome,claimedthatthemenactedsodisorderlyandunrulyinthemesshallthatshekeptapistolforherownprotection.In1917oneVirginiainmate,apparentlyirateoverfoodqualityandservice,stormedintothemesshall,yellingandcursingandbrandishingapistolineachhand,andchasedSueHill,thestewardess,outofthebuilding.16Authoritiesalsosuspectedthatawell-understoodandintractableundergrounddominatedhomelife.Theftanddissimulationwereeverywhere;thingswereconstantlydisappearing,inspiteofthepersonaloversightthatthehomemanagersalwaysexerted.Ablackmarketinwhiskeyandtobaccoflourishedineveryhome,despitethebesteffortsofsuperintendentsandgoverningboardstoendit.Inparticularlyegregiouscases,uniforms,furniture,bedding,food,andeventhedrugsuppliesofthehomeitselfcouldserveastradinggoodsforthemoreentrepreneurialinmates.Tocomplicatemattersfurther,oneVirginiainmatechargedin1908,whattheinmates"didnotsteal,the

employeesdid."17

Inaddition,despitetheassertionthatveteransyielded"willingassistance"wheneveraskedandtook"delightinkeepingthingsinorder,"somemenclearlyrefusedtoworkatthehome,orfailedtoperformtheirdutieswithout"growling"that"theydidn'tthinktheyoughtto,"whileotherslaboredoutsidethehome,inwhatadministratorsconstruedasablatantattempttoavoidlabordetails18OneLeeCampinmatepokedfunathiscomrades'workavoidanceindoggerel:

Wehaveashoe-maker,afellowminusaleg,who,ifweaskpolitely,willsometimesdriveinapeg,Butsometimesheissoafraid

thathewon'tgethispay,Hemanagestoclosehisshopandjustgoesofffortheday.

Therewere,ofcourse,lessdirectmeansofdefyinghomeauthorities.Onewastodesertoremigratevoluntarilywithoutpermission,asmanyinmatesapparentlydid.Normally,anhonorabledischargefromahomeservedasaveteran'sticketforreadmissionorthebasisforhistransfertoanotherhomeatsomefuturedate.Forexample,W.L.Griffing'sdischargepapers,asissuedbytheArkansassuperintendent,indicatedthathehadbeena"goodinmate,Givingnotroubletothisadministration."Lessthanayearfollowinghisdischarge,GriffinggainedadmittancetoBeauvoir,whereheagainearnedthereputationofbeinga"goodman,"beforehisdeathfiveyearslater.20

Byleavingwithouthisofficialdischargepapersinhand,however,aveteranpracticallyforfeitedhisrighttoreadmissionortoadmissiontoanotherveterans'institution.Inotherwords,fortheveterantomakeanunauthorizeddeparturewastantamounttogoingAWOLintheConfederatearmy.Thehomes'officialannualstatisticalcompilationsaccountedforinmatesunderthecategoriesof"admitted,""died,""expelled,''andaspecialcategoryforthosewho"left,""escaped,""disappeared,"orwereeither"furloughed,"or"absent."RecordsindicatethatinmateslefthomesinlargernumbersduringthetemperatemonthsofMarchthroughMayandSeptemberthroughOctober,whileproportionatelymoreinmatesdiedduringthewinterandmid-summermonths.Incidentally,December,followedbyMarchandJanuary,wasthepeakmonthforin-migration.Infact,thereappearstohavebeenaseasonalpatterntotheadmittanceofveteranswhowerefarmersbytrade.Forexample,ofthe219farmersinasampleoftheresidentsoftheTexashome(seetheAppendix),91

(41.6percent)wereadmittedtotheConfederateHomeforMenduringthemonthsofJanuarythroughMarch,theebboftheagriculturalcycle.Thelowestpercentageofin-migrationbyTexasfarmersoccurredduringthemonthsofJulythroughSeptember,usuallywhensurplusworkerswereabletofindtemporaryemployment.Virtuallythesamepatternhasbeendetectedamongthe101farmersinaSouthCarolinasample.ProportionatelyfewerveteranswhoclaimedfarmingastheiroccupationappliedforadmissiontotheConfederateInfirmaryinColumbiaduringanyofthefourmonthsfromJunetoSeptemberthandidsoineitherApril,May,October,orNovember.Incasesinvolvingvoluntaryout-migrationandin-migration,seasonandclimatemayhavebeenkeydemographicfactorsinbothTexasandSouthCarolina.Sometimesthehomes'statisticalreportsalsohadtoaccountforveteranswhoadoptedanotherpassive,albeitfinal,modeofresistance:suicide,aproblemthatpersistedamonginmateswellintothetwentiethcentury.21

Ninety-one-year-oldCharlesAllen,aformerConfederateartilleryman,chosetodealwithlifeintheLeeCampHomebyleaving,thoughwithoutbotheringtoobtainanofficialfurlough.OncehehadreachedhishomenearRaleigh,WestVirginia,inearlyFebruary1912,afterresidinglessthanayearintheinstitution,heangrilynotifiedthecommandant:"Iamnotcominbackanymore[.]Ihadaswellgoeto...theasylumastocomebackanddoenothing.Youmayrockmeoutofmyweightonerthbutyoucanttakemyrightsfromme!"ThewifeofanotherVirginiainmateinformedaLeeCampofficialthatherhusbandhadreturnedhomeinlateSeptember1893"verydissatisfied"andthatshedidnotbelievehewould"everbesatisfiedoutthere."WesleyGivenswashighlydispleasedwiththeArkansashomeandattemptedtoleaveseveraltimes.''Yesterdaywefoundhimdownatthegatewithhissuitcase,"reportedSuperintendentRufusMcDaniel."Wepersuadedhimtocomebackandtodaywefoundhimbackdowntherewithhissuitcase"again.

22SeveralyearsearlierMcDanielhadattemptedtodissuadeanotherArkansasinmatefromleavingthehome.Hehadtalkedtohim,ashadotheremployees,andtriedtogethimtostay,but,McDanielconcluded,theveteranseemedtohavehad"thewanderlust."23

AlthoughacknowledgingthatheandhisfellowinmateswerewelltakencareofatBeauvoir,J.E.Roebucksaidthathesimplyhadtoleave,since"anyman,regardlessofage,whohasalwaysworkedforhisliving,orwhohasanymanhood,ambitionorenergyleft,justtostaythereandread,sleep,eat,andbroodoverthesadfactthatheisonlywaitingtheretodieinidleness,willsoonrustoutanddiewithsheerinactivity."Roebuckcontinued:"Ireallybelievenowthat,hadIbeenforcedtoremainthereinthesamecondition...Iwouldeitherbedeadorconfinedinalunaticasylum."So,whilestillaninmate,the

MarshallCounty,Mississippi,nativeborrowedsomemoneytopurchasepaperandpenandwriteanovelthatwouldsellover11,000copiesinthefouryearsfollowinghisdeparturefromthehome.24

ButnoteveryonefaredaswelloutsidethewallsasRoebuck.Afterhavingrefusedtoacceptthedisciplinarymeasuresimposedonhimforbootlegging,sixty-two-year-oldDavidG.BoisseaulefttheLeeCampHomeinJanuary1912andsubsistedoncharityformorethanayear."Youmustremember,"Boisseaupleadedtotheboardinhisappealforreinstatement,"thatthereisnoneofusbutwhatmakesmistakes.....IhavealwaysRegreatedmymistake."Heurgedtheboardtotrytoforgivehimandallowhimtoreturn.25JohnW.Meeks,anattorneyfromPocahontas,Arkansas,andaformermemberofthestateboardofcharitableinstitutions,describedthesadplightofthreeformerinmateswhowanderedintohistown.One,hesaid,hadsincebeenabandonedbyhiswell-to-donephews,whorefusedtotakeaninterestinthe"pooroldfellow"onaccountofhissenility;anotherhaddiedsometwoorthreemonths

afterleavingthehome;andthethird,RobertBurrow,whohadformerlygrowndissatisfiedwithconditionsintheMissourihomeandlefttheretoo,nowdesperatelydesiredreadmission.Burrow,atageeighty-six,wassoonpermittedtoreentertheArkansasfacility.Somesixmonthslater,however,hewasgrantedaseconddischarge,andhediedshortlythereafter.

Manyotherex-Confederatesremainedinasoldiers'homeonlytemporarilybeforeleaving,asBurrow,Roebuck,andAllendid.Forexample,JamesM.Hughes,thefirstveteranadmittedtotheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryinApril1909,receivedadischargeafteronlytwomonthsandwasneverheardfromagain.Hugheswasnotalone.Althoughananalysisofinmatedata(seetheAppendix,Table14)revealsthatthe"average"timeaveteranresidedinahomerangedanywherefrom4.31to5.23years,dependinguponhisageandwhenhewasadmitted,slightlymorethanone-thirdofallinmates"left"afteronlyoneyearorless(seetheAppendix,Table15).Onereasonforsuchashort"tenure"(timeinresidence)isthat,nomatterhowstalwarttheyoncemayhavebeen,Confederateveteransprobablywerenotimmuneto"relocationmortalityeffect"anobservableincreaseindeathratesduetovariousstressfactorsfollowingmobility.27Inotherwords,itappearsthatsomeveterans,owingperhapstochronichealthproblemsortherecentdeathofaspouse,weretoophysicallyandemotionallyunstabletosurviveforlongaftertheordealofbeingadmittedtothehomeandattemptingtoacclimatetoitssurroundings.Theinmateregistersofthevarioushomescontainnumerousentriesthatrevealsuchatrend.Forexample,thefirstinmateadmittedtotheGeorgiahome,MendelLevy,ageseventy,formerlyaprivateintheFifty-NinthGeorgiaInfantry,enteredinJune1901ina''dyingcondition"anddrewhislastbreaththefollowing

month.AmongthefirstadmittedtoBeauvoirwasCaptainPrentissIngraham,whoafterthewarhadbeenasoldieroffortunebeforegainingrenownasadimenovelistandpoet.AfterleavingChicagoin1903,heappliedforadmissionfromhisnativeAdamsCounty,Mississippi,andenteredthehomeatagesixty,onAugust12,1904,onlytodiefourdayslaterandbelaidtorestinthehomecemetery.28

Theroughlytwooutofeverythreemenwhoresidedinthehomesformorethanayearlivedthere,onaverage,foraboutfourtofiveyears,andafewforconsiderablylonger.29Someex-Confederateswereontherollsoftheirrespectiveinstitutionsforasmanyasten,fifteen,oreventwentytotwenty-fiveyears.Forexample,whenJ.D.Morgan,formerlyoftheSixty-ThirdAlabamaInfantry,wasadmittedtotheMountainCreekfacilityinApril1914,therewereabouteightyotherveteransinthehome.Twentyyearslater,however,Morganwasthesolesurvivinginmate.AmongtheearliestofGeorgiainmates,JamesM."UncleJim"MillswasadmittedinSeptember1901,atagefifty-nine.AveteranofthebattleofMissionaryRidge(1863),hediedatthehome

InmatesGeorgeL.Cathey(standing),aformercaptainintheGeorgiaLegion,Rusk'sBrigade,

andG.F.Beavers,aveteranoftheTwenty-NinthNorthCarolinaInfantry,infrontoftheir

cottageattheNorthCarolinahome,ontheoccasionofCathey'sonehundredthbirthdayin

November1922.JoininginthebirthdaycelebrationweretheUDCstatepresident,students

fromnearbyMeredithCollege,andalocalchapteroftheChildrenoftheConfederacy.

Catheydiedatthehomethefollowingyear.(author'scollection)

hospitalin1927.PerhapsthelongesttenurewasthatofG.C.Cline,afarmerfromCabarrusCounty,NorthCarolina,whoenteredthehomeatRaleighinFebruary1901anddiedtherethirty-oneyearslater.

Thereisnoreasontoimagine,however,thatMillsorClineorMorgan

remainedinstitutionalizedfortheentireperiodoftheirtenureswithoutoncesettingfootoutsidethewalls,sinceinmatesingoodstandingwerepromised,andinfactusuallyreceivedupondemand,passes,furloughs,orhonorarydischarges.SuchwasthecaseforCharlesM.Speer,originallyofMonroe

County,Georgia.FirstadmittedinJune1911,SpeerwasdischargedfromtheGeorgiahomeonatleasttwoseparateoccasionspriortohisdeaththereinDecember1933.AnotherGeorgiaveteran,Z.M.Rogers,whohadservedinanartilleryunitatSecondManassasandSharpsburg,wasadmittedtothehomeinAtlantain1901,dischargedathisownrequestin1907,readmittedin1914,andtransferredsixyearslatertothestateinsaneasyluminMilledgeville,wherehediedshortlyafterward.Butmore"typical"werethetenuresofJoeBoatrightofRichland,SouthCarolina,whoenteredtheConfederateInfirmaryinOctober1909and"left"(ashomerecordsindicate,withoutanyfurtherexplanation)inJuly1911;orCaptainA.J.HerodofYazoo,Mississippi,whocametoBeauvoirinJanuary1905andwasdischargedinApril1909;orRobertW.Allen,afarmerfromPalestine,Texas,whowasadmittedtotheConfederateHomeforMeninDecember1905anddiedinOctober1911.

Whatbecameofthemajorityofinmateswhopreferrednottoriskencounteringtheoutsideworld,hadnowhereelsetogo,orwerepreventedfromleavingforhealthorotherpersonalreasons,andwerewillingtostayputatleastforthetimebeing?Weretherenoothermeansavailableforcopingwiththeinstitutionalenvironmentthanjust"waitingfordeath"?Aveterancouldalwaysdoashewastold,obeyalltherules,mindhisownbusiness,enjoylifewithinthelimitsasdefinedbythoseinauthorityoverhim,andaspiretobecomea"model"inmate,asdidJohnHaps,whoforfourteenconsecutiveyearstendedthegardensatBeauvoirbeforehisdeathin1924.ApparentlymanyinmatesfollowedtheexampleofHapsandothers,eithercausingnotroublefortheiradministratorsoratleastdoingnothingseriousenoughtobenotedbywhoeverkepttherecords.Homerecordsarenotcomprehensive,oftenrevealinglittleofinmates

beyondthebareessentialsofname,age,occupation,andtimeinresidence.Therecordsdo(moreoftenthannot),however,indicatewhenaveteransteppedoutofline:perhapswhenhetookouthisfrustrationsonthefellowinmatewhoirritatedhimeverytimehetappedhiscane,theonewithwhomhehadcrosswordsthedaybefore,ortheobnoxiousloutdownthehallwhosnoredtooloudly,wasalwaysthefirstinlineformeals,orrefusedtotakeabath.

Althoughadmonishedbyhomeauthoritiestorespecteachother,manyinmatesevidentlydidnotdosoforavarietyofreasons.TheTexashomeboardobserved,forexample,thatsome"spryoldbucks"oftenquarreledandfought"likeyoungsters"overany"trivialthing,''includingdominoesora"friendly"cardgame,andwereknowntoscrapovernewspapers,magazines,andevenfood.TipHarrison,theGeorgiahomeboardsecretaryandGradyprotégé,testifiedin1906thatapairofinmateshada"littleslappingspell"intheirroomoverthedifferentformsofbaptism.HoratioBellreportedfiveyearslateronanincidentthathadoccurredintheGeorgiahomemesshall,inwhicha

fewinmatesfought,usingcookeryandtinservingpitchersasweapons,andturnedovertables,creating"muchexcitement."Someveterans,literally,fought"thewaralloveragain,"remarkedtheCarolinaFreePress.HenryG.Lamar,aseventy-year-oldveteranoftheWildernesscampaignandPetersburg,diedinDecember1917afterhisroommateintheGeorgiahomestruckhimwithanironpoker.Determinedinsaneanddangerous,theassailantwascommittedtothesanitariuminMilledgeville.ThesonofaformersuperintendentoftheAlabamahomerecalledmanyyearslaterthattheveteranswerea"rowdybunch,"oftengettingintofightswitheachother;ononeoccasiona"Yankee"cametostayatthehome,buttheoldRebsraisedsuchafussthathewasforcedtoleave.

31Politicsalsoservedasasourceofdissensionanddisorder,thusdispellingthestereotypethattheagedarerelativelyuninterestedinsuchmatters.Forexample,in1914SuperintendentH.W.Richardsonreported"considerablefrictionamonginmatesoverpolitics''attheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary.UponhearingfromSuperintendentElnathanTarttthatPresidentWoodrowWilsonhadbeenreelectedin1916,veteransatBeauvoirreportedlyhelda"demonstration"lasting"fullyanhour."Bellspealedandthesoldiers"shoutedandmademerry,"refusingtogotobed"untilalatehour."32

Inmateslashedoutnotonlyatoneanotherbutalsoattheirkeepersandviceversa.Tohearhomeofficialstellit,theinmatesweretheaggressors;yet,bythesametoken,inmatessawthemselvesasinnocentvictims.AsoneVirginiaveteranputit:"SomeofusPoor-Inmates[are]madefishoffandothersmadefowloff."Thehomes'officialrecordsalsocontainseveralisolatedexamplesindicativeofthemutualanimosity.Oneparticularly"bloodyfight"occurredattheGeorgiahomeinDecember1911,whenaninmateandthe

superintendent"engagedincombat,"accordingtothebystanderswhohadtoseparatethem.Aftermakingafullinvestigation,summoningwitnesses,andtakingtestimony,theboardsuspendedbothmen.Afterward,thesuperintendentwasindictedandarraignedbyagrandjurybutwassubsequentlyacquittedandreleased.Thatsameyearsixty-four-year-oldinmateRobertS.Saffold,aself-confessed"doper"and"morphinefiend,"whohadspentnearlyadecadeinastatesanitariumbattlinghisdrugdependencypriortohisadmissiontotheGeorgiahomein1906,enteredthesuperintendent'soffice,struckhimwithapairofbrassknuckles,andbeganchokinghimwithhisbarehands,beforefinallybeingrestrained.Asimilarepisodehadtakenplaceatthehomesomenineyearsearlier,whentheactingsuperintendenthadbeenchargedwithassaultwithintenttomurderaninmate.Afterhearingthetestimonyofferedbyanumberofinmatewitnesses,ajointcommitteeoflegislatorsandboardmembersfoundtheofficernotguiltyandunanimouslycommendedhisconduct.In1913aTexasinmate,whomtheboardhad

recentlyexoneratedforhavingcriticizedthehome'sadministration,canedthesuperintendentonthestepsoftheTravisCountyCourtHouse.FouryearslaterTaylorThompsontoldaspecialinvestigatingcommitteethatoneofhiscomradesintheTexashome,"amanwhoknewthathisownendwasrapidlyapproaching,"haditinforthehomephysicianandwouldhavekilledhimwithapistolhehadhiddenifhehadbeengivenhalfachance.Similarly,GeorgiaSuperintendentJohnA.Thompsontestifiedin1906thattheinmatesseemedto"plotagainst"him,becausehe"triedtoenforcetherules."

SociologistErvingGoffmanhassuggestedthatamongtheseveraladaptivetechniquesemployedbyinmatesincopingwithinstitutionallife,violenceandotherflagrantrefusalstocooperatewerebutinitialandtemporaryreactions.Indeed,itstandstoreasonthatifanoldandcantankerousex-Confederatewasdissatisfiedwithhomeconditions,ratherthanlashingoutwithfury,hecouldleave.Thewalls,orfencesinmostcases,werebynomeansimpassable.Butforsomeinmatesitwasnotsosimpleasthat,asDoctorJohnC.Logginstestifiedbeforealegislativecommitteein1917.Hedidnotbelievethatsomemenwould"goout...unlessyouforcedthemout.Theycannotlivewiththeirchildren,"heasserted,"oranyoneelse"forthatmatter.MaryE.SmithimploredtheLeeCampboardtoreadmitherbrother,who,though"sick,weak&nervous"and"utterlyunfittedforworkofanykind,"hadbeendismissedfromthehome.Please"takehimagain,''sheurged,forhehas"nootherhomeopentohim."34

Onceaveteranhadresignedhimselftoremaininginthehomeforanindefiniteperiodoftimeandmakingthebestofit,hemightstillhaverecoursetoanother,lessdirect,defenseorcopingmechanism,namelyreminiscing.Studieshaveindicatedthatlivinginthepast,recalling

earlierachievementsandenlarginguponthem,notonlymayenableindividualswithinaninstitutionalsettingtoconfrontstresssituationswithdignityandcouragebutmayalsoenhancetheirself-esteemandforestalladeclineinmentalhealth.Inotherwords,theneedfor"lifereview"springsoutofanemotionalneedtofeelsecure,accepted,andimportantstrongmedicineformenwhomightotherwisebemoreinclinedtowithdrawintoasullenshellortosuccumbtofearandself-pity.35Althoughmoreresearchremainstobedonebeforetheimportanceandimplicationsofreminiscingarefullyknown,itiscertainthatinmatesofConfederateveterans'homesengagedinit,almosttoexcess.WillBranum,inspectingCampNichollsin1913,reportedlycameacrossaninmatewhowassittingaloneontheverandaofoneofthehomepavilions.ToBranum'squeryiftheveteranknewthewhereaboutsofaparticularprivate,theoldsoldierreplied:"Idon'tthinkthereisnaryprivateinthisplaceceptin'me.That'swhyI'msolonesome.Alltherestof'emisgeneralsandcolonelsandcaptainsmostlycaptains!"Althoughtheoverwhelmingmajorityofinmates

inalltheex-Confederatehomeshadactuallyfoughtintheenlistedranks,astheyadvancedinage,apparently,manyhadoverlookedthatminordetail.

Studieshaveshownthattheprocessofreminiscenceisenhancedinanenvironmentwherepastandpresentareinterchangeableandthepastisdramatized.InthepostwarSouth,therewerefewerplaceswherepastandpresentmoreoftenmergedthanintheConfederatesoldiers'homes.AsBranumandothervisitorsnoted,theinmateshadmanyopportunitiestositandtalk,toreminisceaboutwhichcolonelledwhatattack,andtorecountthespecificcontributioneachhadmadeduringthewarsomefortyorfiftyyearsinthepast.Afterall,nomatterhowdiversetheirpreviouslifeexperiencesmayhavebeen,soldiers'homeinmatesfromVirginiatoTexas,andfromFloridatoArkansassharedasinglevitalevent,acommonwatershedthathaddrawnthemtogether:thewaritself,withwhichtheyallidentifiedandtowhich,ultimately,theyallowedtheirpresenceintheinstitutions.Asafavoritehymnsungbyveteransatreunionsaptlyputit:"We'reold-TimeConfederates,"and"that'sgoodenoughforme."

ItisparadoxicalthattheveryactivitiesthatincreasedgroupconsciousnessandevenencouragedcollectivebehavioramongConfederateinmates,actionsthatposedathreattothedesiredorderinthehome,wereinfactcultivatedandpromotedbyhomeadministrators.DirectorJulianLevypleadedwithhisfellowAANVmemberstovisittheCampNichollsHome,wheretheywouldseetheirformercomradesandconversewiththemabout"oldscenes,oldtimes,oldfriends."37Andvisitorscamebythedrovesnotjustotherveteransbutalsowomenandchildren,curiosityseekers,vaudevilleacts,touringbrassbands,andsouvenircollectors,especiallyon

weekendsandholidaysorforspecialevents.Confederatesoldiers'homesweregatheringplaceswherepeoplecouldcongregateandreaffirmtheirdevotiontothedearprinciplesoftheLostCause.Theywerepeopleplaces,importantplacestovisitandbeseeninonElectionDayorConfederateMemorialDay,appropriateplacestocelebrateRobertE.Lee'sandJeffersonDavis'sbirthdays,andperhapssomewhatironicplacestoholdFourthofJulybarbecues,featuringplentyofspeechesandanoddmixofwatermelonsandRebelflags,warsongsandflowers.AmongthemoretypicalentertainmentsheldattheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryduringthe1920swereSundayafternoonpreachingsandsingings,SecessionDay(December20)speechesandessaycontests,andsacrednumbersperformedbyaboys'vocalquartet;SaturdayafternoonswerereservedforvisitsfromtheyoungwomenofChicoraCollegeandColumbiaCollege.Inhercharmingbook,TheMakingofaSoutherner,KatherineDuPreLumpkinrecallsatimewhen,asayounggirlgrowingupinColumbia,sheproudlypresentedtotheinmatesarockingchairthatsheherselfhadpurchasedwithmoneyraisedforthehome.Anotherwomanwholivedinthecommunityof

OfficialsandstaffoftheJeffersonM.FalknerSoldiers'Home,MountainCreek,Alabama,c.1910.(courtesyofConfederateMemorialPark,Marbury,Alabama)

MountainCreekrememberswhensheandothergirlsusedtodressupandgototheAlabamahomeandputon"shows,"duringwhichafewveteransplayedthepianoorfiddlewhileothersjustsataround,whittled,orsmokedpipesandpatientlylistenedordozed.SometimesoutofsheercuriositypeoplewaitingtocatchatraintoBirminghamorMontgomeryvisitedtheveterans'homesinceitwasneartherailwaystationinMountainCreek.

Andtheinmatesusuallywerequitehappytoseetheoutsiderscome,nomatterwhattheirmotivations.UponarrivingattheAlabamainstitution,onemansaid,hewasnearlymobbedbytheinmateswhogatheredaroundhim,"beingeagertohearandtolearnwhatisgoingonintheworld."Duringhisvisit,oneoldmaninparticularmade"strangesigns...tryingtoattract[his]

attention."Asitturnedout,thevisitorrecalled,theveteranhadseenhimwearingaMasonicpinandwasgesturinginanefforttoconvincehimthathetoowasabrotherMason.IntheafternoonfollowingameetingoftheUDCnationalconventioninNewOrleans,someoftheladieswentoutoncharteredstreetcarstoCampNichollstohaveapicniconthegrounds.Uponreachingtheentrancetothehome,theysawtheveteransallseventyfiveinnumberdressedintheirConfederategrayuniforms,standingatattentionindoublecolumns.Itwasquiteanimpressiveandinspiringsight,accordingtoonewoman,who,observinghercompanionsassheandtheygreetedandshookhandswitheachveteran,witnessed"manyagrayhairedwomanoftheConfederacyexchanging]awordandatear."

Bythesametoken,homeofficialsactivelyencouragedparticipationinallkindsofoutingsparades,ceremonies,dedications,celebrations,concertstothedelightofambulatoryinmates.Severalhomesprocuredfreetransporta-

tiontoandfromannualveterans'reunionsandarrangedforoutsideroomandboardatreducedrates.DelegationsofConfederatesoldiers'homeinmates,invariablyaccompaniedbytheirnursesandsome"coloredorderlies,"turnedupatalmostanypublicgathering,frompoliticalrallies,publicfunerals,andlotteriestomotionpicturedebuts,crossburnings,andbattlefieldtours.InMarch1929approximatelytwentyBeauvoirveteransranginginagesfromeighty-onetoninetytraveledfreeofchargeinprivatePullmansfromtheGulfCoasttoWashington,D.C.,inordertoattendHerbertHoover'sinauguration.Oncetheveteranswerethere,arrangementsweremadeforthemtorideinnewPackardlimousinesintheinauguralparadedownPennsylvaniaAvenue.Moviecamerascapturedtheeventonfilm,astheveteranspassedinfrontofthereviewingstandwheretheHooversandotherdignitarieswereseated.BeforereturningtoMississippi,thegroupalsopaidavisittoArlingtonCemeterytoseeGeneralLee'shomeandmadeaspecialsidetriptoMountVernon.

39SeveralyearsearlieraboutonehundredveteransfromthesameinstitutionhadmetWarrenG.HardingandhiswifeattheWhiteHouse,eachonebeingintroducedbythehome'ssuperintendent.WhenPresidentHardingutteredsomethingaboutthe"unitedcountry,noNorthorSouth"inashortspeechhehadprepared,theveteranscheeredrespectfully.40Wherevertheywent,whendisplayedintheirConfederategrayclothuniforms,agedandlimblessinmatesrepresentedmorethantheirhome.Inthepublic'smindtheyservedaslivingmonumentsfromamythicpasttobeadmired,indeedsomewouldsayrevered,inspiteofwhatevertookplaceinsidethewalls.

CHAPTERSEVENTwiceaChildAstheeditoroftheBiloxiDailyHeraldastutelyperceived,therewas"moretruththanpoetry"inadittycontributedbyaveteranwhohadrecentlyreturnedfromanoutingtoNewOrleanswithhisfellowinmates,"TheBeauvoirboysingrayTheJ.D.Clubofancientrakes."Thecleververseendedwiththestanza:

Neverhadstoodbeforesuchenticingbars,Wheretencentscouldgetatreat,Butnonegotonadrunk,ExceptbutIwillnottell,Allreturnedsafelytotheirbunk,Andwillglad[l]yanswerthedinnerbell.

Abreakdownindisciplineofthesortthepoemsuggestswasnolaughingmatter,however,tohomeauthorities,whowereoftenatalosstoexplainwhyvirtuousConfederateheroessometimesbehavedsobadly."Avisittoasoldiers'home,anywhere,israthersad,"remarkedoneobserver,"foritishardontheseoldmentobeseparatedfromtherefininginfluencesofhomelife"andnotgiveinto"temptationsofvariouskinds."Noteveryonecausedtrouble,ofcourse.Ineveryhomeonlyahandfulof"highstrung"''evilmindedcharacters"consistentlyfellintothecategoriesof"chronicgrowlers,""malcontents,"or"unreasonable,ungratefulrefractorymen."Virginiaboardmembersbelievedthephysicalmaladiesandadvancedagesoftheveteransweretheimmediatecausesoftheirintransigence.LongtimeGeorgiahomepresidentHoratioBellagreed."Itisverydifficult,"helamented,"todealwith...oldmenintheirdotage...

onaccountofthewearandtearofage,andit'shardtokeepthemingoodhumor."Oldmenarefickle,remarkedtheTexashomequartermaster:you"cannottellwhat"they"willwishfromdaytotimeanymorethanyoucanfly!"GeorgiatrusteeCharlesPhillipsputitbluntly:"OldConfederateSoldiersarejustlikechildren."ButaLeeCampbardadvancedadifferenttheory:

Oldsoldierslikeoldmaids,areoftenprudishandhardtoplease,

Theyliketolieaboutinthesun,tosmokeandtaketheirease.

Andsome,incertaintimesofthemoon,seemtogetverycranky,

WhichweallthinkisowingtotheirmeetingswiththeYankee.

Ifunacceptablebehaviorhadonerootcausethateveryonecouldagreeupon,itwasapenchantforstrongdrink.In1907FredOberoftheCampNichollsboardobservedtheLouisianainstitutionwasmoreofan"asylumforInebriates"thanahomeforConfederateveterans.CommandantTerryoftheLeeCampHomereportedthathismenweremade"almostwild"bytheirfondnessforliquor.AccordingtoaninmateoftheVirginiainstitution,anyveteranwhowantedadrinkcouldgotodowntownRichmondand"getallthewhiskeyhewishes,"evenifhehadbeendeniedapass.''Thewhiskeydrinkinghabithasbeenthesourceofmoredisagreeabletroublethananyother,"moanedJudgeBelloftheGeorgiahome.AnotherGeorgiatrusteedeclaredthehome"almostlikeabarroom,"citingmorethantwodozencasesofdrunkennessandrelatedinstancesoverathree-monthperiod.Inmatesafflictedwiththis"annoying,disgusting"habit,onereportnoted,had"invade[d]"thepremises,actedunruly,sungtooloudly,insultedchambermaidsandnurses,andgenerallyrefusedtocooperate.InmateJamesM.MillstestifiedbeforeaGeorgialegislativecommitteethat,afterseveralofhiscomradesfrequentedsaloonsinAtlanta,theywouldusuallyreturntothehome,"raisearowandgototheirroomsandsleepitoff."3ButthespreeswerelessinnocuousthanMillsmadethemsound.Onehomephysicianattributedtendeathsoneasuicidetowhiskeyorotherstimulants.Whileconductingroutinephysical

examinationsofTexasinmatesin1900,Dr.L.D.Hilldiscoveredatleastadozenmorphineaddictsandtwomoreinmateswithanopiumdependency.TheSouthCarolinahomesurgeon'sreportof1913indicatedthatmostoftheinmateshadadrughabit.Tenyearslaterareportrevealedthatamajorityofinmatestookmedicinedailyfor"differentdiseasesandcomplaints,"whileaGeorgiaphysician'sreportof1904hadwarnedthatthenumberofhabitualusersofpatentmedicinesinthehomehadindeedbecomea"problem."4

Fromtheinmates'pointofview,relianceupondrugsandalcoholprovidedajustifiableescapefromeverydayrealities.Administratorswhoweresympathetictosuchrealitiesurgedleniencyindealingwithveteranswhohadsubstancedependencies."Let'sbe[more]patientwiththeoldmen,"boardpresidentJulianCarradvisedthesuperintendentoftheNorthCarolinahome.

"Theyareoldandchildishandwehavegottobearwiththem."Closepersonalsurveillanceshouldbemaintained,advisedtheGeorgiainternalinvestigatingcommittee,butatthesametimehomeofficialsshouldtryto"temperjusticewithmercy."

5Onewaytodealwiththedrugordrinkingproblem,administratorsreasoned,wastoimprovemorale,therebyremovinganinmate'soriginalmotiveforturningtothebottle.Ifinmatesbelievedthattherewassomethingwrongwiththewaythattheywerebeingtreated,theycouldcomplaintothoseofficialswhowereresponsibleforrespondingtosuchcriticisms.Committeesperiodicallyandrigorouslyinspectedthehometoensurethatapropereconomywasobserved,thefloorswerescrubbed,thewallswerewhitewashed,thebeddingandblanketswereplentifulandclean,andthestafftreatedinmateswithkindness.Homeadministratorssetuprotatingcommitteesandconductedinternalinvestigationstocheckthetruthfulnessofinmateaccusations.Nocomplaintwastootrivial.Thecommitteesencouragedinmatestoappearbeforethem,tooffersuggestionsforimprovement,andtoexpresstheirgrievances.Inmatescouldspeaktheirminds,committeemembersadvised,forthesuperintendentwasnotintheroom.Howoftenareyoufed?Isthebreadmoldedandcrusty?Areyoupleasedwithyourquarters?Doyouhaveanyknowledgeofthoseabletoworkyetwhodonot?IsthereanyoneresidingherewhoisnotaConfederateveteran?Thesewerethesortsofquestionsinspectionteamsasked.6

Homeofficialsalsofoundmoralsuasionaneffectivepreventativeweaponinthebattleagainstalcohol.Severalofthegoverningboards,forexample,requiredallprospectiveinmatestosubscribetoapledgeofobediencetotherules,especiallytheproscriptionagainsttheconsumptionandpossessionofwhiskeyonthegrounds.Toremind

inmatesoftheirpromises,severalofthehomeshadcopiesoftherulesprintedinplain,largetype,framed,andpostedinconspicuousplaces.Tohelpinmateskeeptheirword,trusteesalsoadoptedthepracticeofhavingthemenconveneinthehomechapel.Morethanjustaplaceforinterdenominationalreligiousservicesandhomemeetings,thechapelalsoservedasamoralitystage.Herebeforetheinmatesthepresidentandothertrusteeswouldpubliclycommend(orreprimand)menfortheirproper(orimproper)conduct.Herethehomechaplainsometimespreachedtotheaudienceagainsttheawfultemptationsofstrongdrinkandthenecessityandrewardsoffollowingrulesandregulations.Hereinterspersedamongthelife-sizeportraitsofPresidentDavisandGeneralsLee,Johnston,andJacksonwereplacardsreading"Beyenotdrunkwithwine,"or"SurelytheLordisinthisplace,"or"Beyekindtooneanother.''Anditwasherethatthetemperanceladieslecturedonthevirtuesofremainingsoberandtheterribleconsequencesofinsobriety,andthatUDCrepresentativespinnedcrossesofhonoronthelapelsofinmateswhoselivesbestmeasureduptothemoralstandardsprescribedforthem.7

Inspiteofalltheseadmonitionsandinducements,someinmatespersistedindrinking.Oneveteran'sdoggerel,inadditiontoaddressinghisfellowinmates'intemperance,reflectedthedeterminedintransigenceofsomeofthemenintheLeeCampHome.

We...aregoodTeetotalers,andwehavesignedthepledge,Ratherthanadrinkofwhiskey,wewouldswallowanironwedge.

.....................

Asweconsideritpoison,wekeepourbottleshid,Forfearsomeonemighttakeit,

notknowingwhathedid;Andasitisoftenwegetsick,wejustslipandtakeasmile,Keepingasharplook-out,indeed,withoureyes"skinned"allthewhile.8

Fromtheperspectiveofthoseincharge,suchunrulybehaviorrepresentedanunnecessarybutrealthreattothedesiredgoodorderandwell-beingofthehome."Amanwhohabituallygetsdrunk,"arguedTexassuperintendentRufusKing,"isabletosupporthimselfifhewouldkeepsober"andshouldbeexpelledfromthehomeforthis"disgracefulconduct."But,shortofexpulsion,therewerelessseveresentencesavailableforpunishingthosewhogotoutoflinetoooften.TohelpcounterthespreadofalcoholabuseinsidethewallsoftheVirginiahome,forexample,theboardappealedtoRichmondmerchantsandcitizenstorefrainfromsellingorgivingwhiskeytoinmateswithpasses."Weknowthatthereisatemptationtotreattheseoldmenwheninthecity,"wrotePresidentNormanV.Randolph,"butasageneralruleitisdisastroustothem."In1912Tennesseeadministratorsmadeasimilarcalltopreventpoliticalcandidatesfromsending"electionwhiskey"tothehome.TheTexasboardwentonestepfurtherbyhavingalawenactedtoprohibitanypersonfromsellingorgivingintoxicantstoinmates.WhenitwaslearnedthatHerbertWananakerhadbroughtwhiskeyontothepremisesoftheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryandgivenittooneoftheinmates,thesuperintendentconfrontedhim,warningthatiftheoffensewasrepeated,hewouldbereportedtotheproperauthorities.TheVirginiaboardissuedacirculartoallknownConfederateveterans'campsinthestate,askingthemtoexercise"closescrutiny"andto"inquirediligently"intoaprospectiveinmate's"moralcharacter"beforeendorsinghisapplicationforadmissiontothehome.Toooften,thecircularread,thehomehadbeenimposeduponbyveteranswhose

InteriorviewofthehospitalchapelatBeauvoirinthe1920s.Suchplacesoftenservedasamoralitystage,whererightbehaviorwasrewardedandimproperconductpubliclyscorned.(courtesyofBeauvoir,theJeffersonDavisShrine)

servicerecordwasflawlessbutwhose"dissipateddispositions"madethem"unfitmembers"oftheinstitution.

TheconstantneedtobattlealcoholabuseledCampNichollsadministratorstoreconsidertheirhome'sroutinetherapeuticpracticeofprescribingwhiskeyasastimulantandtonic.In1891homesurgeonYvesR.LeMonnierhadrecommendedtworationsofwhiskeyperday,inordertohelpthe"oldanddecripid"men"keepupanimalheat,"andtheboardadoptedthemotion.Yetby1907boardmemberFredOberbelievedthatwhiskeyconsumptionhadreachedapointatwhichsomerestraintshouldbeplaceduponit.Ifalcoholwassodestructivetoman'shealth,heargued,howcouldithelprestorethathealthonceimpaired?Economicconsiderationsmorethantemperancequalms,however,hadledObertoraisethequestion.Eachday,accordingtohiscalculations,thedispensarydoledoutanywhere

fromeighttoninepintsofwhiskey(inindividualdosesrangingfromaboutonetotwoouncesperinmate)atanannualcostof$800.Intheend,ratherthanabolishthepracticealtogether,theboarddecidedtoregulatemorecloselytheamountofwhiskeyeachinmateimbibed,sincethehomerations,sosomeboardmembersargued,helpeddeterinmatesfromleavingthehomegroundsforadrink.10Aneven

moreeffectivedeterrent,however,wastowithholdtheonedollar"gratuity"orpensionallocatedeachmonthtoLouisianainmates.OriginallyintendedtoprovideindigentCampNichollsresidentswithspendingmoney,thestipend,tothedismayofhomeofficials,invariablywenttowardthepurchaseofwhiskeythatwaseitherbroughtbackintothehomeorconsumedonthespotwhereitwasbought.Explainingthatthemoneywasintendedfor"theworthyandnottheunworthy,"theboardpetitionedthelegislaturefor,andwasgranted,therighttodenytheallowancetothosewhoviolatedtherules.Punishmentsweremetedouttofitthecrime.Forexample,intoxicatedinmatescouldexpecttoreceive,inadditiontoaperiodofconfinement,afinerangingfrom$1.00to$5.00;repeatoffendersreceivedlongersentencesandlargerfines.ThispolicyresembledtheoneestablishedbytheSouthCarolinaboard,whichprescribedoneweekofconfinementtothegroundsforfirst-timeoffenders,athirty-dayfurloughforaninmatereportedinebriatedonasecondoccasion,andadishonorabledischargefromthehomeifaveteranappearedwhollyincapableofcontrollinghimself.Finally,somehomessetasideaspeciallydesignedroomorbuildingwhere"chronicviolators"couldsleepofftheir"indiscretion[s]."Boardmembersconsideredsuchafacilitypreferabletoturningoutaveteran.

Ontheotherhand,grossinsubordinationwasagrievousactthathomeadministratorscouldnotaffordtotolerate.Moreoftenthannotinsuchcasestrusteesadoptedahard-linepolicy,recommendingfirmdisciplineandstrictenforcementoftherules.Failuretoenforcetherules,manycontended,woulddenythe"goodandorderly"inmatestheirrights.AstatelegislativecommitteethatvisitedtheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryin1913heldthisview.AlthoughadmittingthatthequestionofdiscipliningaConfederateveteranwasa"difficultone,"

thecommitteebelievedthatdisciplineshouldbemaintained,eventotheextentofexpellinganinmate.DuringtheeightyearsthatJohnK.MosbyservedassuperintendentofBeauvoir,heattemptedtohold"thescalesofjusticeatanequalbalance."Onafewoccasions,headmitted,hewas"compelledtodismissrebelliousandinsubordinateinmates,butneverinasingleinstance,until[all]persuasivepowershadbeenexhausted...andallauthoritydefied."Andtherewasnomoreseriousbreachofdisciplinethananoutrightchallengetotheboard'sauthority.Insuchcases,expulsionwastheonlypossiblesolution.Whenaskedwhetherhethoughtthepenaltyofejectionwastoosevereforrefractoryoldmen,GeorgiatrusteeW.S.Thompsonrespondedfrankly:''Ithink[not],sofarasmyknowledgegoesandmyobservationofmenandspeciallythatclassofmen"[emphasisadded].Besides,hewarned,"theremightbeaverygreatdangerofreallydefeatingtheobjectoftheHomeiftheideaevergetsoutthatthemenarenotamenableto

discipline."Althoughpunishmentmayappearharsh,assertedFredOber,thegoodnameofthehomemustbemaintained"atallhazards."

Trusteestooktheirworkseriouslyandwerequiteassiduousindealingwith"discordantandrebellious"inmates.WhenaveterancalledtheVirginiacommandanta"DamnSonofaBitch"andthreatenedto''BlowhisdamnBrainsout,"theinmatewascourt-martialedandorderedimmediatelyexpelledfromthehome,afterhavingresidedtherelessthansixmonths.In1910aseventy-three-year-oldGeorgiainmatewhocalledthematrona"damnedbitch"waseventuallycommittedtothestateinsaneasylum,aswasadrunkenTennesseeinmatewhodetonatedastickofdynamite,wreckinghisroomandrippingaten-foot-squareholeinthemainbuilding'sroof.AskedbyagroupofveteranswhetherhewouldreadmitaformerArkansasinmatewhohadbeengivena"forced"furloughowingtosome"misconduct,"SuperintendentRufusMcDanielrespondedinthenegative:"Ihavetriedsohardtotreateachmanandwomanasifheorsheweremyownfatherormother."Yet,whilea"greatmajorityoftheInmates...arethoroughlyhappyandcontented,..whenonepersistsinviolatingtherules...somedisciplinemustbeadministered."Theinmateinquestionhadengagedinanumberoffightsandthreats,McDanielcontinued,and,despitethesuperintendent'shaving"cautionedhimandremonstratedwithhim,andremonstratedyetagain,"hedidnotcease.13

Tospeakdisparaginglyofthehome,especiallywhenoutsidethewalls,alsometwithresolutedisapprobationandextremepunishment.Sodidahostofother"intolerable"offenses,includingindecentexposure,begging,usingprofanelanguage,aggravatedassaultsagainstfellowinmatesoremployees,habitualdrunkenness,chronic

kicking,"cohabitatingwithnegrowenches,"disturbingreligiousservices,andpropositioningfemaleservants.14J.T.JohnsonfromNewberry,amongthefirstveteransadmittedtotheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryinJune1909,was"sobad,"reportedboardpresidentDavidCardwell,that"wehadtofurloughhim."Theboardconsideredhimnotonlyoffensivetotheotherinmatesbutalsodangerous,owingtohis"viciousbehavior."Evensomeofhisfellowinmateshadpetitionedonatleasttwoseparateoccasionsforhisdischarge.IncludedinhisfileisonepetitionsignedbysixinmateswhochargedJohnsonwith"conductunbecomingaSoldier&aGentlemanattheBreakfasttable"andanotherstatingthathehaddrawnaknifeonaninmateandstruckhim.SuperintendentW.D.Starlingverifiedthatthechargesweretrueandthathehadindeedbrokentherules.Therefore,onadviceofthehomephysician,theboardvotedtoexpelJohnsonandsendhimonthenexttrainbacktoNewberry.Similarly,theboardexpelledE.B.Blackfoot,whosedrinkinghadgottensooutofcontrolthatthecityrecorderhadorderedhimoffthestreetsofColumbia.Somethirty-twoofhisfellow

inmatesrequestedhisdismissal,andBlackfootwascommittedtotheStateHospitalfortheInsane,whichwasdirectlyacrossthestreetfromtheConfederateInfirmary.

Onceexpelled,aformerinmatecouldpetitionforreadmission.Andmostoftenboardmemberswerewillingtoforgivetheveteranandgivehimasecondchance,providedhewouldamendhisways.Forexample,J..I.HugheyofAbbevilleresidedattheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryuntilheimbibedwhiskeyandthecommandant,asHugheyphasedit,"turnedmeoutandtoldmetogo."Inhisappealtoreturntothehome,Hugheypromised"nottoindulgetoofreelyanymore"andto"trytocomplywiththerulesandregulations.''Moreover,hevowed,"IwillonlyleavetheHometoattendchurch,"sotherewillbe"nochanceformetogoastray."16Afterbeingdisciplined,otherslikeHugheyfounditdifficulttoadjusttolifeoutsidethewallsandconsequentlyappliedforreadmission.A(Georgiaveteranappealedforreinstatementin1911,severalmonthsafterhehadbeendismissedforinsobrietyand"immoralconduct."Inthemeantime,accordingtoapublicpoorreliefagencythathadassistedhim,hewas'absolutelyinwant,strollingaboutAtlanta,sleepingwhereverhecould...andlivinginfilthandrags."Whentheboardmettodiscusshiscase,thetrusteesagreedtoallowhimtoreturn,providedhepromisedtofollowtherulesandkeepsober,whichtermshegladlyaccepted.FormerinmatePleasantWoodwasdealtwithinasimilarfashion.SuspendedfromtheGeorgiahomein1912forintoxicationandcallingthestewardess,AvarillaT.Clayton,aliar,theseventy-year-oldwassummonedbeforetheboard.ItorderedhimtoapologizetoMissClayton,whichhedid,explainingthat,whendrunk,hehadforgotten"therespectduealady,"forwhichoffensehenowhadtheutmostregret.Satisfied,theboardthenadmonishedWoodtobemorecareful,

excusedthechargesagainsthim,andreinstatedhim.AformerTennesseeSoldiers'HomeinmatewhowastemporarilyresidingintheRutherfordCountypoorhousepromisedthehomeboardpresidentthat,ifadmitted,hewouldbe"anobedientEx-Confederateandactasbecomesagentleman....IshallsaynordoanythingagainsttheHomenoritsinmates.IwilldoanythingthatIamaskedtodounlessitishardwork."17

G.W.Thompson'sappealforreinstatementtotheArkansashomewasjustasstraightforward."Afterdueconsideration,"hewrote:

IamsattisfiedthatIviolatedtherules&regulationsoftheSoldiersHome&amwillingtomakeallamendsandbegpardon&offeranyapologyyoumaydeemnecessary,&IfurtherpromisethatIwillabidebytherules&regulationsasadoptedbytheBoardofthehome.Iamphisicallyunabletoperformanymanuellabor.

hopingthatthiswillmeetwithyourapproval,IbegtoremainYours&c....

ThompsonsignedthepetitionandthenhadhislocalUCVcommanderendorseitbeforeforwardingittothehome.Afterreviewingtheletter,SuperintendentFelixG.Swaimnotedthattheveteranowedhimnoapology,explaining"Ionlydidmyduty,"buthenowwaswillingtogiveThompsonasecondchance,providedhewouldliveuptohisword.Thompsonwasreadmitted,butlessthantwoyearslaterheagainranafoulofthehomeauthorities.WhatfollowedwasaremarkableseriesofexchangesbetweenSwaimandtheAdjutantGeneral'sOfficeinWashington.Swaimcould"hardlybelieve"that"suchaman,"whohad''giventheHomesomuchtrouble,"had"madeanhonorablesoldier,"andheaskedthatThompson'sConfederateservicerecordbereinvestigated."Ifhisstatementsprovetrue,"Swaimpromised,Thompsonwouldremaininthehome.Apparentlyitwaseasiertoorderaninmate'sremovalfromthehomeonthegroundsthathewasadeserterthanonsomeothercharges.AnassistanttotheadjutantgeneralrepliedthatThompsonhadbeenaprisoneratFortDelawareasheclaimed,buttherecordsdidnotshowwhetherorwhenhewasparoledorexchanged.Swaimrequestedthattheveteran'sfilebesearchedagain,andyetathirdtime,withthesespecificinstructions:"Seehow,hegotoutofFortDelaware!"Buttherewassimplynohardevidence.19

Soldiers'homeadministratorswereunderstandablycautiousaboutpardoningformerinmateswhoseconductintheinstitutionhadbeenconsiderablylessthanideal.Someveterans'applicationsforforgivenessandreinstatementwererefusedoutright.SuchwasthecaseforCampNichollsveteranMalachiWhittle,whopetitionedthe

Louisianaboardforrepealofhisthree-monthconfinementtothegroundsforintoxicationandreinstatementofhisfullprivilegesasaninmate.Whittleassertedthat,whenhewasfirstadmittedtothehome,hehadalreadysufferedfromfaintingspells.Asaresult,a"drinkofanykind"aggravatedhiscondition;nevertheless,itwouldnothappenagain,hepledged."Ineverfailinmywork,takingcareofthestoreroomsandthebenchesonthegrounds,"heclaimed,andotherswouldattestthathewasusuallya"quietpeaceableman."Unmovedbyhisexplanation,theboarddeniedtherequest.Otherappealsforreadmissionwerealsogreetedsomewhatcoolly.M.I.Bonham,anattorneyatAnderson,SouthCarolina,andamemberoftheConfederateInfirmary'sboardofcommissioners,informedthesuperintendentinwritingthat"OldmanRileyRowland"wouldbecomingtothehomeseekingreadmittance,upontheconditionthathe"obeysordersandbehaveshimself."KnowingthatRowlandhadhad"aprettyhardtimesincehe

left,"thathehadbeensickandquitefeebleandnowcouldhardlywalk,BonhamthoughtthatRowlandwouldbeina"properstateofmind"uponhisreturn.BoardpresidentCardwell,uponseeingtheletter,gaveRowlandalessthanenthusiasticendorsement,conceding:"Isupposewewillhavetotryhimagain."ButprobablyfewinmatesreceivedmorereprievesthandidWilliamJ.Delbridge.OnthreeseparateoccasionshehadbeendischargedfromtheGeorgiahomeonaccountofhis"liquorhabit,"andeachtimehehadappliedforandreceivedreinstatement.Afterlosinghisfourthboutwiththe"deceptivestuff,''Delbridgeonceagainappliedforpermissiontoreenterthehome.Ifreadmitted,hepromisedtoworkonthefarm,freeofchargeifnecessary,andnottobreakanotherrule"forever."ThesuperintendentoftheFultonCountyalmshouseendorsedhisapplication,vouchingthatthesixty-two-year-oldinfantryveteranhadconductedhimself"splendidly"duringhisfour-monthstayinthatestablishment.DelbridgewonhisappealandcontinuedtoresideintheGeorgiahome,apparentlywithnofurtherincident,untilhisdeathsometwoyearslater.

Disciplinaryboardsdislikedhavingtoreconsidertheirowndecisions.ACampNichollsveteran,RufusHouston,was"mortified"bythesentenceimposedonhimforbrawlingwithafellowinmate.Althoughaspunishmenthehadbeendeprivedofapassforsixmonths,hisopponenthadlostpassprivilegesforonlytwomonths."IfIhadbeensentencedtothepenitentiary,Idonotbelieveitwouldhaveinjuredmyreputationmore,"Houstondeclared.Uponreconsideration,theboarddidnotreverseitselfbutdidseefittoreducehissentencebyone-third.AndrewJ.Rogershadevenlessgoodfortune.Foundguiltyofdrunkennessanddisorderlyconduct,theVirginianhadbeenconfinedtotheLeeCampHomegroundsfornearlyfourmonths

beforeheappliedforpermissiontoleavetheinstitution"forgood."Theboard,however,choosingnottoreopenthecase,rejectedRogers'spetition,therebyforcinghimtoremainatthehomeagainsthiswill.21

Ordinarilysuchmattersremainedhiddenfromthepublic,butsomeveteransrefusedtoacceptaboard'sdecisionasfinalandappealedtooutsidersforintervention.AfterThomasO'DonnellhadconfessedtohavingsmuggledwhiskeyintoCampNichollsandhadbeenordereddismissedin1895,hesubsequentlysuedtogainreadmittanceandwonthelegalproceedingsonthegroundsthathehadbeenavictimofdiscrimination.Atleasttwootherinmatesopenlychallengedthroughlegalmeanstherightofhomeboardstoimposediscipline.Sixty-seven-year-oldLouisSoraparu,accusedofcirculatingderogatoryreportsagainstCampNichollsanditsdirectors,claimedthegoverningboardcouldnotlawfullyexpelaninmate.Anotherveteran,whohadbeensuspendedayearforfightingattheTexashomein1912,soughttohaveaninjunctionservedagainstthesuperintendenttopreventhissentencefrom

beingexecuted.Inbothcasesthecourtsdecidedinfavoroftheadministration,rulingthatthehomedid,infact,possessfulldisciplinarypower.

SuchwasnotthecasefortheSouthCarolinahome.Thefirstsignoftroubletherecamein1912,whenSuperintendentJ.P.Caldwellbeganenforcingtheruleprohibitinggambling,intoxication,quarreling,fighting,obscenelanguage,andanyotherconduct"whatsoeverunbecomingasoldierandagentleman."Afteroneoftheinmateswhohadbeensuspendedsucceededingettinghimselfreinstatedbycourtorder,adangerousprecedenthadbeenset.Thecourtruledthatthehomeboardlackedthelegalauthoritytoexpelinmates.Althoughthelawestablishingtheinstitutionhadempoweredthegoverningboardtodeviserulesandregulationsregardinginmateadmissionsanddeportment,nodirectauthorityhadbeenbestoweduponhomeofficialsthatwouldallowthemtosendaveteranaway.Nearlyeverydismissalsubsequenttothecourt-orderreinstatementwaschallengedandendedinthesamemanner,withinmatesultimatelyprevailingintheirdiscriminationsuitsandthehomehavingtopayfor"uselessandexpensivelitigation."

Inonecase,forexample,readmissionwaswonbyinmatesN.W.Jones,J.W.James,andW.C.Cameronaftertheyweredismissedbecausetheyhad"promotedstrifeandmischief."AnothercaseinvolvedC.C.Horton,amanwhose"quarrelsomedisposition"renderedhim"dangerous''and"unfittobeaninmate."Evenhisfellowveteransallfearedhim.AsSuperintendentJ.L.Wardlawexplainedinalettertothegovernor,Horton,whocultivatedaplotofgroundnearthemainbuilding,oftencriticizedtheotherinmatesastheypassedbyhimontheirwaytothesuperintendent'sofficefortheirweekly

tobaccoallotment,callingthem"beggars"andsayingthattheywerenobetterthan"decentnegroes."WardlawtalkedwithHortonandwarnedhimthathewouldbesentawayfromthehomeifhepersisted.AfterHortonwasinvolvedinascufflewithoneoftheotherinmatesandwassuspendedforthirtydays,agroupofinmatesaskedthathebedismissedfortheirprotection.ButWardlaw,wantingtobemerciful,allowedhimtoreturntothehome.AfewmonthslaterHortonfoughtagainandwasdismissed,butthissentencewasalsosuspended,ontheconditionthathebehavehimself.Butwhenhethreatenedto"brainandcutthethroat"ofanotherinmate,Wardlawdeclaredthisthelaststraw.Hortonwassummarilydismissed,ashehadbeenontwopreviousoccasions.Nevertheless,aftercarefulandexhaustivehearingofthecase,ajudgeorderedthatHortonbereadmitted.Whenappealedtoforadecision,thestateattorneygeneral'sofficeruledthattheboardhadnoauthoritytoexpelmen,eventhelikesofHorton,thoughitcouldmakesuchrulesfor"managingdisorderlymen,astheheadofafamilyhadtomanageandcontrolhisfamily."Inotherwords,itcouldmakerulesandenforcethem,butnottotheextentofdismissinganinmate.23

BoyScouts,liketheoneshownherewithagroupofoldsoldiersinthe1950s,occasionallyvisitedtheMississippihome,

wheretheyspenttheweekendcampingonthegroundsandvisitingwiththeveterans.

(courtesyofBeauvoir,theJeffersonDavisShrine).

AsaresultoftheHortoncase,remarkedonedisgruntledadministrator,rebelliousinmateswerenowfreetofosterallkindsof"disturbancesanddissensions,"whilehomeofficialswererenderedpowerless.Therefore,asanothersuperintendentlaterputit,onceaveteranhadenteredthehome,hewasthere"tostayunlesshefightsorotherwiseviolatesthelawoftheState."Moreover,hecould''complaineveryday"withoutfearofbeingdisciplined.Thatwashisright.However,theboardhadothermeansofdealingwithrecalcitrantinmates,rangingfromcautionsandreprimandstorestrictionstothegroundsorconfinementtothe"specialannex,"soastoprotectthesafetyandwelfareoftheothers.Andifaveteranwasfoundtobementallyill,orparticularlytroublesome,hecouldbesentacrossthestreettotheStateHospitalfortheInsaneor,worseyet,transferredtoacountypoorhouse.

ThomasJ.SevernofAlexandria,Louisiana,knewfirsthandofthe"diabolical"disciplinewieldedbytheCampNichollsboardofdirectors.Althoughpossessingagoodwarrecord,and"neverinthehabitofdrinkingorgambling,"SevernhadbeenplacedunderarrestbySuperintendentJohnJ.Aubertinforrefusingtowork."Hehasendeavoredtoescapeallexertion,"Aubertininsistedinalettertotheboardpresident,"exceptashowingofgreatactivityandcapacityatmeals."Afterlookingintothecase,theinvestigatingcommitteereportedthatinthethreeyearssince1897whileSevernresidedatthehome,hehadbeenbroughtuponthesamechargesonatleastthreepreviousoccasions.Ifthereeverwasashirker,herewasonewhosurelydeservedtobepunished,boardmembersmusthavethought.Yet,beforebeingsentenced,Severnleftthehome,relinquishingits"supposedbenefits."Afterpromptlyinforminghisstatesenatorofhissideofthestory,hethenhadhisownsensationalaccountof

"persecution"inthehomepublishedinalocalnewspaper.25

ApparentlynothingcameofSevern'sappeal,buttheobstinacyofanotherCampNichollsinmatesixyearsearlierhadhadmorefar-reachingresults.Inanopenlettertothehome'stwofoundingveterans'associations,theAANVandAAT,W.B.Ripleyaccusedthesoldiers'homeadministratorsof"infamousmismanagement."Amongotherthings,Ripleycharged,thesuperintendentwasnotonlyincompetent,mendacious,peculative,andbrutalbutalsoadeserterfromtheConfederatearmy!Worsestill,thehome"ararecombinationofconvictcampandpauperasylum,"asRipleypreferredtoviewithaddegeneratedinto"aplaceofpenance,humiliationanddegradation,"wheresomeinhabitantshadbeen"houndedtoprematuregraves,"whileotherswhohadresistedhadbeenexpelled"todieofprivationandexposure."ConsideringRipley'schargestooserioustoignore,thehomeboardcounteredbyfirstinvestigatingandthenrejectingthestingingindictments.Completelyexoneratingthesuperintendent,theboardinstructedRipleyto"keepquiet."Furthermore,theboardsoughttoimpugnRipley'saccusationspubliclybycalling

intoquestiontherecalcitrantveteran'sownwarrecordandcharacter.Ripleyretaliatedbyhavinghisletterpublishedinlocalnewspapers.Then,astoundingnoone,heleftthehome,nottobeheardfromagain.SoonLouisianalawmakersannounceda"thoroughandsearching"investigationoftheirown.Inmateswouldbeinterrogatedunderoath,andnoneofthe"gentlemen"(homeauthorities)wouldbecalledupontoserveaswitnessesortocrossexaminethem.ItisimpossibletostatewhetherRipley'schargesreceivedafairhearing,sincethetestimonyisnolongerextant.Itisknown,however,thataftercompilinga"largemassofevidence,"thespeciallegislativecommitteedismissedRipley'scomplaintsasoutlandishand"imagined.''ThePicayune,controlledbyahomedirector,washardlysurprisedbythedecision.Herewasyetanothercase,thenewspapercommented,ofhowmenwhobelievethey"shouldhaveallthewhiskey"theywantbreaktherulesandraiseafuss.

Ripleyhaddaredtobuckthesystemandhadlost,butnotaltogether,forhiscontroversyevidentlyaccentuatedapersistentpublicdebateamonghomesympathizersandcritics.Itwasadebatethatembracedthecentraldilemmaofwhetherprovidingbenevolentcareinstilledapaupermentalityinitsrecipients.InRipley'sinstance,theadministrationwasupheld,butadministratorswerenotalwayssupportedbyothercommitteesthatwerespeciallyappointedfromtimetotimetorespondtocriesof"charityabuse."LegislativeinvestigationstouchedpracticallyeveryConfederatesoldiers'homeintheNewSouth.Perhapsthemostremarkableinvestigationwasonein1906,occasionedbychargesbroughtbysometwenty-tworesidentsoftheGeorgiahome,includingseveralmenwhohadbeendisciplinedforvariousoffenses.Theinmatessignedapetitioncomplainingofahostofimproprieties,rangingfromfiscalmismanagementtoa

shortageofheatandgoodfood.Fearingthatthechargescould"dogreatharmtothisgreatinstitution,"statelegislatorsestablishedajointcommitteeempoweredtosummonwitnesses,enforceattendance,andtakeevidenceduringpublicmeetings,whichwereheldintheSenate'schambersaswellasthehomechapel.AmongthoserepresentingtheplaintiffswasanAtlantaattorneywhohadseenbetterdays,HughH.Colquitt,aformerofficeroftheFultonCountyVeteransAssociationandthebrotherofU.S.SenatorAlfredColquitt.Colquittwasalsoaninmate;infact,hewastheveryinmatewhohaddraftedthepetition.JudgeFrankFreeman,atrustee,servedascounselforthehome.Duringthefourdaysandnearly500pagesofexhaustivetestimony,inmatesvoicedfamiliarcriticisms:theclothingwasinadequate;trusteeswereoutoftouch;disciplinewastoostringent;thestaffwastooharshandrude.Thesuperintendent"simply[ran]aconvictcamp,"oneveterancharged,"tokeepthemeninembarrassmentallthetime."Thestewardess,claimedanotherinmate,wasabsolutely"thedevilinpetticoats."Inshort,arguedColquitt,heandhiscomradeswerenotbeingtreatedasthe

peopleofGeorgia"expect[ed]theirConfederateVeteranstobetreated."Afterinterviewingdozensofinmatesandhomeauthorities,thecommitteeagreedanddirectedthattheproblemscitedreceiveimmediateattention.

AninvestigationoftheTexasinstitutionin1917hadsimilarresults.Progressive-mindedlegislatorswereappalledbythefacility'spoorsanitaryconditions,theinefficientbookkeepingandinventorycontrolmethods,unusuallylargeliquorpurchases,andduringatimewhenAmericanswereoverlyconcernedaboutnationalsecuritymattersthefactthatseveralGermannativeswereemployedattheTexasConfederateHomeforMen.Theyalsoheardnumerouscomplaintsofabusivestaffofficers;thehomephysicianwasadrunk,theyweretold,andDr.JohnC.Loggins,thesuperintendent,couldnotcarelessabouttheinmates.Intheend,thecommitteestronglyurgedthereplacementofbothmen,aswellasthehomequartermaster,whohadinadequatelymanagedtheinstitution'sappropriations.28Torecommendwasaboutallthecommitteescoulddo,however,astheylackedthelegalpowertoeffectchangesoutright.Still,administratorscouldhardlyaffordtoignorethefeelingsofthebodythatprovidedbiennialfundingforthehomeandwouldeventuallyvoteonextendingthehome'scharter.Andcertainlyneithersidedesiredapublicscandal.Yetnotallsuggestionswereroutinelyfollowed,asevidencedbythefactthatDoctorLogginsretainedhispositionasTexassuperintendentformorethantwoyearsfollowingtheinvestigation.

Legislativeinspectorsmoreoftenthannotendedupsidingwithmanagement,dismissingmostinmatechargesaselaborateandimaginary.RegardingcriticismoftheSouthCarolinaInfirmary,onecommitteeconcluded:"Ofcoursetherearesomecomplaints,but

woulditbepossibletorunaninstitutionofthiskindwithoutanycomplaint?"Anotherreportmadebyaspeciallegislativecommitteeappointedseveralyearslatertoinvestigatethesameinstitutionhad"nothingbutpraise"fortheadministration.Theonlyrealcomplaintwasthelackofheating,thecommitteedetermined.Otherwise,theoldmenare"somewhatchildish,andtheirgrumblingscaneasilybeoverlooked."Whenhomeofficialswereaskedtoconducttheirowninvestigations,resultsweresimilar.Forexample,afteraninmate'slettertoGovernorMartinAnselappearedinaColumbianewspaper,theSouthCarolinaInfirmaryannouncedaninternalinvestigationintoallallegationsagainstthehome.Theboardmetatthehomeandcalledallresidentswhohadanythingtosaytocomeforward.Unsurprisingly,"noonemadeanycomplaint,''theboardreportedtothegovernor,noteventheletterwriterwhobeforethemeetinghadleftthehomeandthecity.Theinmates"prizedthemanagement,"thereportcontinued;theyregardedthesuperintendentas"kindandconsiderate"andthefoodas"goodandabundant,"andtheywere"comfortableandcontented."Apparentlythecomplaintshademanatedfromafewmenwho

"chafedunderthemildbutnecessarydiscipline."Oneincidenthadoccurredaweekearlier,whenaninmateattackedthesuperintendentwithaknife.Theassailantwastoblame,however,sincethesuperintendentwasallegedtohaveactedonlyinself-defense,andtheinmatewasallowedtoleave.Uponreceivingacopyofthereport,thegovernorthankedtheboardforits"thorough"investigation.

Itisdoubtfulwhethertheinmateshadreceivedafairhearing.Committeememberscouldhardlypreventthebacklashofrepressionsomemenapparentlyexperiencedaftertestifyingagainsttheirhomes.Dr.JohnB.Hodgkin,aninmate,informedtheVirginiagovernorthatveteransweregenerally"shyofmakingcomplaints,"fearingtheywould"loseprestigewiththeofficers."OthersupheldHodgkin'savowal.AspecialcommitteeinspectingtheTennesseeSoldiers'Homein1897notedthatmanyinmatesappearedtimidwhenquestioned,"lesttheyshouldmeetthedisapprobation,censureandperhapsdismissal''ofhomeauthorities.WhenaskedduringtheinvestigativeproceedingsoftheLeeCampHomein1892whynocomplaintshadbeenmadeearlier,J.M.Bromson,afour-yearresident,responded:"Forthesimplereasonwehavebeenafraidofthatgate.Ithasbeenthrownuptousbythenegroes!"AnotherLeeCampinmatetestifiedthatoneofthe"darkies"inthehospitalhadinformedhimthat,ifhedidnotliketheinstitution,"thegatewasopen."Sixty-six-year-oldGeorgeW.Killen,aGeorgiainmatefornearlythreeyears,allegedthatifanyofthemencomplained,trusteeswoulddubthem"chronickickers"anddealwiththemaswithanyotherannoyanceornuisance.JudgeFreeman,theGeorgiahomeattorney,commentedtoH.Liggin,aninmateforeighteenmonths,"Youhavebeentoldtimeandtimeagain,ifyouhadanycomplaintstomake[they]wouldbeinvestigated."Liggin,whohadalsospenttimeinaYankeeprison

campduringthewar,responded:"Yes,andIhavebeentoldbyinmatesthatwewouldnotbeheardanditwouldgohardwithusifwecomplained...Ifamaneversignshisnametochargesitisjust[as]wellasbeinggone."30Ontheotherhand,therewerealsoseveralknowncasesofreverseintimidation.LeeCampboardpresidentNormanV.Randolphcomplainedtothechairmanofalegislativeinvestigationinprogressin1898thatthreewitnesseshadwarnedindividualinmatesnottotestifyinfavoroftheadministrationorriskbeingostracizedbytheothermen.31

Suchareportmerelyconfirmedandreinforcedthedominantnotionheldbyadministratorsandthegeneralpublicthatsomemendidnotbelonginahomeinthefirstplace.Dr.A.R.Holderby,theGeorgiahomechaplainfornearlytwentyyears,assertedthatacertainclassofinmateswas"verythoughtlessandreckless"andwouldsayordoalmostanythingtobringreproachupontheinstitution,wheninfacttherewasmuchmoretocommnendthantocondemn.In1911,theGeorgiasuperintendentdescribedhischargesthisway:

SceneinfrontofCampHardeecottage,oneofthelargestdormitoriesattheAlabamahomeinMountainCreek.

Onlythefoundationsofthebuildingremaintoday.(courtesyofConfederateMemorialPark,Marbury,Alabama)

Thereissuchaconglomerationofcharacters&temperamentsthatitwouldbeanimpossibilitytodefine.TheoldVeteransdisplaymuchdissatisfactionastotheenvironment&surroundings.Manyofthemhavefaircommonsenseandaredisposedtolookonthebrightside...whileanumber[are]demented...troublesomeandexacting;theirwantsareneversatisfied,anditisaproblem.

Ratherthandenouncethehome,accordingtooneCampNichollsdirector,inmates"shouldbowdownandthankGodforthemanykindnessesandconsiderationsgiventhem!"Sincethehomesweresupposedlywellmanaged,andtheinmateswereonthewholetreatedkindly,therewasnorealneedforreform.Evenso,managershadtobediligentenoughtopreventcriticism,officialorotherwise,byinvestigatingallcomplaintsandrumorsofmistreatment.Inexchangeforthispersonalsolicitude,committeemembersanticipatedsatisfactoryanswersandappropriatedeference.Residentswerealsoexpectedatalltimestoabidebytheirsuperiors'decisionsandtoyieldpowerandcontrolovertheirownlivesorriskbeingconsidereduncooperative,ungrateful,anddisorderly.Foritfellwithinthepurviewoftheinvestigatingcommitteestodisciplineindividualinmatesandtoreportanydisobedienceandpunishmenttothefullboard.Ineffect,thesamehandthatsupposedlysafeguardedinmateschastenedthemaswell.

Asareminderoftheinstitution'sultimatecontrolovertheveteranandthedesirefororderandimpersonality,residentsinallthehomeswereappropriatelyreferredtoas"inmates."Alatesixteenth-centurywordinorigin,meaning,literally,"innmate,"nothingbettersymbolizedthegapthatseparatedthehome'spopulationfromthegenteelpresumptionsofthosewhoadministeredtheinstitutionthandidthisterm.Althoughthreecenturieslateritremainedfashionableto

considerresidentsofvariouspublicinstitutionsasinmates,thetermalsocarriedwithitadistastefulstigma.Nevertheless,inthegoverningboards'minutes,aswellasinmostofficialcorrespondenceandtransactions,veteransdomiciledinConfederatesoldiers'homeswerecontinuouslydesignatedasinmates,andsometimesas"oldboys,"wellintothe1920s.Atthesametimeindividualboardmemberswerealwayscalled"comrade''orotherwisehadfunctionaltitles(president,secretary,treasurer,etc.)appendedtotheirsurnames;this,despiteformalprotestsbybothgroupsinatleastfourhomestoamendthepractice.When,in1905,sixveteransboldlypresentedahandwrittenpetitionrequestingthatinmatesresidinginthe"ConfederateVeteransHome(Prison)ofGeorgia"behenceforthtermed"guests,"theboardpresident"lectured"thesemen,informingthemthattheiractionswereinsubordinate,andtheninvitedthemtoleave.33

Thefactthatsomemenmayhavefeltdegradedbybeinglabeledasinmates

andthefactthatgoverningboardsstubbornlyrefusedtorelinquishuseofthetermfurtherillustratethecomplexrealitiesthatbothgroupsfaced.Iftheygaveintoveterans'demands,administratorswouldrisktheappearanceoflosingalldisciplineandcontrol.Yettreatingveteransinadehumanizingmannerwouldviolatethefoundingtenetsofthesoldiers'homes.Atbottom,whatwasatissueherewasbutanotherprinciplethatneitherasoldiers'homeresidentnorhiskeeperscouldultimatelyescape.Soonerorlater,nomatterhowindependentandproudamanmayhavestruggledthroughallhislifetobecome,heinvariablyreachesapointwhereheisnolongercapableofexercisingcontroloverhimself.AscommentatorsasdiverseasCiceroandShakespearehaveobserved,anoldmanistwiceachild.Thelawsofnaturehadforeordainedit,andtherewasreallynothingmuchthatanyonecoulddotopreventit.

CHAPTEREIGHTPatternsofChangeandDeclineInGhostsoftheConfederacy,GainesFosterexplainshowthe"centralinstitutions"oftheLostCauseceasedtothriveafter1913.Atthattime,majororganizations,suchastheUCV,thathadlongembracedandexploitedtheConfederateheritagebegantodisintegrateasmembershiprollsdiminished.Reunions,whichhadformerlyservedasthe"centralritual"oftheex-Confederatecelebration,becametrivializedandcommercialized.Moreover,memorialassociations,monumentbuilding,andceremonialunveilingsdecreasedinnumberandimportance.Insum,Fosterargues,bytheendofthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,"littleinstitutionalstructuresurvivedtosustainthememoryofthewar.''

1Butwhatofthesoldiers'home,whichalsosymbolizedandembodied,literally,theConfederatepast?Howandwhydidthatinstitutionchangeovertime?Whendiditssignificanceinsouthernsocietybegintodiminish?Regrettably,Fosterandothershaveignoredthehomes,someofwhichcontinuedtoprovideshelterandcareforlivingrelicsoftheConfederacywellintothe1930s.

Longbeforethentheaverageinmate'sexperiencehadcometobesomethingverydifferentfromthatofhispredecessorsdecadesearlier.Onesourceofchangewasthesamemultifacetedscientificandtechnologicalinnovationthatwasreshapingsocietygenerally,andurbanareasspecifically.Electriclights,indoorplumbing,metalbedframes,inexpensivetextiles,telephones,mechanizedfireextinguishers,andeasy-to-cleancompositionfloorshadallbecomepartofthehomes.Theintroductionofrefrigeratorsandfreezersmeant

amorevariedandinexpensivefoodsupply,aswellasamoreadequatediet.Moreeffectivemodesofheatingandventilationalsoaffectedinmateexperience:nomorecouldsomecomplainthatbedsplacednearacentralstoveweretoohotwhilethoseinmoreremotecornersofawardweretoocold.Anewawarenessofpathogenicmicroorganisms,andtheadoptionofhealthpracticesshapedbythatawareness,helpedcurboutbreaksofinfectiousailments.Deathtoohadbeenremovedfromthewardsandroomsofthehome

andsystematicallytransferredtoahospitallocatedonthegroundsorinthecity.

Overtheyearsthehospitalgraduallyplayedamoreprominentroleinthelivesofinmates.

2ThistrendisbestillustratedinLouisiana'shome.Inthebeginning,whenaCampNichollsinmatebecamesickandrequireddailynursing,hewouldbetransferredacrosstowntoCharityHospital.Providingdiagnoses,writingprescriptions,andmakingreferralsweretheprimaryfunctionsofthehomephysician,whorarelymademorethantworoundsthroughthewardseachweek.Inthemid1890s,however,administratorsaddedahomeinfirmary,consistingofasmall,oneroomstructureequippedwithonlyhalfadozenbedsandadispensary.This"verypoorexcuse"forahospitalservedonlythosewith"trivial"ailments,notterminallyillpatients.Forexample,ofthetwenty-oneCampNichollsinmateswhosedeathswerereportedfrom1896to1898,onlyoneactuallydiedatthehome.3Thatratiowouldchangedramaticallyoverthenextdecade,afterabonafidehospitalwasconstructedonthegrounds.In1904-6,forinstance,thirty-oneofthirty-nineinmatedeathstookplaceatthehome,andoverthenexttwoyearstwenty-nineofthirty-threedeceasedinmatesdiedthere.Inhisreportforthe1912-14period,homesurgeonJamesI.RichardstatedthatithadnotbeennecessarytotransferanyofhispatientstoCharityHospitalfortreatment.Instead,inmateshadspenttheirlastdaysinthehome'smodernandexpandedmedicalfacility,wheretheyhadbeencaredforaroundtheclockbyresidentnursesandasmanyasthreestaffphysicians,whocustomarilyperformedsurgeriesandoftenusedanX-raydevicetodiagnoseandtreatcertaindisorders.By1931theConfederatehomeatBeauvoirhadonelargeseventy-bedhospital,builtatacostofover$70,000,aswellasthreeauxiliaryhospitalsoneforthetreatmentofcancer,anotherforparalyzedveterans,andathird

forpatientswithpneumoniaandinfluenzastaffedbyasmanyasfiftyemployees:asurgeon,sevennurses,fifteenorderlies,fourcooks,eightservants,eightlaundrymen,acarpenter,awatchman,abookkeeper,amaid,andayardman.4

Thequalityoftreatmentthatwasavailableinhomehospitalsisdifficulttoevaluate.Althoughsuspicionsaroseandrumorsfrequentlysurfaced,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatovercrowding,understaffing,andunsanitaryconditionswereasprevalentascriticsalleged.Predictably,homephysiciansboastedthattheirservicesgreatlyenhancedthehealthof"brokenandsuffering"Confederateveterans.TexashomesurgeonT.F.Moorecitedasproofacomparativelylowdeathrateof12.7percentfortheyears1911-12.Thisfigure,hepointedout,fellmuchbelowthethen-acceptablefederalstandardof16percentforpersonsbetweentheagesofsixty-fiveandeighty-five.5WhenaskedbyaprospectiveinmateresidinginVivian,Louisiana,aboutthetreatmentveteransreceivedintheArkansashome,SuperintendentClarenceP.

Newtonassuredhim:"itishumaneandacceptibletothem.Thedeathrateisabouthalfthatontheoutside."

6Anotherpossibletreatmentqualityindexmaybefoundinadmission-dischargeratios.Forexample,oftheonehundredLeeCampinmatesadmittedtothehome'shospitalin1905,seventy-fiveobtainedadischarge.Overthenextdecadeandahalf,theratiosstayedrelativelystable.Onlyone-thirdofthosewhohadbeenadmittedsometimeduring1918remainedhospitalizedbytheendoftheyear.Dr.H.M.FolkesreportedanevenmoresuccessfulrateattheMississippihome.Outofatotalof1,548patientadmissionsrecordedbythatinstitution'shospitalstaffduring1912-13,only53(3percent)endedindeath-eveninthefaceofaconsiderablemalariaepidemicthatvisitedthehomein1912.7

Inmatesprobablyenjoyedgreateraccesstomedicaltreatmentthanmosthomelessindigentsespeciallythoseresidinginruralareascouldeverhavehopedtoreceive.Evenso,homephysiciansheldfewillusionsabouttheirabilitiestoforestalltheinevitable.Thebravenewweaponsofmedicalsciencewereoflittleuseintreatingbiologicalrealities."Ouraim,"concededCampNichollssurgeonYvesR.LeMonnier,ismerely"ofaprophylacticnature,i.e.,preventioninsteadofcure."Anothersurgeonadded:"Oursubjectsareallold[and]wecannotexpectamongthem...theusuallowdeath-rate."Inanefforttoaccountfora"distressing"deathrateintheGeorgiahomein1906,trusteesrationalizedthat,afterfiveyearsofoperation,the180reporteddeathsoutof330totalenrollmentswerenotunusuallyhigh,giventhefactthatmostoftheoldsoldiershadbeen''practically...bedridden,paralyzed,[and]helpless"whentheyhadfirstbeenadmitted.Fromtheadministrators'perspective,ahospitalthatprovideddignifiedandcost-efficientcustodialcarewasacredittoits

institution.8

Atseveralhomes,ahospitalwasbutoneofmanynewadditionsestablishedinparttomeetthedemandsofarisinginmatepopulation.Whenthestatefirstassumedfinancialcontrolin1891,theTexasHomeforMenconsistedof151/2acres,fivebuildings(nearlyallwoodframecottages),andabarn.By1905theestablishmenthadexpandedtoincludetwodozenseparate(predominantlybrick)structuresdistributedovera24/2-acrecomplex.ThegroundsoftheNorthCarolinahomewereoriginallyonlyone-fourthaslargeastheTexasplat,butby1915asmanyasfifteendifferentedificessatuponit.CampNicholls,occupyingapproximatelythesametotalacreageasthehomeinRaleigh,boastedeighteenbuildingsaveritablecommunitycomposedofdormitories,library,messhall,laundry,barbershopandbaths,infirmary,and"deadhouse"(morgue).Homeadministratorsseeminglyhadtriedtoanticipateanyinmateneedbyconstructinganannexofsomekindorremodelingabuilding.Asaresult,bytheperiodoftheFirstWorldWarthehomeshad

becomefarmoreelaborateinstitutionsthanthemodestandcrudefacilitiesfirstutilizedsomethreedecadesearlier.

Atthesametimethehomeshadbecomeincreasinglybureaucratic.Asinmatepopulationmultiplied(seetheAppendix,Figure2)andaged(Appendix,Table16)thestaffwasaugmented(Appendix,Figure3).Gonewerethedayswhenahomecouldbeoperatedadequatelyandsafelybyasuperintendentandhisfamily,assistedbyahandfulof"faithful"servants.TheTexasinstitution(whichhousedthelargestnumberofex-Confederatesatanyonetime)claimedbyfarthemostpaidemployeesinoneyear-fifty-three,oraboutoneemployeeforeveryseveninmates.Bycomparison,inthesameyear,1917,theGeorgiahome,withonly103veteransenrolled,hada3:1inmateemployeeratio.AtthesametimeSouthCarolina'sfifty-fiveinmateswerecaredforbyastaffofelevenofficersandemployees,namely,thesuperintendent,matron,steward,surgeon,andseven"Negrohelp[ers]."10Bythe1910sworkersperformedsomeoftheverytasksthatyoungerandmorerobustinmateshadformerlydone.Thischangetoohadbeentheby-productoftechnologicalandscientificprogress.Withtheimprovementinmedicalfacilitiescamealsotheneedforadditionalspecializedpersonnel:awholecadreofhospitalmatrons,cooks,laundresses,waiters,andorderlies,nottomentionnursesandaidesforbothdayandnightshifts.

Enhancedstaffs,largerphysicalplants,moreadvancedmedicalcare:allofthesechangesentailedamuchmorecomplexanddemandingfinancialstructure.Initially,priortoreceivingstatemonies,noneofthehomespossessedsubstantialfunding.Administratorspiecedtogetherannualbudgetswithaneclecticmixofcontributionsfromlocalgovernment,theproceedsofcommunityfund-raisings,andother

privatesources.Veterans'associationsandladies'committeeswereorganizedtodevotespecialcollectionstothehomes.AnnualbudgetdeficitshadtobemetbyboardmembersoutoftheirownfundsandthroughappealstothewealthyandbenevolentmenlikeentrepreneurWalterM.LamptonofMagnolia,Mississippi,who,thoughneitheraveterannorthesonofaveteran,earnedthesobriquet"financialGibraltarof[the]JeffersonDavisSoldiers'Home"forhislargess,whichincludedthousandsofdollarsincashdonations,aswellassuchsundryitemsasblanketsandquilts,tobacco,chickens,icecream,afountainofgoldfish,andaVictrola.11Eventhoughbudgetsremainedsmallandatmostinstitutionsthecostperinmatepermonthremainedundertwelvedollars,thehomesinthe1880sand1890swerehardputtobalancetheirbooksattheendofeachyear.12

Andthissituationwouldonlydeteriorate.Evenafterstateappropriationsfinallybegancomingin,administratorsencounteredobstaclesinmeetingtheirdailyfinancialobligations.Theplanwasforsomeofthehomestobe

AstheranksofConfederateveteransthinned,sometimesex-bodyservantswereadmitted

asinmatesofthehomes.SeatedonthestepsoftheircabinatBeauvoirinthis1936WPA

photoareFrankChildress(left),aneighty-five-year-oldformerdispatchcarrier,and

NathanBest,ageninety-two,whohadreturnedfromthewarminusanarm.(courtesyofMississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistory)

almostself-sufficient,butitneverseemedtoworkoutthatway.TheArkansasboardofmanagers,forexample,foundthemselveswithadeficitofmorethan$12,000for1915-16,despiteincomegeneratedthroughthesaleofavarietyofitems:blockice,hogs,gardenproduce,junk,evenacrippledmare.Theywereinaquandaryastohowtobalancethebudget,forthemoneytheybroughtinsimplycouldnotkeeppacewithwhattheyhadtoexpend:theroofleaked,thebathroomfloorsneededrepairing,ateamsterandtwootherschargedanexorbitantweeklyfeeforhaulingcoalfromtherailroadstationtothehome,andthepricehadrisenontobaccoandshoes.Someaspectsoftheproblemwerediffuseandgradual,reflectinggeneraleconomicandtechnologicalchange.Bytheturnofthecentury,appropriatealterationsandupgradinghadtobeperformedwhenhomeadministratorsandphysiciansexpectedtohavetelephoneservice,electricpower,andcentralsteamplants,aswellasmoderndishwashingandlaundrydevicesoranewFordtruck.Meanwhile,constructioncostsandthecostofconstantlymaintaininglargerphysicalplantsclimbedsteadily,asdidthenumberofrepairsneeded.Afternearlytwentyyearsofcontinuousservice,in1911theentiremainbuildingoftheArkansashomehadtoundergoacompleteoverhaul.Itwasbyallaccountsamajorundertaking.Theinmatesweremovedintotents,theinteriorwallswerereplasteredandfinished"inlightcolors,"andnewplumbingandindoorbathroomswereinstalled;amodernpowerplantsupplyingsteamheat,hotandcoldwater,andelectriclightswasalsoincludedinthepackage,whichcarriedatotalpricetagof$10,000.

13Costsrelatingtomedicalcareremainedarelativelysmallpartofhomebudgets,whilefood,fuel,andwagesconsumedthelion'sshareofavailablefunds.14Aggregateinmateexpendituresalsoroseregularly.Forexample,in1904theTexashomespentanaverageof35centsperinmateeveryday.Fourteenyearslatertheoutlayhad

grownto84centsperdiem.Evenwithinmatelaborers,nohomecouldescapetheinexorablepressureofrisingcosts.15

Inordertomeetthosecosts,somehomeandstateofficialsoriginallyworkedoutaformulafixingpublicsupportonapercapitabasis.In1891,forexample,foreveryinmatetheTennesseehomeadmitted,theinstitutionreceivedastateappropriationof$50peryear.16Thearrangementworkedfine,aslongassupplycosts,staplecropprices,employeewages,averageinmatepopulationandage,andnumerousothervariablesremainedconstant,which,notsurprisingly,theyseldomdid.Therefore,onceeverytwoyears,beginningasearlyas1893,sympatheticTennesseelawmakersaugmentedthehome'spercapitaallowanceanywherefrom5to50percent.By1914,whenforthefirsttimeinfifteenyearstheaverageinmatepopulationhaddippedtowellbelowonehundred(whiletheaverageinmate'sageapproachedeighty),percapitafundingswelledto$200.By1920ithadincreasedanother40percent.From

1899to1914,Tennesseanspaidanestimatedquarterofamilliondollarsinpercapitaallowancesalone.

Althoughconsistentlycaringforthesmallestnumberofveterans,theFloridainstitutionalsoexperiencedasignificantincreaseinappropriationsovertheyears.Atitsinceptionin1893,thehomereceivedbylaw$100perinmateperyear-providedthesumdidnotexceed$2,500andnotapennymore.Therefore,duringitsfirstdecadeofoperation,wheninmateenrollmentaveragedlessthanonedozen,totalstateappropriationstotheFloridahomerarelysurpassed$1,200peryear.Becausetherewassimplynowaythemencouldbeadequatelycaredforonsuchashoestringbudget,in1909thelegislaturedecidedtoputthehomeonamoresecurebase,increasingtheannualmaintenancefundto$120percapita;inaddition,itnowallowednearly$1,000forhospitalcosts(staffsalaries,medicines,and"disinfectants"andthelike),over$600forcompensatingthesuperintendentandmatron,a$500contingentfund(earmarkedforinsurance,repairs,furniture,etc.),$50inburialexpensesforeachinmate,and$2,000fortheenlargementofthehospital,asneeded.Inotherwords,beginningin1909,annualgovernmentaloutlaysweremultipliedthreefold.WhenenrollmentattheFloridahomereachedtwenty-fivein1915andfouryearslaterpeakedatthirty-four,statefundinglikewiseincreasedincorrespondingincrements.

Inspiteoftheseheftycumulativeappropriations,billssometimesbeganpilingup,andinvoicesperiodicallywentunpaid.DebtretirementpaymentsfortheTennesseehomeduringthe1899-1914periodtotaledjustover$11,000.Inaddition,thehomesfacedmiscellaneousexpensesthatweretheproductsofsomeone'ssympathyorreformingzeal,suchasannualpaymentsforhalf-timereligious

services,specialsubsidiestooffsetthecostsofinmatefuneralsanduniforms,marbleheadstonestoreplacewoodenboardsusedinthehomecemetery,propertyinsurance,reimbursementsfortheexecutiveboard'stravelexpenses,andoccasionalemployeeraises.ThestateofLouisianasetasideseveralthousanddollarseachyearforthetreatmentofCampNichollsinmatesatalocaleye,ear,andnoseclinic.In1917theTexashomeemployedanoculistandaudiologistofitsown,aswellasapharmacisttoserveonthestaff.In1919MississippihomesuperintendentElnathanTarttboldlysubmittedtothestate'slawmakersnotonlyarequestfora65percentincreaseinthepercapitaallotmentbutalsoanitemizedlistdetailingover$37,000worthofrepairsandimprovementsforBeauvoir,includinganewbakery,awharf,abarbershop,hotbaths,andacompletesupplyofnewmattresses.Inregardtothelastitem,hedeclared,"IamsurethatnomemberoftheLegislaturewouldwanttheiragedmotherorfathertosleeponanuncomfortable,insanitarymattress."Althoughgivingonly$17,500forrepairs,thelegislaturerespondedgenerouslytohisappealanddoubledtheannualappropriationto$100,000,as

wellasgranting$2,000fornewmattressesandestablishinga$600"amusement"fund.Caringforelderlyandpoorex-Confederatesprovedtobeanelaboratelyexpensiveenterprise.

Fromtimetotimethefinancialburdenwaseasedconsiderablybywomenvolunteers.EnergeticladiesthroughouttheSouthorganizedmusicales,theatricals,andraffles,cateredteasandsponsoredlectures,allinanefforttosupplementlimitedhomebudgets.Theirgoalswereoftenquitespecific:purchasingneededmedicalsupplies,rockingchairs,spittoons,flyswatters,orcroquetsetsoroutfittinganentirereadingroomandamusementhall.19Themanycontributionsmadebyaladies'auxiliarytotheTennesseehometypifytheeffortsmadebysuchgroups.InMarch1890overonehundredwives,widows,anddaughtersofex-ConfederatesofDavidsonCounty,Tennessee,organizedinordertoraise"moneys,goods,chattels,provisions,livestockandallotherneededarticles"toassistindigentveteransandtheirfamiliesdomiciledattheinstitution.In1892,whencostoverrunsincurredinconstructionofthehome'smainbuildingresultedinanindebtednessofnearly$7,000,theNashvilleauxiliarysponsoredaseriesof"oldfiddler'sconcerts"atthedowntownUnionGospelTabernacleandenabledtrusteestopayoffpressingliabilities.By1899thegroup,nowpartoftheUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,completedamemorialcampaigndrivethatsucceededinprocuringfurnishingsfortheentirehome.DuringthenexttwodecadestheseveralUDCchaptersofNashville,likescoresofother''ladiesofcharity"groupsallovertheSouth,couldbecountedontoprovideemergencyfundsortohelpdefraythespiralingcostsofdependentveterancarebypayingthesalariesofneededworkers.20

Inadditiontoraisingfunds,variousUDCchaptersappointed"home

committees"toensurethattheoldsoldierswereproperlycaredforintheirremainingyears.Suchdelegationsofladyvisitors(oftenaccompaniedbychildren),constitutingineffectasecondarybureaucracy,becamestandardfeaturesofhomelife.Thepiouswomen,girls,andboysreadtoinmates,pinnedbadgesofhonororflowersontheirlapels,heldicecreamfestivalsandwatermeloncuttings,suppliedChristmastreesandEasterhams,andhelpedcelebrateLee'sbirthday,Valentine'sDay,orotherspecialoccasions.Fromtimetotimewivesofrenownedex-ConfederateleadersMrs.JeffersonDavis,Mrs.AlbertSidneyJohnston,Mrs.ThomasJ."Stonewall"Jackson,andMrs.EdmundKirbySmith,forexamplejoinedthecommitteesinpayinghomagetoeventhelowliestofoldveterans.Mrs.BradleyT.JohnsonservedaspresidentoftheBoardofLadyVisitors,whichconductedweeklyinspectionsoftheMarylandConfederateHome.Fromallaccountsinmatesenjoyedthevisits,whichsometimesincludedthesingingofanumberoffavoritesongsoftheSouth.Asonecontemporarynotedwryly:"almostanywomanwhovisitsthem,

unlessshebeunmistakenlycock-eyedorobviouslydisfigured,istothem'adurnhandsomegal,'whomtheygreetgladly,andescortwithpleasurewhereshewill."Thevisitscouldbepoignantaswell;witnessthesceneasveteransbidadieutotheirguestsattheconclusionofavisittotheTennesseehomein1906,asdescribedbyoneoftheladies."Asthelonglineofcrippled,enfeebledandtotteringoldmenpassedandshookhandswithme,"shewrote,"Ithoughtofwhattheywerefortyyearsago:youthful,vigorous,abletocopewiththeworld...nowthebeneficiariesoftheState."

Althoughtheladies'committeescouldbecomesomethingofanuisanceiftheirevangelismgrewtooenthusiasticortheyinterferedwiththestaff,onthewhole,mosthomeswelcomedfemalehelpinfund-raisingandinfurnishingroomsandwards.Infact,womenwereviewedasideallysuitedtomaintainingawatchfuleyeoverhomehousekeeping.Whentheyattemptedtoplayamoreprominentroleaspolicymakers,however,malestaffmembersandadministratorsfrequentlyobjected.Womenhadcertainlyplannedandsupportedthehomes,buttheirworthycontributionsdidnotnecessarilymeantheywereregardedascapableofmanagingtheinstitutions.TheDaughtersoftheConfederacyinMissouri,forexample,raisednearly$75,000andplanned,built,andequippedtheirstate'shome.Theyalsoprovidedforinmates'uniforms,promptingthedivisionpresidenttoremarkproudly:"Now,insteadofthemotleycrowdassembledonthegalleriesoftheHome,onefindsagenteelarrayofoldsoldiersclothedintheuniformofgray."ButwhentimecametodecidewhowouldcomposetheboardofmanagersfortheMissourihome,onlyveteranswereinvitedtoserve.In1910theTennesseegoverningboardannouncedthatitwouldhenceforthrestrictthenumberofvisitsmadebymembersoftheUDC,becauseofthelatter'smistakenbeliefthat

theyhadthe"righttoemployanddismissattendants."Notwillingtobecomea"merepuppetorfigurehead,"BenS.Williamsin1921resignedhispositionassuperintendentoftheSouthCarolinaInfirmary,owingtoconstant"interferenceandassumptionofauthority''onthepartofafemalememberoftheboardofcontrol.Alsoresigningwerethechairmanoftheboard,GeneralW.A.Clark,andanotherveteran,bothofwhomweresaidtobe"utterlydisgusted."MaryH.SouthwoodKimbroughofGreenwood,Mississippi,along-standingandinfluentialmemberoftheUDCandafriendofVarinaDavis,whomadeitapracticetovisittheMississippihomeatleastonceayear,infuriatedtheboardatBeauvoirbychargingadministratorswithfiscalmismanagement,accusingthesuperintendentofbeinginept,andgoingaroundthestatetellingeveryonethatthehomewasbrokeand"inneedofnecessitiesoflife."Attendingphysiciansinsomehomesfoughtrunningbattleswithladies'visitingcommittees,whilesomesuperintendentssawwomenasannoyingpresencesintheirhomes'wardsandcorridors.22

Althoughmenwhoadministeredthehomesandwomenwhotookaninterestinthemoftencouldnotseeeyetoeye,womengraduallybecamemoreinvolvedinthehomesascaregiversandeventuallysucceededConfederateveteransasadministrators.DevelopmentswithinCampNichollsreflectedthischangingpattern.In1903theLouisianahomeboardfirstdecidedtotrythe"innovation"ofhiringfemalehospitalnurses.Fifteenyearslaterfullythreequartersofthehome'sstaffmemberswerewomen.Allheldminorpositions,however,andnotuntil1920didwomenserveasdirectors"toadvisewithandassisttheBoard."Twomoreyearswouldpassbeforewomenwereofficiallyappointedbythegovernorandallowedtoexertthesameauthorityastheirmalecounterpartsontheboard.Fromtheoutset,theAlabamaUDCsupportedJeffFalkner'ssoldiers'homeendeavor;theycreatedtheMountainCreekFundin1903andafewyearslaterformedtheMountainCreekSoldiers'HomeHospitalReliefCommittee.Atthecommittee'srequest,thelegislatureappropriatedfundstoprovidethehomewithatrainednurseasmatronandtwoorderlies.Thecommitteealsoarrangedformany"conveniencesandnecessities''tobedonatedtothehome,includingfruits,chickens,eggs,andotherfoodstuffs,aswellasiceblocksandhammocksforuseinthesummerandpocketmoneyandhandkerchiefsatChristmas.In1910,attheladies'insistence,thestateboardofcontrolforcharitiesincorporatedtheUDCcommitteeasanauxiliarytotheall-malehomeexecutiveboardandgaveitchargeofthelinendepartment,hospitalfurnishings,andthecemetery;thematronwasalsorequiredtomakemonthlyreportstotheUDC.SomeyearslatertheUDCwasinvolvedinhavingthelegislaturechangethelawunderwhichthehomeoperatedsothatwivesofveteranscouldremaininthehomeaftertheirhusbandsdied,andfinallyin1927thechairofthecommitteebecameafullmemberofthestateboardofcontrol.

23Meanwhile,beginningintheearly1920s,UDCofficersservedas

ex-officiomembersoftheGeorgiahomeboardandasfull-fledgedmembersoftheboardfortheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryandtheKentuckyhome.MaryKimbroughandanotherwomanwereappointedtotheboardofdirectorsatBeauvoir,andinNorthCarolinaawomanservedaschairoftheboardoftrustees.Intime,policiesbarringwivesandwidows(insomecases,daughtersandnieces)ofConfederateveteransfromenrollingasinmateswouldbereversedaswell.24

Noonecoulddenythatthescaleandenterpriseofthehomeshadexpandedandchangedbythemiddleoftheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcentury.Yettheyearsimmediatelyfollowing1913werenotmarkedbytheinstitutionalbreakupandrapiddeclinethatFosterhasimplied.Ofcourse,themoststrikingchallengetoFoster'sthesisliesinthefactthat,by1913,severalofthehomeswereonlyafewyearsold.TheonesinAlabama,Mississippi,Kentucky,and(technicallyspeaking)Georgiawerejustembarkingontheirseconddecadeof

operations,andtheSouthCarolinahomewasbarelyintoitsfourthyear.Furthermore,inJuly1911thestate-supportedOklahomaConfederateHomeatArdmoreofficiallyopened(makingitthefifteenthhomefoundednationwide)aftermorethantwoyearsoforganizing,fund-raising,andlobbyingbythestate'sveterans'association.

25Itisdifficulttoimaginehowthesehomescouldhavelosttheirviabilitysosoonafterbeingstarted.Rather,theyandtheothersgenerallyexperiencedgrowthorremainedstable,occupyinganenduringandcrucialpositionwithinsocietyforseveralmoreyears.

Theseconclusionscanbesubstantiatedinpartthroughananalysisofhomeenrollmentdata.Overall,inmatepopulationsdiddeclinesomewhatintheyearsfollowing1913(seetheAppendix,Figure2).Forexample,Georgia'sinmateenrollmentpeakedat136in1914,butfiveyearslatertheaveragenumberofinmatesresidinginthehomehaddiminishedtoonly94,areductionofmorethan30percent.CampNichollsexperiencedanevengreaterdropduringthesameperiod,from131to75,morethana42percentnetdecrease.Butsuchchangeswereerratic.Until1918theLouisianahome'spopulationaveragedippedinonly5to8percentannualincrements.Moreover,from1922to1925Georgia'saverageinmatepopulationexpandedslightly,nearlymatchingitslevelofthepreviousdecade.Inaddition,intheyearsfollowing1913,threeoftheinstitutionsunderinvestigationactuallywitnessedpopulationgrowth.Alabama'sveteranenrollmentdidnotreachitspeakof91until1918.Bytheendof1920totalenrollmentintheTexashomereacheditszenithof441,representingariseofmorethan22percentoverthefigureofficialshadreportedsomesixyearsearlier.Between1914and1920,theNorthCarolinahomealsoexperiencedaslightincreaseinnumbers,

whiletheinmatepopulationoftheLeeCampHomeinVirginiaremainedfairlyconstant,atleastduringtheperiodofWorldWarI.Viewedasawhole,theaggregateinmatepopulationforthesixlargesthomesin1914stoodat1,143.By1920thetotalhaddecreasedbyonlyseventy-six,areductionoflessthan7percent.

Onereasonwhyhomepopulationsremainedbasicallystableduringtheperiodafter1913isthatthenumberofveteransadmittedtoeachhomecontinuedtooffsetthenumberofthosewholeft,eithervoluntarilyorinvoluntarily.Anexaminationofadmittanceandout-migrationdatafortheLeeCampHomefrom1907to1911,revealsthattheinmatepopulationgrewfrom275to289(seetheAppendix,Table17).Inthreeofthefiveyearsinthisperiod,aboutadozenmoreveteransenteredtheinstitutionthandiedorweredismissed,resultinginamarginalnetgain.Thereversewastrueduringthefive-yearperiodfrom1913to1917,whenslightlymoreinmatesleftthehomethanwereadmitted.Yetthedifferenceswereminuscule(perhapsevenhardlynoticeableatthetime),consideringthatbetween1913and1917annual

inmateadmissionsaveragedonlyabouttwofewer(79.5versus77.4)thaninthe1907-11period.

Anotherindicatorthatthehomesremainedintactasinstitutionsforseveralyearsafter1913canbefoundintheirfinances.Withoutexception,fundingforthehomeshadeitherstabilizedorincreasedby1915(seetheAppendix,Figure4).Accordingtotheavailabledata,thesamepatternholdstrue(exceptfortheLouisianahome)forthefollowingyearsuntil1920.InthatyeartotalappropriationstotheAlabamahome($30,130)werenearlytwiceashighastheyhadbeenin1910($16,061),thoughpopulationremainedessentiallythesame(eighty-fiveveterans).Whenfundingfiguresarepairedwithenrollmentdata,itappearsthathomesexperiencinganoticeabledeclineinpopulationsoonafter1913(thoseinVirginia,Georgia,Louisiana,andTennessee)escapedacorrespondingdecreaseinfunding.Thispatternreflectstherisingcostseachhomeencounteredduringtheperiod.Forexample,in1920theGeorgiahomereceivedfully50percentmoremoneyfromthestatethanithadin1913,eventhoughenrollmentfigureshadplummetedmorethan30percentduringthesameperiod.Ontheotherhand,asthenumberofTexasinmatesrosebetween1917and1920,theamountofappropriationslikewiseexpanded;this,duringaperiodmarkedbyarapidgrowthinTexasgovernmentexpenditures.

Evenasthebroadeningscaleoftheiractivitiesandtherisingcostsoftheiroperationstransformedthesoldiers'homesoftheNewSouthbetweenthe1880sandthe1920s,somefundamentalaspectsofthehomesremainedtenaciouslyunchangedby1920.Foronething,paternalismsurvived.Thevisionofthesuperintendentasprudentfatherandthehomeashishomewritlargehadnotbeendiscarded,in

spiteofamorecomplexsetofresponsibilitiesandanenlargedstaff.Mosthomeofficialsstillprofessedapersonalrelationshipwith,aswellasacommitmenttothecomfortandwelfareof,theinmates.Andmostofficialsremainedconscientiousaboutoutsiders'perceptionsoftheirperformance,eventothepointofworryingwhetherinmatesonfurloughspresenteda"creditableappearance"inpublic.Theinvestigatingcommitteestillservedbothasacriticofeverydayhomerealitiesandasadisciplinarybody.Inmateswerestillexpectedtoshowproperdeferenceand,asalways,tobeamenabletodiscipline.

IthasbeensuggestedthatasConfederateinmatesgrewolder(andpresumablylessactive),thenumber,frequency,andseverityofruleinfractionsdecreased.27Butthereislittletosupportsuchaclaim.Forexample,theGeorgiahome,thoughopeningsomeseventeenyearsaftertheLeeCampHome,experiencedjustasmany(ifnotmore)breachesindisciplineduringitsfirstdecadeofoperationasthelatterdidduringthesameperiod.Andablebodiedoctogenarianscouldbeandapparentlywereattimesjustasuncooperative,ornery,andoffensivetothoseinchargeasrelativelyyoungerinmates.In

fact,thelastknowndisciplinaryactionintheGeorgiahomeoccurredin1926,whentheaverageageofthesixty-nineinmatesexceededeighty-fouryears.TrusteesexpelledR.C.Pressley,abootlegger,whoseroomAtlantapolicehadraidedseveraltimesbefore.Fromtheavailableevidence,itappearsthatthereweremorerecordedinstancesofinmateviolenceandphysicalassaultsagainststaffmembersduringthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcenturythaninanyotherperiodofthehomes'combinedexistence.

Oneexplanationforthisphenomenonmaybethatthesewerethepeakpopulationyearsinthehomes,whentheaccommodationofproportionatelymoreinmatescreatedapotentiallymorevolatileenvironment.Bethatasitmay,governingboardsfounditincreasinglydifficulttoundertakethepersonaloversightthathadlongcharacterizedtheinstitutions.Thesuperintendentcouldnolongerrealisticallybeexpectedtovisiteachwardorroom;norcouldtrustees,whoweredestinedtoplayanincreasinglypassiveanddistantrole.Althoughremainingconcernedwiththeirfinancialresponsibilities,governingboards(whoseoriginalrankshadgraduallythinnedovertime,too)hadbecomelessandlessinvolvedwitheachinstitution'sday-to-dayroutines.

Tothoseresidingoutsidethewalls,thehomescontinuedtoservethesamepurposesforwhichtheyhadbeenfounded.Theinstitutionsprovidedasaferefuge,acomfortablecommunity,andabetteralternativethanalmshousesforneedyandworthyex-Confederatesoldiers.Peoplestilltalkedaboutfulfillingtheir"sacredduty"bykeepingtheoldmen"happy,"andsouthernpoliticiansstilldecriedtheterribleinjusticeofhowlittlegovernmentagenciesweredoingfortheirveterans.InDecember1898,againin1902,andstillagainin

1904,CongressmanJohnF.RixeyofVirginiaintroducedlegislationcallingnotonlyforthegovernmenttoallowex-Confederatestobeadmittedtothenationalsoldiers'homesbutalsofortheConfederatehomestoreceivethe"samefinancialassistance"asthoseintheNorthandWest."Wedonotsuggestoraskthisasacharity,"Rixeymaintained,''butasanactofjustice,equalityandright,justasweinsisted,whentheSouthre-enteredtheUnion,thattheConfederatesoldiershouldhavetheballot,withtherighttoholdoffice.InthislightI,asaSouthernRepresentative,notonlysuggest,butdemandit."Representativesfromvariousnorthernstatesendorsedtheproposal.WashingtonGardnerofMichigan,forexample,declaredthatitwas"bettertofeedthehungryandshelterthelivingConfederatethantocareforthegravesoftheimmortaldead."YetcertainsouthernmembersofCongressblockedthemoveandkeptitbottledupincommittee.Bolsteredbylettersofprotestfromtheirangryconstituents,thesouthernersarguedthatacceptanceofsuchagiftwouldunderminethepoorConfederatesoldiers'"prideandself-esteem"andespeciallyhissenseofhonor.29

InAugust1916,ontheeveofAmerica'sparticipationinyetanotherwar,the

SenateCommitteeonMilitaryAffairsheldahearinginWashingtononabillthatwouldprovidehomesforConfederateveterans.ThistimethelegislationwasintroducedbyUnionveteranandCaliforniasenatorJohnD.Works,andthehearingswerepresidedoverbyDuncanU.FletcherofFlorida,anSCVmemberwhohadstronglysupportedthecreationoftheConfederatehomeinJacksonville.OnceagainconservativemembersofCongressopposedthemeasure,fearingthatifpasseditwouldleadtofurtherdemandsforextendingfederalpensionstoex-Confederatesandtheirwidows.EarlierthatsummertheHouseCommitteeonInvalidPensionshadheldahearingonameasureintendedtodojustthat,asintroducedbyJohnH.TillmanofArkansas,who,invokinganoft-repeatedclaim,calledforthereturnofanestimated$100millionillegallycollectedbythefederalgovernmentthroughtheconfiscationandsaleofcapturedandabandonedpropertyandthecollectionoftaxesplacedoncottonandsugarcane.

30Intheend,neitherofthebillsemergedfromcommittee.Nevertheless,inaJune1917address,beforealargedelegationofUCVmembersconveninginthenation'scapital,PresidentWoodrowWilsonassuredhisaudienceof"thepassionofadmiration"allAmericans"stillentertainfortheheroicfigures"oftheConfederacy.31

AsshrinescontaininglivingsymbolsoftheConfederatepast,soldiers'homescontinuedtohaveabeneficialfunctionforsocietyasawhole.InitsritualstheConfederatehomeremainedasithadtobe:amicrocosmofthevaluesofsocialsolidarityanddeferencetoauthority.Tothosetooyoungtorememberthewarthemanychildren'sgroupswhovisitedandentertainedtheveteransoncountlessoccasionsthehomescontinuedtoserveasplacesofinstructionintheoldwaysofsouthernhonorandmanhood.Accordingtoonewoman

whoattendedabarbecueattheArkansashomein1922,"Itgaveawarmfeelingaboutthehearttolookuponthegentle,kindlyoldwarriorsastheybowedcourtlybowstotheladies,greetedeveryonetheypassedwithacheerysmileandpleasantwordandmadeallfeelgladtobethere."AmongthemanyorganizedgroupsthatvisitedtheGeorgiahomefromtimetotimeweretheChildrenoftheConfederacy,theGeorgiaTechGleeClub,andyoungladiesoftheWashingtonSeminary.Thepurposeoftheirmonthlyvisits,accordingtothechairmanoftheGeorgiahomecommittee,wastobring"theyoungpeopleintotouchwiththeveterans,thusinspiringthemwithpatrioticSouthernsentiments."AsonememberoftheMississippiSCVphrasedit,thehomewas''buta...sacredsentiment,thatlinksuswiththepast."32And,ifneedbe,thehomesprovidedaplacewheresouthernersofallagescouldcongregateonanygivendaytocelebrateandreliveoncemoretheachievementsofJohnnyReb.In1910peoplecame"fromnearandfar,fromfarmandstore,[from]office,shop,bank,courthouse,schoolroom,[and]ballgrounds,"totheKentuckyhomenearLouisville.There,

Manyyoungpeoplewereinterestedinthelivesofex-Confederatesoldiersandcorrespondedwiththem.Thispostcard,datedApril27,1939,wasaddressedto

J.C.Bradford,aninmateoftheArkansasConfederateHome.(author'scollection)

thesoldiersingray,thebandboysinmilitaryarray,theSonsofVeteransinadmiringgroups,thelovelygirlswearingConfederatecolors,theirgloriousmotherswithflagsandbadgesandChapterpins,therosy-facedchildrenwithwide-openeyes,thesobersiresapprovingandsometimesapplaudingandwaving,andaboveallthegloriousstarsandbarswithourbelovedblood-redbattlebannerunderwhichsomanygallantSouthernsiresandsonshadbledanddiedallthesemadeasceneandcalledoutashoutsuchasnootherpeopleeverexhibited!Theheroesofthefighttheveterans,wearyandworn,sickandwoundedseemedtoforgettheirpainsandpoverty,theircaresandsorrowsamidsttheirfriendsandinthepeace,plenty,andhonortheyenjoyed.

AstheConfederatesoldiers'homespreparedtoentertheirfifthdecadeofcollectiveoperation,radicalandpenetratingchangesbegantoalterthesetraditionalfunctions.InTexas,dramaticchangefirstoccurredonJanuary1,1920,whenapubliccorporateorganizationreplacedtheConfederateboardofmanagersastheprimaryinstrumentforimplementingcareandsocialcontrol.Undertheenablinglegislationenactedatthetime,allofthestate'seleemosynaryinstitutions,includingtheTexasHomeforMen,weretobeadministeredbyamorecentrallydirectedandcapital-intensiveregulatoryagency.34SincethefoundingoftheFloridahomein1891,theboardhadrefusedtoallowamemberoftheUDCtositontheboard(exceptinanadvisorycapacity)becausethecharterhadspecificallystatedthatonlyveteranscouldserve.ThisarrangementchangedinApril1921,whentheoldboardwasdissolvedandthemanagementoftheinstitutionwastransferredtoanewboardoffivecommissioners,consistingoftheUDCdivisionpresident,theUCVandSCVstatecommanders,thestatecomptroller,andoneotherpersonnominatedbytheboard.35AsimilarreformwouldaffecttheGeorgiahomemuchlater,in1931.Inallthreecases,thestatewouldultimatelysucceedConfederate

veteransandUDCcommitteesasofficialandex-officiopreserversandprotectorsofthehomes'agingpopulations.Afterthestateofficiallytookcontrolofthehomes,widowsanddaughtersofveteranswereusuallypermittedtoenrollasinmates,andthesuperintendent'sandmatron'spositionswereamalgamatedandgiventoafemalenurse-superintendentappointedbythegovernor.Meanwhile,populationfiguresinallthehomesgraduallydeclined.By1920,morethanthree-fourthsofalltheveteranswhowouldeverbeenrolledinthehomeshadalreadybeenadmitted.Asaresult,inthefollowingdecade,wheninmatesdiedorweredismissed,therewereconsiderablyfewercomradestotaketheirplaces.By1930onlyaboutfivedozeninmates(allmales)residedintheLeeCampHome.Thatinstitutiontoohadalsoundergoneradicalchanges,beginninginMarch1921,whenagrandsonofaConfederateveteranassumedtheposition

ofcommandant.Biologicalrealitiestooktheirtolloncommandantsnolessthanontheex-soldierswhowereintheircharge.By1936,forbothsymbolicandeconomicreasons,theboardofvisitorspermittedwomentoenrollasinmates.Fiveyearslaterthelastveterandiedandthehomeclosed.

Bythistime,severalmoreConfederatehomeshadceasedoperating.Althoughin1926therewastalkofclosingtheMarylandhomeatPikesvilleandmovingtheremainingveteranstoanoldmen'shomeinBaltimore,theinstitutionremainedopenforseveralmoreyears.In1933sixveteransweretransferredfromtheTennesseeSoldiers'Hometowhathadbeenthegirls'infirmaryoftheTennesseeIndustrialSchool,whichinturnassumedcontrolofthehome'sbuildings,furnishings,and230-acrefarm.In1937,whentheNorthCarolinaGeneralAssemblyauthorizedtheclosureoftheRaleighhome,ninety-two-year-oldT.S.Arthur,oneofonlyahandfulofsurvivinginmates,protestedthedecision.InhismuchpublicizedpetitionaddressedtothelegislatureArthurpleaded:"Ourhome...isthelastresortwehavetoendourdaysinpeace....Pleasepausebeforekickingusout!"Thefollowingyear,afterthelastveteranleftthehome,theinstitutionshutdown,anditsbuildingswereoccupiedbyaNewDealagencyandacityrecreationagency.Fouryearslater,inthemidstofanotherwar,thestateofLouisianaconvertedCampNicholls,theoldestoftheConfederatesoldiers'homes,intoamilitaryinstallation.Followingthedeathofthelastveteranin1938,theFloridahomewasclosedandthepropertyconvertedintocash,whichGeneralFrankM.Ironmonger,stateUCVcommander,proudlyturnedovertothestatecomptrollertobeusedtoestablishahomeendowmentfund,theproceedsofwhichtothisdayfundscholarshipsforstudentswithintheUniversityofFloridasystem.37

BeforethelastveteranhadpassedawayattheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmaryin1944,itwasrumoredthatthehomewouldbeclosedandconvertedintoaninstitutefortheblind.Butthestate's350veteransopposedthemove."Theyareallupsetaboutit,"averredE.M.Yarborough,thedivisioncommander,explaining:"Tothem,themerediscussionofusingthisspotforotherthanConfederatepurposesissacrilegetheembodymentofdiscouragement,lackofappreciationandanefforttoshovethemaside."Thankstoaliberaladmissionspolicy,whichgraduallyallowedwidows,daughters,sistersandultimatelyniecesofveteranstoresideinthehome,itwaspossibletokeepthefacilityopenfortwentymoreyears.38Finally,withonlytwenty-nineelderlywomenasinmates,theboardoptedinFebruary1957toclosethehome.Withpassageofanactbythelegislature,theremaininginmateswereplacedunderthecareoftheStateDepartmentofPublicWelfareandthentransferredtoboardinghousesorprivatehomes,andtheinstitution,whichcriticshadoriginallythoughtwouldnotlastmorethanadecade,officiallyclosedonJune29,1957,afteroverforty-eightyearsofcontinuousoperation.

Talkagainsurfacedoffindinganotherusefortheproperty,perhapsmakingitintoarehabilitationcenterforalcoholics,butthatplantoowasresisted.Finallythehome"fellvictimto[the]hammersofprogress,"whenitwasrazedinJune1963.

Inmanystates,onemaytodayvisittheplaceswhereformerConfederatesresided,thoughthesurroundingshavechanged.ThehomeforveteransinRaleigh,forexample,isnowtheNorthCarolinaMotorVehiclesDivisionbuilding.ANewOrleanspolicestationnowoccupiesthelandat1700MossStreet,whereCampNichollshadbeenlocated.OnlythemainfrontstepsthatledintotheSouthCarolinaInfirmaryonthecornerofBullStreetandConfederateAvenueinColumbiaareextant,andasmallplaquenotingthehistoricalsignificanceofthesitehasbeenerected.TheTennesseehomehasbeenleveled(onlytherustedshellsoftheformerpumphouseandmorgueremain),andthehomepropertyisonceagainpartoftheHermitage,AndrewJackson'sformerestate.TheFloridahomehasbeentorndown,andamunicipalwastewatertreatmentplantnowoccupieswhathadbeenitssiteonTalleyrandAvenue,acrossthestreetfromtheJacksonvillePortAuthority.TheTexasHomeforMenhasbeendemolishedandreplacedbyhousingformarriedstudentsattheUniversityofTexas.AnasphaltparkinglotfortheAtlantaPoliceAcademynowmarksthespotwhereoncestoodthehomethatGradybuilt,which,ironically,wasamongthelastofthehomestocloseitsdoors.ScatteredremnantsoftheR.E.LeeCampHomeinRichmondhavebeenpreserved-Robinson'sfarmhouse(theadministrationbuilding),thechapel,andpartofthekitchen.WhereahalfdozencottageshadstoodwasconstructedtheVirginiaConfederateWomen'sHome,inwhichseveralelderlydescendantsofveteranslingeredforyears,untilacircuitcourtjudgeinthelate1980sorderedthemevicted

andtransferredtoanursingcarecenter,sothatbulldozerscouldbegintodotheirmassivework(although,infact,thevacantbuildinghasyettobetorndown).

AmongalltheConfederatesoldiers'homes,onlytwofunction,thoughinalimitedsense,today.Thereweresofewinmates(threemenandninewomen)remainingintheAlabamahomein1930thattheUDCdecided,inlieuofobservingConfederateMemorialDayattheinstitution,todrivetheinmatestotheobservanceinMontgomery,wheretheyrodeintheparade,satonthespeakers'platformatthecemetery,andatelunchattheJeffersonDavisHotel.Afterthelastveterandiedin1934,thehomehospitalwasconvertedintoapartmentsforthelastsevenwidows.Fiveyearslaterthelegislatureorderedthehomeclosed,thefewwomeninmateswereentrustedtothecareoftheStateWelfareDepartment,thehome'stwocemeterieswerehandedoverforsafekeepingtotheSoilConservationService,andextantbuildingswereabandonedanddismantledorwereremovedintact,exceptforthemesshall,

whichstooduntilthe1960s.ButtheUDCrekindledinterestinthehomeinthe1950s,memorialserviceswereresumedonsiteduringthefollowingdecade,andsince1975themaintenanceandadministrationofthemorethanone-hundred-acresite,whichisnowknownasConfederateMemorialPark,hasbeenprovidedbytheAlabamaHistoricalCommission.

Beauvoir,too,remainsopentothepublicandisasmuchatouristattractiontodayaswhenPresidentFranklinRooseveltvisitedthehomeonApril29,1937.ThreeyearsafterRoosevelt'svisitthelegislaturevotedtorestoretheoriginalDavisproperty-includingtheBeauvoirMansionproperandtheLibraryCottage,inwhichPresidentDaviscomposedhismemoirstotheSCV,eventuallygivingbirthtotheJeffersonDavisMemorialShrine.Allbuildingslyingeastofthecottagewerereservedforthesoldiers'homeanditsinmates,whoweretransferredtothehospitalandremainedunderthecontrolandmanagementofthestate.SyndicatedadvicecolumnistElizabethMeriwetherGilmer("DorothyDix"),adaughterofaveteran,wholivedandworkedinNewYorkCitybutkeptaGulfCoastresidence,happenedtopassbythehomein1940andspy"twolongrowsofwornandshabbyrockingchairs"behinda"ForSale"sign.Thehomewasclosednow,shethoughttoherself,its''doorsbarred,[its]windowsshuttered."Thesightdisturbedher.Thenitgrewdark,assherecountedinherlettertotheeditoroftheNewOrleansTimes-Picayune,and

AwindcameupfromtheGulfandgentlyswayedtherockersbackandforth,andIsweartoyoutheywerenolongerempty.Theywerefilledwithgrayghostsofoldmenwhobenttheirheadstogetherandthrashedover,astheyhaddoneathousandtimesbefore,thestoriesofthebattlefieldsonwhichtheyhadfoughtShilohandBullRunandChickamaugaandVicksburgandGettysburgandAppomattoxandtheyspokeincrackedvoicesofgreatadventuresandtoldtalesofheroismandsufferingand

sacrificebeyondbelief.

Eventhoughtherewerenolongerveteransresidinginthehomeafter1947,peoplestilllookedtoBeauvoirforanswers.J.L.PeeteofMemphis,Tennessee,apparentlyfoundwhathewaslookingfor.WritingtoMrs.JosieC.Rankin,thesuperintendent,aboutarelativewhohadenteredthehomeinAugust1910fromWarrenCounty,Mississippi,Peeteinformedher:"AfterIleftyouthatdayIwenttotheConfederateCemetaryandfoundthemarkertoMr.Peete'sgrave."AyoungEnglishinstructorattheUniversityofTexaswasinterestedinobtaininginformationforaforthcomingworkonthepoetPrentissIngraham,whohaddiedatBeauvoir.Mrs.EmileJoffrionofBatonRouge,desiringtobecomeamemberoftheUDC,neededproofofthearmyrecordofherfather,ThomasW.McNamara,oftheTwenty-FirstMississippiInfantry,whohadenteredthehomein1906.41Therewereonlyafewsoulsremainingin1955

Youngwomenoftenvisitedthehomesandhadtheirphotographstakenwiththeveterans,asinthisscenefromthe1930satRichmond'sLeeCampHome.

(courtesyofVirginiaStateLibrary)

whenthelegislatureapprovedthetransferofthesoldiers'hometothecontroloftheSCV,therebyendinganerathathadlastedmorethanhalfacentury.In1957thetworemainingwidowswereplacedinnursinghomes,andtheprocessofdemolishingsoldiers'homepropertythathadbegunsometwoyearsearliercontinued.Thehomehospital,however,waspreservedandturnedintoamuseum,souvenirshop,andadministrationcomplexfortheDavisShrinethatdrawsthousandsofvisitors,curiosityseekers,andCivilWarbuffsandre-enactorstoBeauvoireveryyear.

Anestimated20,000indigentanddisabledex-Confederatesenteredtheveterans'homesovertheyears.Theretheyweregivenfood,medicine,and

shelter,furnishedwithuniformsofcadet-graycloth,regimented,publiclyexhibited,andtoldagaintofolloworders.Somerefusedtofollowordersandweresummarilydismissed.Othersleftafteronlyafewdaysandneverlookedback.Manymore,however,remainedinresidenceformonthsoryears,determinedthattheyhadfoundwhattheywanted.Oldsorrowswereforgotten,formercomradeshipswererekindled,newfriendshipsweremade.Moreover,prettygirlsandothervisitorsfromthe"outside"cametomingle,toentertain,topreach,tolistensympatheticallytotalltales,ortohavetheirphotographstakenbesidetheRebel"heroes."

AmongtheveteransweremenwhohadwitnessedtheshellingofFortSumter,whohadriddenwithStuartorForrest,whohadchargedwithPickett,orwhohadstackedtheirgunsatAppomattox.AfewwereaswellknownasArkansas'sMajorHaroldBorland,thesonofU.S.senatorandConfederategeneralSolonBorlandandaWestPointgraduate.AndthreegrandsonsofFrancisScottKeyresidedatthehomeinMaryland.Mostinmates,however,wereobscureindividuals;menlikeJasperFerguson,whohadfoughtwiththeFifthArkansasInfantryatShiloh,MissionaryRidge,andChickamaugaandwaswoundedsixdifferenttimes;orJamesM.andWesleyJ.Brown,fatherandsonintheGeorgiaReserves,whohadservedtogetherasAndersonvilleprisonguards;oroneThomasJ.ThomassonofYorkCounty,SouthCarolina,whoinApril1911,paralyzedandhelpless,hadbeenhauledinawagontotheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmaryandplacedonitsfrontstepsbyhischildren,wholefthimtheretodieallalonethreemonthslater.

"Weareold.Wearegoingfast,"aninmateattheMarylandhomewarnedavisitoronConfederateMemorialDayin1921.Theyareall

gonenow.Whenaninmatedied,hewasneatlydressedinhishomeuniform,givenagunsalute,andprovidedwithanhonorableburial.Sometimesabelltolled,heardthroughouttheneighborhoodsinthevicinityofthehome.Thelastbellhaslongsincetolled,andonlyafewphotographsoftheoldsoldierssurvive.Withthepassingofeachinmate,southernerslostnotonlyaparticipantinthestrugglesofthe1860sbutalsoatangiblelink,indeedtheirmosttangiblelink,withtheirConfederateheritage.

EPILOGUEOnFebruary19,1929,alongSanGabrielBoulevardinLosAngeles,DixieManor,thelastConfederatesoldiers'hometobefounded,openeditsdoors.Thelovelyold"southern-type"cottagesurroundedbyorangetreeson"spaciousgrounds"boastedsometwelverooms,oneofwhichservedastheinfirmary.California'shomeforJohnny_Rebwasananomalyinanumberofways.Forone,itwasthefirstsuchinstitutionestablishedandmanagedfromtheoutsetexclusivelybytheUDC.Everydetailwasunderthecontroloftheladies,fromthehome'sfinancestoitsday-to-daymanagement.AfewyearsearlierasmanyassixveteransresidingonacountypoorfarmnearHondohadbeencaredforbytheladies'committeesofthetwelvechaptersthatmadeuptheUDCinsouthernCalifornia.But"thatwasnotapleasingthoughttothoseofSouthernsentiment,"commentedMrs.GertrudeMontgomery,correspondingsecretaryoftheUDC,CaliforniaDivision.SoUDCmembersestablishedDixieManorandbroughtthementothisnewfacility,wheretheyweremadetofeel"happyand[as]wellcaredfor''aspossibleina"real"home,theword"institution"neverbeingusedtorefertoit."EveryloyalDaughterrejoicesthatthelastdaysoftheseveterans,sofarfromtheirnativeSouthland,arebeingmadecomfortable,"reportedMrs.ErnaGrabe,publicitydirectorforthestateUDC.

Inaddition,theCaliforniahomeoriginatedatatimewhentheotherhomeswereinastateofgeneraldecline.Onthewhole,Confederateveteranswereatleastintheireighties,andthenineorsoinmateswhoclaimedDixieManorastheirhomein1929wouldbegonewithinafewshortyears.Yetpeoplestillcametocatchonefinalglimpseofthe"boys"whoworethegray,evenasfarawayasCalifornia.WhenthehomewasofficiallydedicatedonApril14,1929,asmanyas500

peoplewitnessedtheceremonies.In1930alone,anestimatedfiftyvisitorsamonth,fromasmanyastwelvedifferentstates,stoppedbyDixieManor.Tothecasualobserver,suchhomagepaidtoancientwarriorswasanaturalandproperactforacivilizedpeople.Buttopeoplewhosawtheveteransasthey,andmanyofthethingstheystoodfor,nearedtheirend,likethosewhowerepresentwhenaquartetfromtheGeorgiahomeshowedupatthepremiereofGonewiththeWind,itwasanexperiencetheywouldnotlikelyforget.

APPENDIXThevariousquantitativeanalysesthatappearthroughoutthisstudyarebasedonthefilesof2,296selectedex-Confederateswhoactuallyresidedinthesoldiers'homes.Iderivedinformationoneachveteranofeachhomefromdifferentsources,dependinguponthefactorsofavailabilityandaccessibility.Forexample,themicrofilmedapplicationstotheTennesseehomeprovidethebestsourceforraw,quantifiableinmatedata.Ontheotherhand,anextremelyhighpercentageoftheapplicationstotheGeorgia,Arkansas,andTexashomesare,unfortunately,missingorpresumeddestroyed.AndthereareonlyafewexistingapplicationsforadmissiontotheMississippi,SouthCarolina,Florida,andAlabamahomes.Nevertheless,IcompiledvitalstatisticsonhundredsofveteransbygleaninginformationfromseveralboundrostersthathavebeenpreservedinthestatearchivesinAtlanta,Austin,andJackson.IrelieduponasimilarvolumeforNorthCarolinaveteranswhowereadmittedtothatstate'shomeafter,roughly,1910.ApplicationstotheVirginiahomeareextant,thoughtheyhavenotbeenmicrofilmedandeachofthehundredsofcasefileshasbeenassigneditsownfolder,making

expeditiousresearchimpossible.BiennialreportsissuedbytheCampNichollsBoardofDirectorssupplementthedatathatIdrewfromthehandfulofapplicationstotheLouisianahome.

Inordertoreachmypredeterminedsamplesizeforaparticularhome,Ichoseeveryothernamefromthelistsofveteransorgatheredasmuchdataasthesourceswouldallow.Iexcludedfromconsiderationapplicationsorrosterentriesthatweresoincompleteastobeuselessorthatwerehighlyillegible,aswellasthosethattheboardrejected.Forthemostpart,Ialsooverlookedveteranswho,thoughentitled,decidednottoenterahomeorwhodiedbeforebeingadmitted.Foreachofthe2,296veteransselected,Icreatedafile,encodingpertinentinformation,includingbirthplace,residence,age,occupation,militaryservice,disability,maritalstatus,andmonthandyearofadmission.OnlytheTexasandNorthCarolinahomes'rostersyieldedaveteran'sreligiousaffiliation,although,unliketherecordsofotherhomes,thesesamerecordsomittedhismilitaryrank.Applicationformsandrosterentriescontained(atleast,potentially)identicalinformation,buttheamountandqualityofquantifiabledatainfactvariedbetweenthetwosources.Ithenenteredeachfileintoasimple,public-domaindatabaseprogramthatautomaticallycomputesfrequencydistributionsofcategorizedvariables.

AConfederatesoldiers'homeisknowntohaveexistedinalloftheeleven

statesthatcomprisedtheConfederacy,aswellasinMaryland,Missouri,Kentucky,Oklahoma,andCalifornia.MyprimaryfocushasbeenontheveteraninmatepopulationoftheelevenhomesinformerConfederatestates.Thesampleof2,296veteransequalsapproximately20percentofthetotalnumberbelievedtohaveresidedinthoseelevenhomesthrough1920.ExactlyhowmanyConfederateveteransactuallylivedinthesehomesduringthisperiodisunknown,fornotalloftheinstitutions'recordshavesurvived.Moreover,itisunlikelythatthosethatareextantprovideacompletelyaccuratecount.Thebestestimatefortheyearsfromopeningthrough1920is11,479;another3,613veteransgainedadmissionsometimelater,bringingthetotalnumberadmittedto15,092(seeTable1).Oftheformerfigure,Virginiainmatescomprisedthelargestshare(21.9percent),followedbyinmatesinTexas(17.6percent),NorthCarolina(11.4percent),Louisiana(9.3percent),Arkansas(7.8percent),Georgia(6.9percent),Mississippi(6.7percent),Tennessee(6.2percent),Alabama(6.1percent),SouthCarolina(3.5percent),andFlorida(2.6percent).Thus,theVirginia,Texas,Georgia,NorthCarolina,andArkansashomes,combined,accountedfornearlytwo-thirds(65.6percent)oftheentirehomepopulation.From1890through1928,moreex-ConfederatesresidedinthosefivestatesthaninanyotherstateintheNewSouth(seeTables2,3,and4).

Thefactthatthesampleisrelativelysizableenhancestheprobabilityofmatchingthecharacteristicsoftheentirepopulation.Eachstatesamplehasbeenproperlyrepresented:thatis,ofthe2,296veterans,503(21.9percent)residedintheLeeCampHomeofVirginia;404(17.6percent)intheTexashome;262(11.4percent)intheNorthCarolinainstitution;212(9.3percent)inLouisiana'sCampNicholls;179(7.8percent)intheArkansashome;158(6.9percent)intheGeorgiahome;154(6.7percent)atBeauvoirinMississippi;143(6.2percent)intheTennesseehome;and140(6.1percent)atAlabama's

FalknerHome.OnlytheFloridaandSouthCarolinahomesaremisrepresented.SincemostoftheFloridainstitution'srecordsarenolongerextant,informationononly27veteranshasbeenlocated.So,Idecidedarbitrarilytoanalyzetherecordsofanadditional33veteransfromtheSouthCarolinahome,bringingthetotalnumberforthatsampleto114(4.9percent).Moststatisticiansrequireasamplingofatleast1,000files.Althoughmyentiresampleof2,296clearlyexceedsthatdemand,itsreliabilityawaitsfurthertesting.

Wheneverpossible,parallelstudieshavebeenusedasanindirectmeansofcorrelatingdata,testingthesample'sreliability,andsubstantiatingconclusions.Forexample,Table5illustratesthebirthplacesofveteransadmittedtofouroftheelevenhomes.Thetableshowsthataboutone-third(36.5percent)ofConfederatesoldiers'homeresidentswerenativesoftheirrespectivestates,whereastwo-fifths(40.4percent)hadbeenbornelsewhereintheSouth.

Immigrantsandthenorthern-borncomprisedaboutone-fifth(22.9percent)ofthehomes'population.ThetablealsoshowsthatLouisianahadthehighestpercentageofimmigrants,Texashadthelargestproportionofnortherners,andGeorgiawasthemosthomogeneousor"southern"ofthestates,followedcloselybyTennessee.ThesefindingscloselymatchthosedescribedinaparallelstudybyBellWiley,whoexaminedthecompositionofConfederatemilitaryunitsbaseduponmusterrolls.WileydemonstratesthatLouisianacontributedfarmoreforeignerstoConfederateservicethananyotherstate.Also,asclearlyreflectedinthetable,Texaswasastatecomposedlargelyofsouthern-bornimmigrants.

Ultimately,thedata'sveracityandinturn,theveterans'collectivehistorymayneverbeconclusivelydetermined.Inthefirstplace,ashistoricalsources,applicationsandsimilar"single-round"surveyquestionnairesarenotabsolutelyreliable.Dataderivedfrombothform-typesarenecessarilydependentupontherespondent'sabilitytogiveunequivocalanswerstodirectquestions.Aveteran'sage,educationallevel,andemotionalandphysicalhealthundoubtedlyaffectedhisresponses.Secondly,aprecodedforminvariablyproducesdatatruncation;thatis,onlyapresetrangeofquestionswasaskedandnomore,therebyresultinginatotallackofinformationonother,uninterrogatedtopics.Inaddition,officialpublicationsofthehomes(fornoapparentreasonotherthansimpleclericaloversight)werenotimmunetomisreportingandunderreporting.

Inanefforttoovercomesuchlimitations,Ihave,wheneverpossible,extracted"external"datafromothersources.Forexample,theages(seeTable6)reportedbyveteransontheirapplicationssometimeshavebeencomparedtotheonestheydisclosedtocensustakersin

consecutivedecades.Instancesofdubioussuperintendentrecord-keepinghavebeencross-checkedwithphysicianandtrusteeaccounts.Inordertorendertheapplicants'responsesmoreuseful,Ihavealsofounditnecessarytomanipulateinformation.Insteadofgivingtheirages,veteransinmanycasesindicatedtheiryearofbirth,whichthenhadtobesubtractedfromtheirdateofapplication,inordertoextrapolateageatadmission.

Forthescoreorsoofapplicantswhowrote"none"inreferencetotheirmaritalstatus(seeTable13)andlistednodependents,Iassumedtheymeantthattheywereindeedsinglemenwhoperhapshadnevermarried.TheGeorgiaroster,forexample,rarelyindicatesmaritalstatus.Yetitdoeslistnamesofpersonstobenotifiedintheeventofdeath.So,Iassumedthatwhena"Mrs."bearingtheidenticalsurnameastheveteranappeared,itmeantthattheveteranmusthavebeenmarried.Ifchildrenwerelisted,butno"Mrs.,"thenhewasawidower.Andifnamesofotherrelatives(nieces,nephews,siblings,etc.)wereprovided,thentheveteranprobablywassingle.These

assumptionsenabledmetoanswermorequestionsthantheveteransthemselveshadbeenoriginallyasked,therebyenlargingthescopeofmyanalysis.

Indeterminingwhetheraveteransufferedfroma"warwound"(seeTable7),Iconsideredonlythosephysicalailmentsthatconceivablycouldhavebeencausedbya"visible"warinjurysuchasthelossofalimb,abrokenback,orafracturedskull.AtthesametimeIarbitrarilydisregardedcommondisordersoftheagedheartdisease,sightandhearingloss,rheumatoidarthritis,diarrhoealailments,generaldebility,etc.

2Table7illustratesthepercentagedistributionbystateofConfederatesoldiers'homeresidentsafflictedwitha"warwound."Althoughnotreflectedinthetable,apatternofearlyadmissionsforveteranswhoclaimedaservice-relateddisabilityrevealeditselfasIanalyzedthedata.Ofalltheinmateswoundedduringthewar,312wereadmittedtoaveterans'homeduringthefirstfulldecadeofoperation.

Occupationalanalysis(seeTable8)requiredconsiderablymoremanipulationinordertoconformtomodernconceptualizationsandmeasurementsofsocioeconomicstanding.Infact,Idiscoveredanearlier,butnonethelessadequate,studytobemoreusefulformyNewSouthsubjectsthanmorerecentapproaches.IadoptedWilliamHunt'ssimplefour-categoryhierarchyandnomenclature,notonlybecauseheanalyzedcensusdataforasimilartimeperiodbutalsobecauseheincorporatedprestigeasasubjectiveindicatorofoccupationalstatus.3Withthenotableexceptionof"farmer,"alloftheveterans'postwaroccupationsreportedonapplicationsorinofficialrostersfelldiscretelyunderoneofHunt'sfourcategories:proprietors/professionalpeople,clericalworkers,skilledworkers,andtheworkingorlaboringclass.Huntarbitrarilygroupedproperty-

owningfarmersunderthefirstcategoryandpropertyless,ortenant,farmershereferredspecificallytothemas"agriculturallaborers"underthefourthcategory.Itstandstoreasonthatalargenumberofindigent,relief-dependentex-ConfederateswereinfactfarmlaborersratherthanownersandthusfallinHunt'sfourthcategory.Afterall,veteranshadtomeetstrictneeds-basedrequirementsgoverninginmateadmissionsineachstate.Thosewhosepropertyvaluesexceededtheallowablelimitsprescribedbystatelawswereruledineligibleforhomeadmission.Yet,Iwasunwillingtoassumethatjustbecauseaveteranlisted"farmer"ashischiefpostwareconomicactivity,hethereforeownednorealestatewhatsoever.Heprobablydidnot,butIautomaticallyassignedhimtoafifthcategory,soastoavoidanymisunderstanding.

Althoughoccupationisarguablythebestmeasureofsocioeconomicstatus,itispossibletodescribeanindividual'spositionwithinsocietybyanalyzingmultiple-itemindicators.4Thecorrelatesofresidence,literacy,disability,andageundoubtedlyaffectedaveteran'spostwareconomicactivityandlifechances.Maritalstatusandfamilysizealsoenabledtheagingveterantoavoid

ordeferseekingrelief.Wivesand/orchildrenofveteranspotentiallysatisfiedaneconomicneed,providingfinancialassistanceandguaranteesofprotectionorsupportinoldage.Myresearchontheveterans'religiousaffiliationanotherpossibleproxyfordeterminingsocioeconomicstatus-isinconclusive.BaseduponmysamplesofTexasandNorthCarolinaveteransonly,almostthree-fourths(70.9percent)belongedtoamainlinedenominationsuchasMethodist,Baptist,Presbyterian,orEpiscopalian,withamajoritybeingMethodistsandBaptists.

Dataonmilitaryrank(seeTable10)alsopartiallyestablishesanindividual'santebellumsocioeconomicstatus.Ichosethehighestrankheldbytheveteraninordertoallowforfieldpromotionsandcompanyelections,whichsometimesinvolvedprestigefactors.SinceapplicationstotheTennesseeConfederateSoldiers'Homefailedtoprovidearankforeachveteran,Iconsultedtheex-Confederates'compiledservicerecordsasindexedinTennesseansintheCivilWar.Theinabilitytodeterminetherankheldbyall143Tennesseeveteransmayhaveskewedthistabulation.Evenso,itappearsthatConfederatesoldierscommandedothermenonthebasisofboththeirfamily'sprewarwealthandtheearlieresteeminwhichtheyhadbeenheldbyothers.

Tracingfamilywealthvalues(seeTables9,11,and12)asindicatedinconsecutivecensusschedulesnotonlyconfirmsthisobservationbutalsoprovidesusefulinformationaboutaveteran'spostwareconomic,residential,andoccupationalmobilitypatterns.Iexaminedthewealthheldbythe143veteransintheTennesseesampleasreportedinthe1860and1870censusschedules.Onceagain,thedatarequiredsomemanipulation.Becauseonly38ofthe143menwereheadsof

householdin1860,Ichosefamilywealthaggregatesratherthanindividualwealthasthebasicunitofanalysis.Foreachunmarriedveteranwhoreportedzerowealth,Iincludedhisparents'combinedpersonalandrealestatevalues,ifany.IfaveteranownedpropertyyetresidedwithhisparentsIcountedthefamily'scompositewealth.Inafewcaseswhereaveteranboardedwithafamilywhosememberswereapparentlyunrelatedtohim,Iconsideredonlymysubject'swealth,notthatbelongingtohislandlordoremployer.Iutilizedtheidenticaltracingproceduresforthe1870censusdata.

Lastly,Imeasuredtenure(seeTables14and15)bycountingthetimefromwhenaveteranwasfirstadmittedtowhenheemigratedfromthehomeforthefirsttime.Theout-migrationfiguresforveteransintheGeorgia,Louisiana,andTennesseehomeswerebasedondeathsonly.Forveteransintheotherfivehomes,1consideredanyformofout-migration,voluntary(furloughs,transfers,absences)aswellasinvoluntary(deathsanddismissals).AmongtheTexassample's404veterans,259(64.1percent)diedatthehome;ofthe164SouthCarolinians,79leftvoluntarily.

Unlessotherwisenoted,allofthestatisticaltabulationsinvolvinginmatedatainthisstudyhavebeenderivedfromtheaforementionedsources.Eachtablegivesthefrequencydistributionsofoneortwocategorizedvariables."N"alwaysreferstothetotalnumberoffilesconsideredinaparticularanalysis.Thisnumberalmostneverequalstheentiresample.Someofthetablesalsocontainpercentagevaluesforagivencategory.Becauseofrounding,percentagesrarelytotal100.Theinformationderivedfromtheanalyses,aswellasmypresentationofsummarydescriptions,shouldbeconsideredexploratory,preliminary,andsuggestive.Admittedly,moreworkremainstobedone.Mychiefobjectivehasbeentoprovideastraightforwardandreadilyinterpretabledescriptionofabodyofdata(anditsinternalstructure)thathasbeenheretoforewhollyunaggregatedandunexamined.

Table1.NumberofSoldiers'HomeInmates,byStateandYearofAdmission

State(byRank)

Admittedbefore1920

Admittedafter1920 Total

1.Virginia 2,519 536 3,055

2.Texas 2,019 941 2,960

3.NorthCarolina 1,310 149 1,459

4.Louisiana 1,063 354 1,417

5.Arkansas 900 300 1,200

6.Georgia 792 277 1,069

7.Mississippi 767 360 1,127

8.Tennessee 708 266 974

9.Alabama 700 150 850

10.SouthCarolina 401 205 606

11.Florida 300 75 375

N 11,479 3,613 15,092

Table2.NumberandPercentageofConfederateVeterans,byState,in1890

State(byRank)

Number PercentageofAllConfederateVeterans

1.Texas 66,456 15.50

2.Virginia 48,448 11.28

3.Georgia 46,733 10.92

4.NorthCarolina 38,416 8.96

5.Alabama 33,871 7.88

6.Tennessee 31,727 7.42

7.Arkansas 26,582 6.18

8.Mississippi 26,582 6.18

9.SouthCarolina 23,581 5.46

10.Missouri 17,579 4.08

11.Louisiana 15,864 3.69

12.Kentucky 12,005 2.57

13.Florida 8,146 1.89

14.Maryland 8,000 1.86

Allothers 24,757 5.77

N 428,747

Source:BureauoftheCensus."SoldiersandWidows,"p.593.

State(byRank)

1.Texas 15,225 20.12

2.Georgia 9,105 12.03

3.Arkansas 9,100 12.02

5.Virginia 5,196 6.86

6.Alabama 4,376 5.78

9.Tennessee 2,540 3.35

10.Louisiana 2,341 3.09

11.Missouri 2,136 2.82

12.Florida 1,504 1.98

13.Oklahoma 1,484 1.96

14.Kentucky 1,190 1.57

Allothers 7,500 9.91

N 75,651

Source:"SurvivingConfederateVeterans,"ConVet30(1922):563.a.estimated.

State(byRank)

1.Texas 3,286 12.68

2.Georgia 3,070 11.84

3.Arkansas 2,875 11.09

4.Virginia 2,645 10.20

8.Alabama 2,094 8.08

9.Tennessee 1,552 5.99

10.Oklahoma 1,049 4.04

11.Louisiana 956 3.68

12.Florida 745 2.87

13.Kentucky 443 1.70

N 25,909

Source:"Confederate.VeteransandWindows,"ConVet36(1928):408-9.

Table5.BirthplaceofConfederateSoldiers'HomeInmates,byStateandRegion(inPercentages)

Birthplace Ga. La. Tenn. Tex. Total

Foreign-born 2.3 25.9 10.5 7.8 11.4

Statenative 76.2 39.6 71.8 6.8 36.5

C.S.A.nativea 20.2 24.9 10.8 67.2 44.4

Unionnativeb 1.3 9.6 6.9 18.2 11.5

N 158 212 143 404 917a.Borninanyoftheeleven,statethatcompromisedtheConfederateStatesofAmerica.

b.BorninanystateotherthanthosecomprisingtheConfederacy.

Table6.AgeandAgeRangeatAdmission(fromOpeningDateto1900),byState

La. Tenn. Tex. Va.

Meanage 59.8 62.8 63.2 60.5

Agerange 41-80 49-87 45-91 38-88

N(566) 114 71 143 238

Table7.PercentageofConfederateSoldiers'HomeResidentswith''WarWounds,"byState

Ga. La. N.C. Tenn. Tex. Va. Total

32.9 23.5 35.5 33.6 21.5 19.1 24.9

N 158 212 262 143 404 503 1,682

Table8.OccupationofConfederateSoldiers'HomeInmates,byState

NumberofVeterans

OccupationalGroup

Ga. La. N.C. S.C. Tenn. Tex. Va. Percentage

Professional 12 20 9 9 19 46 49 10.7

Clerical 3 30 1 4 11 7 31 5.7

Skilled 17 43 25 19 33 94 152 25.0

Laborer 90 8 16 39 30 78 17.1

Farmer 33 29 103 66 41 219 143 41.5

N 65 212 146 114 145 396 453 396

Table9.1860FamilyWealthforTennesseeSoldiers'HomeInmates

WealthAggregate

$0 $1-1,000$1,001-4,000$4,001-10,000$10,000+

Percentagesofinmates 27.9 23.8 17.7 10.9 19.7

Meanwealth($) 0 376 2,096 6,571 33,073

Percentageoftotalwealth

0 1.2 4.8 9.0 85.0

Note:Totalwealth=$1.128.719;N=143.

Table10.MilitaryRankofTennesseeSoldiers'HomeInmates,byAntebellumFamilyWealth(inPercentages)

WealthAggregate

ArmyRank $0 $1-1,000 $1,001-5,000 $5,000+

Private(N=84) 78.8 88.0 77.3 61.8

Corporal(N=3) 0.0 4.0 9.2 0.0

Sergeant(N=9) 15.2 4.0 4.5 5.9

Lieutenant(N=4) 3.0 0.0 0.0 8.8

Captain(N=5) 0.00 0.0 4.5 1.8

Major(N=1) 0.00 0.0 0.0 2.9

Other"(N=6) 3.0 4.0 4.5 8.8

Totalmeanwealth($) 0 418 2,882 23,610

Note:N=114a.Unspecifiedranks,suchassurgeon,musician,orhospitalsteward.

Table11.1870FamilyWealthofTennesseeSoldiers'HomeInmates

WealthAggregate

$0 $1-1,000

$1,001-4,000

$4,001-10,000

$10,000+

Percentageofinmates 40.0 28.7 16.9 8.8 5.1

Meanwealth($) 0 335 1,875 6,042 28,814

Percentageoftotalwealth

0 3.9 13.1 21.9 61.0

Note:Totalwealth=$830,403N=136.

Table12.TennesseeSoldiers'HomeInmates,byDateAdmittedandAntebellumWealth(inPercentages)

WealthAggregate

DateAdmitted $0 $1-1,000 $1,001-4,000 $4,001-10,000 $10,000+

1890-1900 39.4 36.4 9.1 6.0 9.1

1901-22 18.2 14.3 25.9 15.6 26.0

Note:Meanwealthforinmatesadmitted1890-1900=$3,766andforthoseadmitted190122-$10,120;N-145.

Table13.MaritalStatusofConfederateSoldiers'HomeInmates,byState(fromOpeningto1922,inPercentages)

Ga. La. N.C. S.C. Tenn. Tex. Va. Mean

Single 27.2 47.9 11.2 42.1 22.1 20.8 51.7 31.8

Married 14.6 12.1 15.0 21.0 23.2 17.1 26.2 18.5

Widowed 58.2 40.0 73.7 36.8 54.7 62.1 22.1 49.7

N(1,621) 158 140 259 114 95 404 451

Table14.TenureofConfederateSoldiers'HomeResidents,byStateandAdmissionDate(inMeanYears)

AdmissionDate Ark. Ga. La. N.C. Tenn. Tex. Va. Average

Before1900 a a 2.14 a 9.28 5.07 4.46 5.23

1901-11 a 5.64 5.21 a 6.08 5.96 2.37 5.05

1912-21 3.15 3.33 3.67 3.60 9.00 5.81 1.65 4.31

N(1,660) 59 158 212 181 143 404 503

a.Insufficientdataavailable.

Table15.PercentageofConfederateSoldiers'HomeResidentswithTenureofOneYearorLess,byStateandAdmissionDate

AdmissionDate Ark. Ga. La. N.C Tenn. Tex. Va. Average

Before1900 a a 63.1 a 28.2 18.4 25.6 33.8

1901-11 a 29.5 40.0 a 52.3 20.1 35.2 35.4

1912-21 40.6 38.0 20.8 32.6 30.0 18.5 55.7 33.7

N(1,660) 59 158 212 181 143 404 503

a.Insufficientdataavailable.

Table16.MeanAgeofSoldiers'HomeInmates,byStateandYearofAdmission

YearAdmitted Ga. La. N.C. Tenn Tex. Va.

1901-11 66.0 62.1 a 67.9 70.5 66.0

1912-22 74.0 74.5 78.9 75.1 74.4 77.5

N(1,082) 158 98 228 72 261 265

a.Insufficientdataavailable

Table17.In-andOut-MigrationbyLeeCampSoldiers'HomeInmates,1907-11and1913-17

Year InmatesAdmitted

InmatesOut-Migrating

NetGain(Loss)a

TotalEnrolled

1907 88 90 (2) 275

1908 80 84 (4)

1909 75 69 6

1910 84 73 11

1911 71 67 4 290

1913 87 99 (12) 281

1914 85 68 17

1915 77 86 (9)

1916 82 78 4

1917 56 64 (8) 273

N,1907-11 398 383 15

Annualaverage,1907-11 79.5 76.6

N,1913-17 387 395 (8)

Annualaverage,1913-17 77.4 79.0

a.Includesdeaths,dismissals,discharges,andtransferstoasylums.

Figure1.BirthDatesofConfederateSoldiers'HomeInmatesinTexasandVirginia

Figure2.EstimatedAverageEnrollmentinConfederateSoldiers'Homes,byStateandYear

Figure3.NumberofOfficersandEmployeesofConfederateSoldiers'Homes,byStateandYear

Figure4.EstimatedPublicAppropriationsforConfederateSoldiers'Homes,byStateandYearReceived

Abbreviations

AA ApplicationforAdmission

AAT AssociationoftheArmyofTennesseeAANV AssociationoftheArmyofNorthernVirginiaArCH ArkansasConfederateHome,SweetHomeArSA ArkansasStateArchives,LittleRockBeauvoir Beauvoir,theJeffersonDavisMemorialShrine,Biloxi,

MississippiCNSH CampNichollsSoldiers'Home,NewOrleans,LouisianaConstitutionAtlantaConstitutionConVet ConfederateVeteranGDAH GeorgiaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,AtlantaGSH GeorgiaSoldiers'Home,AtlantaJDBMSH JeffersonDavisBeauvoirMemorialSoldiers'Home,Biloxi,

MississippiLCSH LeeCampSoldiers'Home,Richmond,VirginiaLHAC LouisianaHistoricalAssociationCollection,Howard-Tilton

MemorialLibrary,TulaneUniversity,NewOrleans,Louisiana

NCDAH NorthCarolinaDivisionofArchivesandHistory,RaleighNCSH NorthCarolinaSoldiers'Home,RaleighSCCI SouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary,ColumbiaSCDAH SouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,

ColumbiaTSHI TennesseeSoldiers'Home,HermitageTSLA TennesseeStateLibraryandArchives,NashvilleTxHm TexasHomeforMen,AustinTxSA TexasStateArchives,AustinUSM WilliamD.McCainLibrary,UniversityofSouthern

USM WilliamD.McCainLibrary,UniversityofSouthernMississippi,Hattiesburg

VHS VirginiaHistoricalSociety,RichmondVSI, VirginiaStateLibrary,Richmond

Preface

1.Edwards,RoadtoTara,p.287;Constitution,Dec.13,15-16,1959;Hoar,LastBoysinGray,pp.187-90.

2.Constitution,May23,1890(emphasisadded).

Chapter1

1.O'Connor,"ALateEncounterwiththeEnemy."

2.Cetina,"HistoryofVeterans'Homes,"pp.10,30,48,84,122,212.Ironically,as

presidentoftheConfederacy,DavisinFebruary1864vetoedonconstitutionalgroundsanactestablishinganationalConfederate''VeteranSoldiers'Home."SeeJournaloftheCongressoftheConfederateStatesofAmerica,6:808-10.

3.Cetina,"HistoryofVeterans'Homes."Foracomparison,seealsoGoode,UnitedStatesSoldiers'Home,andBradley,VeteranCare,thelatterofwhichconcernsthesouthernbranchoftheNationalHomesforDisabledVolunteerSoldiers.

4.AtitszeniththeWisconsinhomeconsistedof86buildingsand167employeestomeettheneedsof423veteransandwidows.SeeRoodandEarle,Wisconsinveterans'Home,pp.33-34,142.

5.ForVirginia'shome,seeWilliams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys'";forNorthCarolina's,Poole,"FinalEncampment";andforOklahoma's,Lashley,"Oklahoma'sConfederateVeteransHome."

6.Wilson,BaptizedinBlood,p.11.

7.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.6-7.

8.Louisiana's(andtheSouth's)firststate-supportedConfederatesoldiers'homewascharteredinMarch1866.AtthattimeaDemocraticlegislaturecomposedlargelyofformerConfederatesoldiers,merchants,andplanterswas"easilypersuaded"toappropriate$20,000towardproviding"shelter,foodandclothing"forallindigent,wounded,andmaimedsoldierswhohadservedinLouisianacommands.Nowhereintheenablingactdidtheterm"ex-Confederate"appear,thoughthemeasurewasobviouslyintendedtobenefitthestate'sCivilWarveterans,whowerenototherwiseeligibleforfederalpensions.AfterGovernorJ.MadisonWellssignedintolawActNo.103,whichcharteredthehome,heappointedeightmembersofthelegislature(fiveofwhomwereex-Confederateofficers)toserveasaboardofdirectors;theboardmadeitclearfromtheoutset

thattheplannedinstitutionwasnotacharity,buta"happyhome"preparedbyaproudandgratefulpeople.WithinafewmonthstheboardleasedforpurposesofthehomethewidowDoussan'sLakeShoreHotel,describedasa"largeandcommodious"building,"healthilyandpleasantlysituated,"overlookingLakePontchartrain,atMandevilleinSt.TammanyParish.Thena21/2hourboatridefromNewOrleans,thetemporaryhomewasfittedupwith"everycomfort,"including"bathinghousesandplacesofrecreation."Soonworkor"industrialdepartments'suitedtotheneedsandabilitiesoftheinmateswerealsoadded.Oftheninety-sixinmateswhoeventuallyresidedatthehome,almostallwerenativeLouisianians,andoverhalfsufferedfromchronicdisabilities.Thehomemanagedtoreceiveanadditional$10,000in1867,beforeaRepublican-dominatedgovernmentrescindedActNo.103inthefollowingyear.Withnooperatingcapital,theinstitutionhadtobeabandoned.Somefifteenyearsof"pillageandhumiliationofreconstructionandcarpetbagrule"followedbeforeLouisianiansattemptedtoestablishanotherConfederatehome.NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Mar.10,11,14,Apr.6,May4,10,26,1866;Charlaron,"'CampNicholls,'"pp.69-70.Thephrase"easilypersuaded"isfromCoulter,TheSouthduringReconstruction,pp.352-53.Taylor,LouisianaReconstructed,pp.73,82,103,174,discussestheWellsadministrationandthecompositionofthe1866and1868legislatures.White,ConfederateVeteran,p.110,rehashesCharlaron'saccount.Fortheenablinglegislation,seeLoui-

sianaActs(1866),pp.194,196,198.Foradescriptionofthehomeanditsinmates,seeGoodspeed'sLouisiana,1:266-68.

9.AlthoughnocompletepublishedhistoriesofeithertheAANVorAATexist,thepapersoftheseassociationsformthenucleusoftheLHAC.Foranintroduction,seeHattaway,"UnitedConfederateVeteransinLouisiana,"pp.5-7.HistoriesoftheWhiteLeague,ontheotherhand,areplentiful.Forasampling,seeLandry,LibertyPlace;Kendall,HistoryofNewOrleans,1:359-75;Taylor,LouisianaReconstructed,pp.352-53;andRichardson,"Recollections."Richardson,whobelongedtotheWashingtonArtilleryandtheAAT,mentionsotherConfederateveteranswhoparticipatedintherevolt.Landry,LibertyPlace,pp.234-40,providesahandyreferenceforcrosscheckingthenamesofotherex-ConfederatesagainstRolloftheAssociationoftheArmyofTennessee,LouisianaDivision.In"SouthernFraternalOrganizations,"p.603,Sutherlandpointsoutthatpracticallyallfraternalsocietiesoftheperiodrenouncedpoliticalpartisanship.Incontrast,Dearing,VeteransinPolitics,arguesthatUnionveteransformedostensiblycharitable,butessentiallypolitical,organizations.McConnell,GloriousContentment,adoptsbothinterpretations.AlthoughthereisnoevidencesupportingthecontentionthateithertheAATortheAANVvolunteeredasaunitforserviceintheWhiteLeague,itisprobablethatbothfunctionedaspoliticalpressuregroups.

10.Forreferencestotheburialritualsoftheseandotherassociations,seeWilson,BaptizedinBlood,pp.28-29;White,ConfederateVeteran,pp.12,20-22,98-99,103-4;andFoster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.61.ThequotedphrasescomefromtheRolloftheAssociationoftheArmyofTennessee,LouisianaDivision,pp.1-2.

11.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.242,determinedthesocioeconomiccompositionoftheAAT.Ihaveusedhismethodology

toanalyzetheAANV.Alistof215AANVmembersisavailableinRoster,LouisianaDivision,ArmyofNorthernVirginia.Asearchforeachveteran'soccupationinSoard'sNewOrleansCityDirectoryrevealedthatmorethantwo-thirds(71.4percent)oftheAANVmembersfallinFoster'stopcategory(proprietaryorprofessional).Amongthisgroup,25memberspracticedlaw,34ownedmercantileestablishments,15heldcitygovernmentpositions,17wereclergymen,and22practicedmedicine,while21couldnotbefound;fullyone-halfhadbeenConfederateofficers.ThisfiguresupportsWhite,ConfederateVeteran,p.23,whichassertsthatformerofficersespecially"GeneralsandColonels"controlledConfederateveterans'organizations.Whenfinallycharteredin1879,theAATchoseasitsfirstpresidentP.G.T.Beauregard,aformercommander.RolloftheAssociationoftheArmyofTennessee,LouisianaDivision,pp.1-2.

12.Foradiscussionofanumberofyellowfeverepidemics,includingtheterrible1878outbreakthatravagedNewOrleans,seeDuffy,MedicineinLouisiana,andTaylor,LouisianaReconstructed,pp.443-44.ForConfederateveteransaffectedbythe1878epidemic,consultthenumerousletterscontainedinAATPapers,ReliefCommitteeReports,LHAC.Forexample,seePhilipDuffytoAAT,Aug.11,1878;JohnCurrantoReliefCommittee,Sept.18,1878;andAugustusReichardtoP.G.T.Beauregard,Sept.20,1878.Theword"worthy"appearsinWilliamKinneytoAANV,Apr.17,1895,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC,andisusedinreferenceto

relievingthe"distress"ofnonmembers.ConfederateVeterans'EmploymentBureau,ListofApplicantsforEmployment,apalm-sizedpamphletprintedbyGilmore'sSugarPlanterspublishingfirm,containsthenamesofmorethan200individuals.Forrelatedcorrespondence,seeJ.Y.GilmoretoAANV,Oct.12,1895,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC;Gilmoreetal.toThePeopleofLouisiana,Nov.16,1895,and11.DudleyColemantoAAT,May11,1897,bothinAATPapers,VeteransBenefits,IHAC.White,ConfederateVeteran,p.100,tellsofaNashvilleConfederateorganizationthatsponsoredanidenticalenterpriseinitiatedinthatcityaboutthesametime.

13.UnderActNo.69,Louisianaallocated$20,000topurchaseprosthesesfor"citizens"whohad"lostlimbsinConfederateservice."By1888thelawhadbeenamendedtoawardone-time,proratacashpaymentstoveteranswhohadalsolosttheirsight,hearing,voice,ormobility,providedthateithertheAATorAANVverifiedthedisability.LouisianaActs(1880),pp.65-66;(1882),p.94;(1884),p.56;(1886),pp.212-13;(1888),pp.23-24,53-54;NewOrleansTimes-Picayune,Jan.28,188).GeorgiaandNorthCarolinalegislatorsenactedsimilarlaws.SeeGeorgiaActs(1878-79),pp.41-42;(1880-81),p.50;(1882-83),p.44;(1884-85),p.32;andWhite,ConfederateVeteran,pp.107-8.By1886,underActNo.69,226veteransandwidowshadbeengrantedatotalof123,105acresofpublic"swamp"land.LouisianaActs(1884),pp.123-24;(1886),pp.213-15;(1896),pp.90-91.

14.TheLeeCampcharterisfoundinVirginiaActs(1884),pp.521-22.TheearliestrecordofthegroupadministeringreliefisonAug.1,1883,lessthanfourmonthsafteritsfounding.SeeR.E.LeeCampRecords,Minutes,p.39,VHS.Forfurtherreferencestotheorganization'sestablishment,seeWhite,ConfederateVeteran,pp.22,111;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers20(1892):316,322;Foster,

GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.93-94;andWilliams,"Home...fortheOldBoys,'"p.40.AfirsthandaccountoftheoriginsofR.E.LeeCampNo.1ispreservedinitsMinutes,pp.3-7,VHS,aswellasinscatteredissuesoftheRichmondTimes-Dispatch,Apr.6-19,1883.

15.ForPollard'sremarks,see"TributetotheLateGen.W.B.Taliaferro,"ConVet8(1900):232-33.PollardbrieflyservedascommandantofLCSII(R.E.LeeCampRecords,Minutes,p.12,VHS).Foster.GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.93,242,analyzesthesocioeconomiccompositionoftheLeeCamp.IverifiedtheoccupationsofmembersandofficersinChataigne'sDirectoryofRichmond.Cooke,Lee,Wise,Ginter,andPaceservedonthefirstexecutiveboardforthehome.SeeLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,VSL.InGloriousContentment,McConnelldemonstratesthatthe"typical"GARcampderiveditsmembershiplargelyfromwhite-collar,semiprofessionialurbandwellers,muchastheLeeCampdid.

16.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.242,alsoanalyzesthesocioeconomiccompositionofthisveterans'society.Amongthegroup'sfourteenchartermembers,eightweremerchants,twowerelawyers,andtwowerephysicians.NashvilleDirectory(1888);Wooldridge,HistoryofNashville,p.564;Crew,HistoryofNashville,p.566;MinutesoftheSecondConventionofConfederateSoldiers,pp.4-5.Forthesociety'sstricteligibilityrequirementsformembership,seeConVet2(1894):38.

17.ForMcMurray'sbackground,consultSpeer,ProminentTennesseans,pp.372-74.SeealsoMcMurray'sHistoryoftheTwentiethTennesseeRegiment.Guild'shistoryis

FourthTennesseeCavalryRegiment.ConcerningBaskette.seeWaller.Nashvilleinthe1890s,p.259,andNashvilleBanner,Sept.7,1889,forBaskette'scensureofAnderson'swork.

18.ForAnderson'sremarks,seehisAddress.

19.Baskette,aConfederatesergeantmajor,wasaveteranofthecampaignsofShiloh,Vicksburg,Murfreesboro,Chickamauga,Dalton,anddAtlanta.ForRector'scomments,seeArkansasGazette,May9,1889.ForanotherpanegyrictoJohnnyReb,basedonfirsthandexperience,see:"TheConfederateSoldier,"ConVet11(1903):522.

20.WheelertoJeffersonM.Falkner,Dec.29,1902,quotedinMontgomeryAdvertiser,Jan.4,1903.

21.BytheJohnnyReb"myth"ismeantthecomplexmixoffactanddistortionthatcomprisedaparticularattitudetowardtheConfederatecommonsoldier.Tomany,JohnnyRebsymbolizedvalor,obediencetoduty,andself-sacrificetruesouthernvalues.Foradiscussionofthemyth'sorigins,itssalientaxioms,anditsmanyexpressions,seeStephenG.Davis,"JohnnyRebinPerspective."SeealsoFoster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.122-26;White,ConfederateVeteran,p.37;Wilson,BaptizedinBlood,pp.57-54,127,189;andVandiver,"TheConfederateMyth."

Chapter2

1.Rosenburg,FortheSakeofMyCountry,p.84.ForasummaryofDawson'smilitarycareer,seehisConfederateCompiledServiceRecord,RecordGroup109,NationalArchives,aswellashisapplicationforaTennesseeConfederatePension,TSLA.

2.ThisassertionisbaseduponLivermore,NumbersandLosses,whichestimatedthenumberofthree-yearConfederateenlisteeswho

survivedthewartohavebeen928,822,andBureauoftheCensus,"SoldiersandWidows,"p.595,whichin1890reported428,747Confederateveterans,46.2percentofLivermore's1865total.ComparethispercentagewithHesseltine,ConfederateLeaders,p.20,perhapstheearliestcomprehensiveattempttotreatthepostwarcareersofConfederateveterans.AmongHesseltine's585"leaders,"only281(48percent)surviveduntil1890.In"SouthernWomanhood,"pp.97-98,Ruoffestimatesthat31percentofallConfederateveteransalivein1890haddiedby1900.By1928,thetotalnumberofsurvivorshaddwindledtofewerthan26,000.ConVet36(1928):408-9.

3.In1870Dawson,aboarderandafarmlaborer,possessednomaterialassets.Adecadelaterheresidedwithadifferentfamilyandlisted"painter"ashisoccupation.HisNovember1895TSHAA,TSLA,filledoutandsubmittedbyaformercoinmander,boreDawson'smark.Census(1870),Tenn.,Smith,Dist.No.14,p.17;(1880),Dist.No.1,p.9.

4.Foradiscussionofthestatisticalmethodologyemployedincompilingtheseandotheranalysesthatappearthroughoutthework,seetheAppendix.

5.Fortherelationshipbetweenself-relianceand"manliness,"aswellastheabhorrenceofpersonaldependence,seeSoltow,MenandWealth,pp.69-70;Klebaner,"PovertyandItsRelief";andWyllie,SelfMadeMan.Forveteransreluctanttoaccept

socialwelfare,seeJohnO.DeantoW.LowndesCalhoun,Jan.14,1901,GSH,BoardofTrustees,LettersReceived,GDAH;W.B.TaliaferrotoFitzhughLee,Aug.19,1887,andJ.B.ClarktoLee,May23,1885,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.SeealsoMontgomeryAdvertiser,Apr.27,1902.

6.Livermore,NumbersandLosses,p.63,providedthe1:5estimateforallConfederatesoldiers.Foranexplanationoftheterminologyandtheanalyticalmethodologyusedinthetabulationofveterans'disabilitiesbytypeandstate,seetheAppendix.

7.ForGlynn'scomments,seehislettertoFredA.Ober,June16,1886,AANVPapers,Membership,LHAC.ForotherdisabledexConfederatesrequiringassistanceinNewOrleans,seeP..McGrathtoJosephA.Charlaron,Sept.12,1882,FrankHerrontoWilliamLambert,Jan.15,1883,ThomasDevinetoWalterH.Rogers,Jan.25,1886,J.G.BlanchardtoR.H.Brunet,May9,1887,andJohnM.RobertstoNicholasCurry,Nov.13,1888,allinAATPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.

8.Roebuck,My:OwnPersonalExperience,pp.5-7;MontgomeryAdvertiser,June22,July1,1902;NathanJ.LewistoManagersofConfederateSoldiersHome,Feb.3,1885,SamuelV.CorbetttoWilliamH.Terry,Apr.26,1886.andS.J.SpindletoSecretary,R.E.LeeCamp,Aug.30,1885,allinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.SeealsoMcNairy'sTSHAA,TSLA,aswellastheTSHAAsofJesseC.McDanielandH.B.Menees,whoalsosufferedfromphysicalailmentsdatingbacktothewar.Forotherveteranswhomovedwestwardafterthewar,onlytoencounterhardshipanddisappointmentsometimelater,seeJ.MedlocktoJamesHogg,Mar.7,1893,HoggPapers,GovernorsRecords,TxSA;A.L.SlacktoJamesWPegram,June1,1891,andN.E.EdmundotoCharlesU.Williams,June17,1883,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,

Correspondence,VSL;theAAsofCharlesT:CliffordandHenryC.Nelson,TSH,TSLA;andHiramSampletoFredA.Ober,Nov.12,1911,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.

9.SeetheTSHAAsofHale,Toon,Fry,andKarr,TSLA.SeealsoCensus(1860),Tenn.,Hawkins,Rogersville,19;Maury,Mt.Pleasant,31;McMinn,Sweetwater,1;Williamson,Franklin,30:(1870),Davidson,10thWard,Nashville,509;Monroe,1stDist.,Sweetwater,13;Williamson,Franklin,128.

10.ForNewOrleansveteransrenderedillandimpoverishedbytheyellowfeverepidemic,seethenearlyonehundreddocumentscontainedinAATPapers,ReliefCommitteeReports,LHAC,fortheyears1878through1883,aswellasthosecontainedintheAANVPapers,ReliefCommitteeReports,LHAC,forthesameperiod.ForSaucier,seetheletterfromJohnCurran,Sept.18,1878,AANVPapers,ReliefCommitteeReports,LHAC.Boden'sTSHAA,mentionsthelossofhiswifeandchildren,TSLA.ForCaylat'splight,seehisletterstoJ.R.Richardson,Oct.7,1881,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC,andtoLouisA.Adam,Aug.10,1886,AANVPapers,Membership,LHAC.

11.RegardingHolt,seeJ.A.JohnsontoWilliamH.Terry,Aug.17,1892,andJ.S.BeasleytoTerry,Aug.17,1892,bothinHolt'sLCSHAA,VSL.ForReese,seehisletterstoWilliamH.Harrison,Nov.20,1911,toHoratioW.Bell,Jan.4,1912,andtotheGeorgiaBoardofTrustees,Nov.29,1911,allinGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,GDAH.

12.MontgomeryAdvertiser,June22,July18,1902.Boothwasnotalone:in1902an

estimatedonehundredConfederateveteransresidedinAlabama'spoorhouses.MontgomeryAdvertiser,June5,1902.

13.JohnM.DeSaussuretoThomasB.O'Brien,June28,1893,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC;WilliamE.ToddtoAAT,Aug.11,1889,EA.BierstoNicholasCurry,Aug.28,1889,ToddtoPhillipPower,Aug.29,1908,allinAATPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.ForBelcher,seehisTSHAA,TSLA.

14.SeeVaughn'sTSHAA,TSLA.RegardingClements,seehislettertoJamesMcGraw,June17,1895,R.E.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS.ForMoore,seehislettersofAug.26,1880,June6,1881,andOct.7,1887,allinAANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.ForMoore'smilitaryservicerecordintheFifthLouisianaInfantry,seeBooth,LouisianaConfederateSoldiers,2:1028.Forotherveteranswholosttheirjobsforonereasonoranother,seeH.V.OttmanntoAAT,Apr.10,1883,N.T.U.RobinsontoJamesLingan,May23,1878,andA.S.HerberttoT.R.Juden,Aug.11,1900,allinAATPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.SeealsoDanielC.Hill'sLCSHAA,VSL.

15.TheunbrokenchainanalogyhasbeenderivedfromAurielArnardtoWalterH.Rogers,Nov.14,1887,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.TheassertionthathalfofallConfederateshadbeenfarmersisbaseduponWiley,LifeofJohnnyReb,p.330.Evidencethatthesesamemenhadmorethanlikelyheldlittleornopropertyontheeveofthewarhasbeenprovidedinnumerousworks.See,amongothers,Escott,ManyExcellentPeople;CampbellandLowe,WealthandPower,Hahn,RootsofSouthernPopulism;Ash,MiddleTennessee;andShifflett,PatronageandPoverty.

16.Soltow,MenandWealth,p.65.Ofcourse,totalestatefiguresvaried.Forexample,inEastTennesseetheaveragepercapitawealthin1860was$2,812,whileinWestTennesseemeanantebellumwealth

was$17,090.Ash,MiddleTennessee,p.11.

17.ThisunequaldistributionofwealthissimilartotheoneAshdiscoveredforfamiliesresidinginantebellumMiddleTennessee,wherenearlytwo-thirdsofthepresentsamplelived.Ash,MiddleTennessee,pp.42-44,foundthat49percentofthepeopleinthatregionowned90percentofthewealthin1860.

18.Bailey,Tennessee'sConfederateGeneration,p.160.

19.OfBailey's188menfrom"elite"families,66.5percentheldtherankofprivate,while19.1percentwereofficers.

20.MontgomeryAdvertiser,Feb.9,1904.

21.Foranintroductiontothevastliteraturechroniclingthepostwarstrugglesofsouthernfarmers,seeWright,CottonSouth;MagdolandWakelyn,SouthernCommonPeople,pt.2;andReid,"WhiteLand,BlackLabor."

22.Fortheimpactoflowsocioeconomicstatusonphysicalcapacityandbodyweight,especiallyamongtheaged,seeGoodman,"ProblemsofMalnutrition";Dovenmuele,Busse,andNewman,"PhysicalProblemsofOlderPeople";208-17;RichardJ.Anderson,"MedicalDiagnoses";Rao,"ProblemsofNutrition";andRiley,Aging.

23.Fortheseveterans,seetheirTSHAAs,TSLA.ForadditionalinformationonYoung,seehisautobiographicalsketchprovidedinElliottandMoxley,TennesseeCivilWarQuestionnaires,5:2260-61.ForDenton'sandNance'sprewareconomicstatus,see

Census(1860),Tenn.,Maury,SpringHill,151;Bedford,Shelbyville,37.SeealsoWade'sobituary,ConVet20(1912):241.

24.Oftheforty-onefarmersinthesample(Appendix,Table8),25(61percent)appliedforadmissionbetween1889andDecember1900.TSH,RegisterofInmates,TSLA,listsBonner,aformerprivateintheEighthTennesseeInfantry,asthefirstinmateadmitted.Bonner'ssocioeconomicstatusmaybetracedinCensus(1860),Tenn.,Bedford,Shelbyville,199;(1870),380;andhisTSHAA,datedDec.19,1889,TSLA.BonnerobtainedadischargefromthehomeinAugust1894.Abachelorandaphysician,Maneyservedbrieflyasahospitalstewardduringthewar.SeehisTSHAA,TSLA,andCensus(1860),Tenn.,Williamson,Franklin,32.

25.RoehadbeenwoundedintheleftkneeatShiloh,inthewristatSelma,intherighthipatBrice'sCrossroads,andinthegroinonretreatfromCorinth.Whenapplyingforadmission,heestimatedhistotalestateamountedto$25.00,whichwaspreciselythesameamounthehadreportedontheeveofthewar.Census(1860).Tenn.,Tipton,Covington,10.

26.Fully40percentofthemarriedandwidowedTennesseeveteransinthesamplehadnochildren.Thelargenumberofsingleveteransfarexceedednationalpopulationaverages.Forexample,between1890and1930thepercentageofallmales(agefifty-fiveandover)whohadnevermarriedrangedfromalowofonly5.6percentin1890toahighof10.1percentin1950.ThepercentageofwidowedTennesseeveteranswasnearlytwotimesthenationalaverageof23.3percentin1890and27.1percentin1910forallmensixty-fiveyearsandolder.ThompsonandWhelpton,PopulationTrends,p.204.Beingsingleorbeingawidower,bothofwhichcouldthreateneconomicindependence,appeartohaveactedastriggermechanismsforhomeadmission.SeeWard,"TheNever-MarriedinLaterLife,"andTurner,

"PersonalityTraits."ForthepossibilitythatveteransmayhavesufferedfromacutedelayedstressaftertheCivilWar,seeDean,"'WeWillAllBeLost.'"Forastatisticalanalysisofinmatetenureandmortalityratesinthevarioushomes,seetheAppendix

27.Seetheveterans'TSH-AAs,TSLA.SeealsoNevins'sTennesseeConfederatePensionApplication,TSLA,andVinson'ssketchinElliotandMloxley,TennesseeCivilWarQuestionnaires,5:2110-12.Beforethewareachofthefamiliesinquestionownedmorethan$10,000worthofassets,includingslaves.Census(1860),Tenn.,Rutherford,Smyrna,53;Haywood,Brownsville,47;Sumner,Gallatin,22;(1870),Rutherford,Murfreesboro,264;Haywood,Brownsville,387;Sumner,Gallatin,749.SeealsoJohnH.CocketoJohnP.Hickman,May7,1895,accompanyingWhitmore'sTSHAA,andR.P.McClaintoHickman,June16,1909,attachedtoScobey'sTSHAA,bothinTSIA.SeealsoCensus(1860),Tenn.,Wilson,GreenHill,46;Fayette,Somerville,70;(1870),Wilson,GreenHill,554;Fayette,Somerville,293.

28.Fromanundatednewspaperclipping,Beauvoir.

Chapter3

1.Forcontemporarydescriptionsofthemeeting,seetheNewYorkSun,NewYorkTribune,andNewYorkTimes,Apr.10,1884.

2.ForbackgroundinformationonGordon,seeEckert,JohnBrownGordon.RegardingGordon'saffiliationwiththeVirginiahome,seeGordontoCharles1.Williams,Apr.7,1884,andWilliamH.ClarketoWilliams,Dec.20,1884,LCSH-,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.

3.ConcerningBlue-Grayreunions,seeBuck,RoadtoReunion,pp.155-39,246,256-60,andFoster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.67-68.FortheparticularreunionthatmayhavecontributedtothefoundingoftheVirginiahome,seeBenson,"Yank"and"Reb."Seealso"TheConfederateSoldiersHomeofRichmond,Va.,"ConVet34(1926):411-12.

4.RegardingTanner,seeDearing,VeteransinPolitics,pp.327,562,579,392-96,432,andSmith,AFamousBattery,pp.179-216.ForportionsofTanner'sspeech,seetheNewYorkSunandNewYorkTribune,Apr.10,1884.SeealsoWilliams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,'"p.41;CorporalJamesTannertoCapt.ArthurA.Spitzer,Aug.3,1884,LCSHI,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSI.;andR.E1.LeeCampRecords,Minutes,p.133,VHS.

5.NewYorkSunandNewYorkTribune,Apr.10,1884.Onthespeaker'splatformalsosatGeneralsFloydKingofLouisianaandGeorgeSheridan,whospokethatnight.Forasketchofthereunionmedal,seeJamesTannertoW.C.Carrington,Apr.28,1884,R.E.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS.

6.TheNewYorkSoldiers'HomehadsponsoredabenefitintheAcademyofMusicsevenyearsearlier.Cetina,"HistoryofVeterans'Homes,"p.218.FortheVirginiahomefund-raisinggalas,seeJamesTannertoW.C.Carrington,Apr.28,1884,R.F.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS;WilliamH.ClarketoCharlesU.Williams,Dec.20,1884,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSI;andSmith.AFamousBattery,p.194.

7.Forasamplingofcontributionsreceived,seeThomasPearson[Newark,N.J.,toR.E,.LeeCamp,Oct.23,1883,M.A.Dillon[Washington,D.C.]toSir,Dec.29,1883,CharlesRobinson[Davenport,Iowa]toPostofConfederateSoldiers,July22,1883,H.C.Kessler[Butte,Mont.]toW.C.Carrington,Mar.30,1884,CharlesSpenser[Richmond]toArthurA.Spitzer,May15,1885,J.Kling[SingSing,N.Y.]toR.E.LeeCamp,May11,1887,Washington[D.C.]AidAssociationtoCaptainCharlesU.Williams,Dec.13,1884.andC.A.DeFrance[St.Louis]toWilliams,Dec.12,1884,allinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;andC.A.Spencer[GrandJunction,Colo.]toR.E.LeeCamp,Feb.24,1885,R.E.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS.SeealsoWilliams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,"p.41;Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.61,94;andConVet34(1926):411-12.FornearlythreeconsecutiveweeksinMay1884,ahundredex-Confederatewives,widows,anddaughtersheldabazaarintheRichmondarmory.Theladieseagerlycollectedmorethan$30,000inreceiptsforthehome.Forreferencestotheworkofthe"Fair"committeethatorganizedthisbazaar,seeR.E.LeeCampRecords,Minutes,pp.92,96,124,131,VHS.SeealsoSouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers12(1884):238-39,and20(1892):316;andConstitution,Apr.9,1889.Notallgiftswereaccepted,however.Forexample,seetheentryinR.E.LeeCampRecords,Minutes,VHS,forMay7,1885,inwhich"ProfessorKing,"aballoonist,proposedtomakean"ascension"forthebenefitofthehome.Thenextwordsread,''Motiontabled."

8.FitzhughLeetoArthurA.Spitzer,Aug.13,1884,andCharlesU.WilliamstoA.S.Venable,Feb.22,1885,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers20(1900):316;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:62,VSL.

9.Atonepointinhiskeynoteaddress,GeneralGordonhadreferredtothehomeasan"enduringmonumen[t]torealpeaceandrealunion."NewYorkSun,May3,1884.ArcherAnderson,Address,pp.3-12.FiveyearslaterAnderson,amemberoftheLeeMemorialAssociation,deliveredthecommemorativeaddressattheunveilingofRobertE.Lee'sstatueonRichmond'sMonumentAvenue,beforeanestimated150,000people.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.101.TheLeeCampHomeoperatedonvoluntarycontributionsfortwoyears,untilthestateassumedcontrol.

10.GeorgetownWeeklyTimes,July13,Nov.30,1881;Nov.14,1883;ConfederateSoldiers'Home,SubscriberstotheConfederateSoldiers'HorneandWidows'andOrphans'Asylum,"KentuckyStateArchives,Frankfort;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers11(1883):432.

11.ConVet10(1902):254,385,558-61;16(1908):466;18(1910):261.

12."ConfederateMonuments,"ConVet1(1893):7;Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),pp.71-72,LHAC.AATPapers,Minutes,2:65-68,136-37,LHAC.TheideaforahomemayhaveoriginatedwithUnionveteranswhohadrecentlyvisitedNewOrleansduringaBlue-GrayMemorialDaycelebration.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.67-68,describesthereunionand,pp.109-10,providesasketchofCharlaron,whoisalsofeaturedinHattaway,"Clio'sSouthernSoldiers,"pp.216-17.

13.Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,Board

ofDirectorsReport(1902),pp.71-72,LHAC;AATPapers,Minutes,2:71,LHAC.ForLeake'sarguments,seeCNSH,ClippingsandPamphlets,LHAC.OneofLeake'scolleagues,thebill'sco-sponsor,SenatorRobertS.PerryofNewIberia,calledLeake"devotedandgallant."SeePerry'slettertoCharlaron,July22,1882,AATPapers,Correspondence,LHAC.LeakeprobablywouldhavefavoredalawbasedupontheGeorgiaactthatempoweredeachcountytoprovide$100peryearforeveryresidentwhohadlostalimbinthe"defenseoftheSouth"andwhopossessedlessthan$1,000oftaxableproperty.Tenyearslaterstatelawmakersdroppedthelatterrequirement.GeorgiaLaws(1875),pp.107-8;(1885),p.112.

14.TherealreadyexistsanenormousliteraturethatdiscusseschangingAmericanattitudestowardsocialwelfare.Katz,IntheShadowofthePoorhouse,isparticularlyinformative.Forsouthernattitudes,Wisner,SocialWelfareintheSouth,andBellows,"TemperingtheWind,"areuseful.Inthe1860sand1870s,somenorthernreformersobjectedtotheestablishmentofanationalasylumandstate-supportedveterans'homesintheirregionfor,ostensibly,thesamereasonsasLeakeandothersouthernconservatives.SeeCetina,"HistoryofVeteransHomes."SeealsoMcConnell,GloriousContentment,pp.153-65forindicationsthatsomeUnionveteranssharedLeake'soppositiontosoldiers'homesandpensionsonthegroundsthattheywouldthreatenaveteran'sautonomyandmanliness.Proponentsdealtsuccessfullywiththeseworriesbyarguingthatrelieffulfilledthetermsofthenation's"sacredcontract"withherveterans.

15.Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,BoardofDirectors

Report(1902),pp.70,75,LHAC.Fornegativeattitudestowardpensions,seeWilson,BaptizedinBlood,pp.82-83;ConVet6(1898):473-74;7(1899):25;16(1908):81;andConstitution,Apr.10,1889.ThephrasesattributedtoGilmoreandColemancanbefoundonthefirstpageofConfederateVeterans'EmploymentBureau,ListofApplicantsforEmployment.ForacopyoftheAAT'sJuly1882resolutioncensuringLeake,seeThomasPapers,WilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,N.C.ForLeake'sresponsetotheNewOrleansveterans'societies-inwhichhedidnotholdmembership-seehislettertoCharlaron,July13,1882,CharlaronPapers,LHAC.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.24-35,arguesthatex-Confederatesremainedhighlyconcernedabouthonorandmasculinity,vitalcomponentsofatraditionalvaluesystemdiscussedinWyatt-Brown,SouthernHonor.

16.SenatorPerryofNewIberiacalled"maimedandinfirm"veterans"livingmonuments."SeehislettertoCharlaroncitedinnote13above.ForAugustin'sremarks,seehisreporttotheAAT,Sept.11,1883,AATPapers,Minutes,2:123,138-39,LHAC.GovernorFoster'smessageappearsinLouisianaHouseJournal(1900),p.11.ThefinalquotedphrasesarethoseofFredA.Ober,AANVvice-president,inhislettertoPeterJ.Trezevant,LouisianaHouseclerk,May29,1886,AANVPapers,Correspondence,LHAC.

17.LouisianaActs(1882),p.73.TheHouseapprovedthemeasure(62-3)andtheSenatevotedinfavor(27-5).LouisianaHouseJournal(1882),p.409;LouisianaSenateJournal(1882),p.293.TheoverwhelmingsupportofthebillcameatatimewhenBourbonDemocratsactivelypromotedaprogramoffiscalretrenchment.SeeHair,BourbonismandAgrarianProtest.Levy'sstatementisfoundinhislettertoAANV,Oct.14,1911,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.Intheend,Louisiana'sconstitutionhadtobeformallyamendedinordertoaccommodatethesoldiers'home.Louisiana

Constitution(1898),Art.XVIII,Sec.1.

18.ConfederateGrayBook;AustinDailyStatesman,Dec.10,1884;AustinConfederateDrummer,Sept.1886;SouthernBivouac3(1885):220.SeealsotheaccountsbychartermembersFredCarletoninHoustonChronicle,Feb.20,1944,andHenryE.ShelleyinalettertoCol.HenryC.Lindsey,Nov.23,1898,LindseyPapers,BarkerTexasHistoryCenter,UniversityofTexas,Austin.

19.Forthecamp'sfund-raisingefforts,seethebroadsidedescribingthe"GrandGiftConcertandDrawing"(AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.)thattookplaceinAustin,featuringlocallyprominentmusiciansandsingersandaraffleofmorethan2,000donatedprizes.Previouslypostponedbecauseoflowticketsalesblamedon"droughtandotherdisasters,"thelong-awaitedgalaofDecember1886generatedabout$11,000.AustinConfederateDrummer,Sept.1886;AustinDailyStatesman,Dec.27,1886;FrankBrown,"AnnalsofTravisCounty,"30:103,TxSA;andLasswell,RagsandHope,pp.7-8.Forthehome'spurchase,opening,andformaldedication,seeHenryE.Shelley,"TheConfederateHomeforTexas,"ConVet6(1896):156-57;AustinRecord,Mar.12,1887;AustinDailyStatesman,Nov.1,1888;andJohnB.ArmstrongandwifetoHoodCamp,Feb.19,1886,TexasStatutoryDocuments,Deeds,AbstractsandCessionsofJurisdiction,StateEleemosynaryInstitutions,TxSA.

20.TexasConstitution(1876),ArtIII,Sec.51.

21.ForConfederateveteransdominatingTexaspolitics,seeWhite,ConfederateVeteran,pp.83-86.ForHarrison'senablingbill,seeRaines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.54.TexasHouseJournal(1881),pp.151-52,containsthefinalvotefortheartificiallimbsbillandCarleton'sstatedobjection.Concerningthelandcertificatebill,seeGammel,Laws,9:122,andMiller,"TexasLandGrants."

22.Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,pp.54-55;Garnmel,Laws,9:138.ForRoss,wholaterservedaspresidentofTexasA&MUniversity,seeBenner,SulRoss,pp.185-86.BennerarguesthatRoss,symboloftheLostCause,pushedforeconomicmodernizationofTexasandsectionalcooperation.

23.TheportionofRoss'sbiennialmessagetothelegislaturethatconcernedthehomeisfoundinTexasHouseJournal(1891),pp.49-50.ForTexasex-Confederateinvolvementintheelectionof1890,seeRaines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.56;"TheConfederateHomeinAustinbeforetheTurnoftheCentury,"TexasConfederateMuseum,Austin;andFrankBrown,"AnnalsofTravisCounty,"30:103-10,TxSA.ForHogg'sstatements,seeRaines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.56,andTexasHouseJournal(1891),pp.110-1.

24.Thecircuitouspaththebilltook,afterTerrellreaditforthefirsttimeonJanuary23,maybefollowedinTexasHouseJournal(1891),pp.134-36,319,334,336-39;TexasSenateJournal(1891),pp.211,217,232,238-39;HouseJournal(1891),pp.398,416;SenateJournal(1891),pp.255-56,264;andHouseJournal,(1891),pp.419,438.SeeGammel,Laws,10:14-17,forthefinalproduct,itsapprovaldate,andthevotingmargins.SeealsoRaines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.56.

25.ArticleIII,Sec.51,oftheTexasConstitutionwasamendedanothereighttimesoverthecourseofthenextseventy-threeyears.Forexample,in1910themaximumappropriationfortheConfederatehomewasincreasedfrom$100,000to$150,000annually.Theother

sevenchangesrelatedtoConfederatepensions,whichwerefirstgrantedin1898underthesameconstitutionalprovisionthathadlegalizedthehome.TexasHouseJournal(1895),pp.324,358,423-24,562,584-85,602,606,616,623;Gammel,Laws,10:42-44.

26.Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),p.73,LHAC.

27.Ibid.;Goodspeed'sLouisiana,1:147-48;Casey,Encyclopedia,pp.141-42,262;SouthernBivouac2(1884):508-11.AbroadsidedatedAug.9,1883,addressedtothestate'spolicejuriescanbefoundinCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.ThelotteryacontrivanceNichollsconsideredanathema"totruesouthernvalues,"accordingtoWilson,BaptizedinBlood,p.89andtheshambattlearedescribedinJohnAugustin'slettertotheAAT,Aug.14,1883,AATPapers,ExecutiveCommitteeReports,LHAC;NewOrleansTimes-Democrat,Sept.16-17,1883;AATPapers,Minutes,2:118,123,128,LHAC;Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),pp.74-75,LHAC;andWhite,ConfederateVeteran,94.NewOrleanswasnotaloneamongsoutherncitiesinhavingaGARpost;Unionveteranstendedtoestablishpostswherevertheysettledafterthewar,sothatNewSouthcitiessuchasNashville,Richmond,Atlanta,andChattanooga,aswellasNewOrleans,werehometoGARorganizationsandactivities.

28.Casey,Encyclopedia,p.142;Goodspeed'sLouisiana,1:148:Col.J.A.Charlaron,"LouisianaSoldiers'Home,"CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),pp.74-75,LHAC;White,ConfederateVeteran,p.110;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers28(1900):229,231-36.

29.CivilWarPapers,WhartonJ.GreenScrapbook,p.369,NCDAH;"AConfederateMovement,"CharlotteHome-Democrat,May23,1884.ForinformationonCarr,seeWebb,JuleCarr.SeealsothearticleinConVet6(1898):234,whichaddressesCarr'sspecificinvolvementwiththeNorthCarolinahome.Section3ofthecharterfortheConfederateVeteransAssociationofNorthCarolinaasdocumentedinNorthCarolinaLaws,(1889),p.683permittedthegrouptofound"ahomeorhomesforindigent,infirmandinvalidConfederatesoldiersandsailors,ortheirwidowsandorphans."Carrwasamongtheincorporators.RegardingwhatwasprobablytheveryfirsteffortatformingastatewideassociationofConfederateveterans,inOctober1881.seethedescriptionoftheestablishmentoftheNorthCarolinaSocietyofExConfederateSoldiersandSailorsinGreen'sScrapbook,p.368,andthehandwrittenconstitutionofthesocietyinPolkPapers,NCDAH.

30.ForasketchoftheworkoftheLadiesMemorialAssociation,whichincludedseveralConfederateveteransasofficersandadvisers,seetheclippingfromRaleighDailyCall,May10,1889,theundatedarticle,"TheNarrativeofaHalfCenturyofFaithfulWork,"writtenbyFredA.OldsfortheRaleighNewsandObserver,andthesociety'sMinutes,allinWakeCountyLadiesMemorialAssociationPapers,NCDAH.ImitatingtheLeeCamp,thegroupsponsoredafour-dayConfederatemilitarybazaar,whichnettedabout$2,000forthehomeproject.SeeJones,"LadiesMemorialAssociation,"WakeCountyLadiesMemorialAssociationPapers,NCDAH;"HomeforOldConfedsinCarolinaaGreatSuccess,"Constitution,Jan.6,1901;and

Poole,"FinalEncampment,"p.12.AclippingpastedinsidethecoverofthescatteredandincompleteNCSH,BoardofIncorporators,Minutes,NCDAH,andtheRosterofInmatesoftheSoldiers'Home,Raleigh,treattherentalhome,whichhassincebeenmovedto415EastStreet.SeealsoOlds,"HistoryoftheSoldiers'HomeatRaleigh,''whichdiscussesthehistoricsignificanceofPettigrewHospital,thehomesite.Thenamesoftheeighty-eightmembersoftheConfederateVeteransAssociationofNorthCarolinawhoincorporatedtheSoldiers'HomeAssociationofNorthCarolina,aswellasthepurposeoftheorganization,areprovidedinNorthCarolinaLaws(1891),pp.793-96.ThelistincludedmanyofthesameindividualsassociatedwiththeNorthCarolinaConfederateHomeAssociationin1884.Forthelegislature'shandlingandapprovaloftheactfoundingtheSoldiers'HomeAssociation,seeNorthCarolinaSenateJournal(1891),pp.179,227,241,265,268,271,380,andNorthCarolinaHouseJournal(1891),pp.272,292,327,371.ForCarr'srecollection,seehishandwrittenlettertotheRaleighNewsandObserver,c.Sept.1902,CarrPapers,SouthernHistoricalCollection,WilsonLibrary,UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill.

31.NCSH,BoardofIncorporators,Minutes,NCDAH;Poole,"FinalEncampment."p.12;Connor,ManualofNorthCarolina,p.166;DanielG.FowletoSamuelA.Ashe,Mar.25,1891,FowlePapers,NCDAH;WilliamC.StronachtoAlfredM.Scales,July17,1891,ScalesPapers,NCDAH.BeasleyservedaspresidentoftheNorthCarolina

ConfederateHomeAssociationuntilhisresignationinApril1886,after"earnestefforts"atfund-raisingprovedunsuccessful.OtherdirectorselectedwereSenatorMattRansom,JudgeThomasFuller,andrailroadexecutiveAlexanderB.Andrews.

32.ForinformationonRothrock,seeEvans,ConfederateMilitaryHistory,8:690-91.

33.BenjaminECheathamBivouacMinutes,1:33,TSLA.Forapublishedreportofthemeeting,seeNashvilleBanner,Nov.3,1888.MarkCockrillandMrs.JohnPHickmanalsoproducedtheirownversionsofthemeeting.SeeCockrill'sstoryintheNashvilleBanner,May13,1892,andHickman'spaperpresentedtothehistoricalcommittee,UDC,asreprintedinNashvilleBanner,Mar.7,1908.TheNashvilleCityDirectory(1888)listedthemen'soccupationsandRothrock'smultipleposts.

34.ThefirstpublicannouncementofthebillappearedintheNashvilleBanner,Jan.30,1889.SeealsoNashvilleDailyAmerican,Feb.9,1889.Thequotedphraseshavebeenextractedfromthemeasure'sfinalversion,asfoundinTennesseeActs(1889),pp.342-44.

35.Thefirstpensionmeasure,signedbyGovernorWilliamB.Bate,provided$10.00permonthuntildeathtoanyTennesseeex-Confederatewhohadlosthisvision"whileengagedinbattle."TennesseeActs(1888),pp.323-24.Thesecondprogramincreasedthemonthlyallotmentto$25.00andextendedentitlementtolimblessveterans.TennesseeActs(1887),pp.105-6.ThecomputationsforthepoliticalaffiliationsintheGeneralAssemblymaybefoundinWhiteandAsh,MessagesoftheGovernorsofTennessee,8:283.SeeMcBride,BiographicalDirectory,foreachmember'sConfederatebackground.

36.MemphisDailyAppeal,asquotedintheNashvilleBanner,Jan.7,1889.Forothereditorialsconcerningtheproject,seethedebateandfinalvotecoverageintheNashvilleDailyAmerican,Mar.16,1889;NashvilleBanner,Mar.29,1889;ChattanoogaDailyTimes,Mar.16,1889;KnoxvilleJournal,Mar.30,1889;andMemphisDailyAppeal,Mar.25,1889.WhiteandAsh,MessagesoftheGovernorsofTennessee,7:221,344,reproducesTaylor'seulogy.

37.Thelegislativewranglingandmaneuveringoverthebill,fromfirstreadingtofinalvote,maybefollowedinTennesseeSenateJournal(1889),pp.196,215,413-15,513,andTennesseeHouseJournal(1889),pp.557,588,671,684-87,729,731,754,757.Seealsothenewspaperaccountscitedinnote36above.Foranearlier,abortedattemptbyagroupofTennesseelawmakerstoconverttheHermitageintoahomeforMexican-AmericanWarveterans,seeTennesseeSenateJournal(1885),p.439;NashvilleDailyAmerican,Mar.18,1885;andRutland,"CaptainWilliamB.Walton,"pp.177-78.

38.Dorris,PreservationoftheHermitage,p.22.

39.Thefirstquotedmaterialisfromaletter,signedby"Jackson,"inNashvilleBanner,Jan.7,1889.OriginalmembersoftheLadiesHermitageAssociationarelistedinConstitution,Apr.26,1889,andWooldridge,HistoryofNashville,pp.566-67.TheaccountofthecompromisemeetingbetweentheLadiesHermitageAssociationandCheathamBivouacrepresentativesisbasedonthearticlethatappearedinNashvilleBanner,Jan.12,1889.Forareviewofthecontroversy,seeNashvilleBanner,Mar.7,

1908Horn,TheHermitage,pp.44-45;NashvilleTennesseanMagazine,Jan.3,1954;andDorris,PreservationoftheHermitage,pp.44-46.

40.BenjaminF.CheathamBivouacMinutes,2:60-63,TSLA.TheHousevotedonthemeasurefourseparatetimes,theSenateonlyonce.By"consistentsupporter"ismeantsomeonewhocasthisvoteinfavoroftheCrewsbilleachtime.ForthefinalHousevote(57-33),seeTennesseeHouseJournal(1889),p.731.FortheSenatetally(21-8),seeTennesseeSenateJournal(1889),p.513.Backgroundinformationforthe119Tennesseelawmakerswhodeliberatedthebill'sfateisavailableinMcBride,BiographicalDirectory.

41.TennesseeActs(1889),p.344.ForMoody'sspeech,seeNashvilleDailyAmerican,Mar.16,1889.Fort'scommentsareavailableinKnoxvilleJournal,Mar.30,1889.TheargumentbyMorris,aformerNashvillemayor,isinNashvilleBanner,Mar.29,1889,andNashvilleDailyAmerican,Mar.30,1889.Pyott'sexplanationappearsinNashvilleBanner,Mar.15,1889,andChattanoogaDailyTimes,Mar.16,1889.ForDavidR.Nelson,theEastTennesseesenatorrepresentingBlount,Monroe,andRoanecounties,seeNashvilleBanner,Mar.15,1889.

42.TennesseeSenateJournal(1891),pp.173-74.

43.ForasketchofGarrett,aConfederatepartisanrangerwholatertaughthistoryatPeabodyCollegeandeditedtheAmericanHistoricalMagazine,seeEvans,ConfederateMilitaryHistory,8:492-95.

44.TheaccountoftheceremonyisbasedlargelyonastoryinNashvilleBanner,May13,1892.

45.Formoreinformationregardingthecareersofthesemen,seeDonovanandGatewood,GovernorsofArkansas,pp.86-90;Herndon,CentennialHistoryofArkansas,1:435,3:853-54;andHempstead,

HistoricalReviewofArkansas,1:312.Forcoverageoftheinitialandsubsequentmeetings,seeConVet31(1923):48;ArkansasGazette,May4,1889,Aug.7,1892;andGaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,p.2.

46.ArkansasGazette,May9,1889.

47.ArkansasHouseJournal(1891),p.252.Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,pp.2-3;ConVet31(1923):48;Lea,"PersonalRecollections,"p.28;Herndon,CentennialHistoryofArkansas,p.435.

48.Thomas,ArkansasandItsPeople,1:235;RobertsandMoneyhon,PortraitsofConflict,p.212;ArkansasGazette,July5,7,17,Aug.4,Sept.4,1889,July31,Aug.6,15,24,1890,Aug.5,Sept.27,1891,Aug.7,12,1892;Herndon,CentennialHistoryofArkansas,p.436.

49.WilliamBayatoAlbertJ.Russell,Aug.16,1892,FloridaSoldiers'HomePapers,JacksonvillePublicLibrary,Jacksonville,Fla.;Russell,LifeandLabors,pp.268-72,279,283;FloridaLaws(1893),pp.191-92;ConVet1(1893):63;T.FrederickDavis,HistoryofJacksonville,p.198;FloridaTimes-Union,Apr.7,1892.

50.MarylandLaws(1888),p.338;MarylandLineConfederateSoldiers'Home;BaltimoreAmerican,June28,1888.SeealsoConVet2(1894):9-10,17-19,41-43,83-84,364-66;34(1926):90-91.

51.ConVet1(1893):25,258,302;5(1897):179-80;36(1928):299-301.

52.W.L.PeterstoJamesW.White,May3,1888,R.E.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS;ConVet3(1895):57.

Chapter4

1.Constitution,Oct.1-2,1901;ConVet10(1902):490.

2.ForStewart'sdecisiontogonorth,aswellasthequotedwordregardingtheadventofGrady'seditorial,seeFrankBrown,"AnnalsofTravisCounty,"30:107,TxSA,andRaines,YearBookforTexas,1901,pp.54-55.ForGrady'sreverenceofthepast,seeGaston,NewSouthCreed,p.165;andFoster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.80.SeealsoNixon,Grady,p.305.

3.Constitution,Apr.6,1889;Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.55;NewYorkJournal,quotedinConstitution,Apr.10,1889.ForcommentsbytheTexaspress,seeConstitution,Apr.18,1889,andAustinDailyStatesman,June23,1889.Soon,Stewartheededtheircallandabandonedhiswork.

4.See"TheFirstResolutionEverPassed,"Constitution,Apr.13,1889,regardingtheclaimforRoach.InhisletterprintedinConstitution,Apr.18,1889,MassengaleendorsedGrady'seffort.Healsoviewedtheproposedhomeasa"monument"honoring''livingheroes,"whichevidentlytriggeredhisrecollectionofhisWarrentonspeech.SeealsoGeorgeT.Fry'sApril1888recommendationtotheFultonCountyConfederateVeteransAssociationthatagrandfairheheldinordertoraisemoneyforahome.Constitution,Apr.11,1889.Astheoldsayinggoes,successhasathousandparents.

5.'heonlyknownaccountofthisfascinatingmeetingisanundated,looseclippingwiththeheadline,"IndigentVeterans.AMovementStartedtoGiveThemaPermanentHome.S.M.InmanStartstheBall.AnEarnestMeetingoftheLadiesandMembersoftheVeterans'

AssociationEntertainmenttobeGiven."ConfederateVeteransFile,AtlantaHistoricalSociety,Atlanta,Ga.Theclippingmatchesthetype,columnwidth,andfourpointheadlinestyleusedbytheConstitution,butitsexactdatehasnotbeendetermined.TheAugust1887dateispredicatedinpartuponthefactthatreferencestotheupcomingPiedmontExposition,whichtookplaceinOctober1887,weremadeduringthemeeting.ThemeetingisalsoalludedtoinRodgers,ConfederateVeteransAssociationofFultonCounty,pp.121-22,128.ForCalhoun,consultNorthen,MenofMark,3:165-66.Nixon,Grady,pp.271-72,discussesthelinkbetweenHemphill,Grady,andInman.ForColquitt'sparticipationintheMarylandhome'sopeningceremonies,seeBaltimoreAmerican,June28,1888.

6.InfactGradyhimselfhadhelpedcraft,ifnotpopularize,the"sorrytale"ofJohnnyReb-thegaunt,limping,battle-scarred,andimpoverishedConfederatesoldier-thesameimagehecriticizedMajorStewartforexploiting.See,Nixon,Grady,pp.345-44,andOsterweis,MythoftheLostCause,pp.127-42,whichdiscussesGrady'scontributionsasanimagemaker.

7.Theword"immortal"usedtodescribeGrady'seditorialappearsinW.H.Carr,"TheFoundingoftheHome,"inThinGrayLine,p.47.Forthehistoricfoundingoftheveterans'associationandDavis'svisit,seeRodgers,ConfederateVeteransAssocia-

tionofFultonCounty,pp.6-10,12-13,102,108-18;Constitution,Oct.22,1888;Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,p.95;andWoodward,OriginsoftheNewSouth,p.155.

8.Unlessothersourcesarecredited,thesourcesonwhichmyaccountofthetheAtlantaRingisbasedaretwoarticlesbyHaroldE.Davis,"HenryW.Grady,MasteroftheAtlantaRing,"and"HenryW.Grady,theAtlantaConstitutionandthePoliticsofFarming"aswellashisbook,HenryGrady'sNewSouth.Theideaofcontrollingtheblackvotewasthe"centralconsideration''inGeorgiapostwarpolitics.Bartley,ModernGeorgia,p.98.

9.ForGrady'sadvicetoNorthen,seeNixon,Grady,pp.311-13,andWoodward,TomWatson,p.164.Formoreaboutthe1890Georgiaelection,thefarmer'sthreatinthatstate,andGrady'spoliticalagenda,seeArnett,PopulistMovement,pp.102-16;Shaw,Wool-HatBoys,pp.22-44;andWynne,ContinuityofCotton,pp.81-96,146-75.

10.Holmes,in"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"pp.486-87,computedthenumberofConfederateveteransinthe1890House.ThesamesourcethatheusedthumbnailsketchesofHousemembersasprovidedbytheConstitution,July19,1891indicatesthat52.6percentweresonsofveterans.SeealsoMcMath,PopulistVanguard,p.162,whichindicatesthat44.2percentofsouthernAllianceleaderswereex-Confederates.

11.SeeGrady'srousingeditorialwithboldfacetypeintheConstitution,Apr.7,1889,especiallypage17,whichhedevotedentirelytothehomeproject.RegardingGordon,Brown,andJohnInman'sendorsements,seeibid.,Apr.9,1889.

12.Constitution,Apr.7,1889.HillyeradvisedGrady:"KeeptheConfederateveterans'namesoutofthedust."Ibid.,Apr.11,1889.Graves,aprominentandrespectedDemocrat,wasalifelongadmirer

ofGrady.SeeNixon,Grady,pp.285,291,551.

13.ForGrady'sfeudwithBullockandtheireventualreconciliation,aswellashisdifferenceswithJones,seeNixon,Grady,pp.72-73,513,319,andWoodward,TomWatson,pp.125-26,133.ForBlack'sandWalsh'scomments,seeConstitution,Apr.7,1889.

14.TheConstitution,Apr.28,1889,reportedthatpledgestotaled$42,598.Yetthetotalamountactuallyreceivedfellseveralthousanddollarsshortofthatfigure.ForadirectoryofcontributorswhichincludedHenryW.Grady,Jr.,theeditor'ssonseeGSH,ListofPersonsSubscribingContributionsTowardstheErectionoftheHome,GDAH.Theproceedingsofthesubscribers'meetingarefoundinConstitution,Apr.17.1889.

15.Constitution,Apr.11,1889.

16.Ibid.,Apr.17,1889.ForinformationonKimball,seeRange,"HannibalI.Kimball."

17.Constitution,Apr.19,1889;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:1-7,GDAH;Rodgers,ConfederateVeteransAssociationofFultonCounty,p.178.

18.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:7-21,GDAH;Constitution,Apr.17,19,1889;ConVet10(1902):490;Rothman,ConscienceandConvenience,p.10.

19.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:7-22,GDAH;BruceandMorgan,ArchitectsBusinessFile,AtlantaHistoricalSociety,Atlanta,Ga.;Nixon,Grady,pp.330-31.

20.Rodgers,ConfederateVeteransAssociationofFultonCounty,p.182;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:23,28-30,GDAH;Constitution,Apr.26,1890.

21.SealedinthecornerstoneweresomeConfederatecurrency,miniéballs,wardiaries,lettersfromJeffersonandVarinaDavis,animmortellefromthesarcophagusofGrady,and,curiously,acopyofLee'splansonhowtouseblacksinthewar.Constitution,Apr.25-27,1890;Rodgers,ConfederateVeteransAssociationofFultonCounty,pp.182-83;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:33,GDAH.

22.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:41,44,53-56,GDAH;Constitution,Dec.7,1890;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1890),p.244;GeorgiaLaws(1887),pp.27-28;(1889),pp.39-40.RegardingCutts,whoattendedthehome'sdedication,seeHolmes,"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"p.488,andConstitution,Apr.26,1890,July19,1891.AseparatebillincreasingpensionallowancesforwidowsalsofailedtopassintheSenate,whichtheAlliancecontrolledtoo.AccordingtoHolmes,"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"p.507,thefarmers'legislatureunanimouslyapprovedabillprovidingwidowsofConfederateveterans$100peryear.AlthoughGeorgiaHouseJournal(1890),p.30,supportsthatassertion,thebillactuallyremainedintheSenatefinancecommitteeatthetimethesessionended.GeorgiaSenateJournal(1890),p.86;Constitution,Sept.10,1891.SeealsoYoung,"ConfederatePensions,''pp.47-52,whichnotesthatpaymentstowidowsdidnotgointoeffectuntil1892.

23.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:45,57-62,GDAH;Constitution,Aug.26,1891.FormoreconcerningClarkHowell,seeNorthen,MenofMark,4:233-37.

24.ForcoverageofthelegislativedebateconcerningtheConfederatehomebill,thebestsourceisConstitution,Aug.26-27,1891.BiographicalprofilesoftheHousemembersareavailableinibid.,

July19,1891.

25.Ibid.,July19,Aug.26-27,1891.

26.Ibid.,Aug.28,1891.

27.Thebill'scourse,fromitsintroductionbyCuttstothefinalvote,maybefollowedinGeorgiaHouseJournal(1891),pp.474,534,590,640-41,647-50.

28.Constitution,Aug.27,1891.

29.Ibid.,Aug.28-Sept.10,1891;ArkansasGazette,Aug.29,Sept.4,1891.

30.AnAlliancemanwhosupportedthehomedefendedLivingston,claimingthathehadintroducedaresolutioninfavorofthehomeduringtheirrecentlyconcludedconvention.Constitution,Aug.29,1891.

31.Ibid.,Aug.27-28,1891;Woodward,TomWatson,pp.177--78.Ofthetwoblackmembers(bothRepublicans)whosatinthe1891GeorgiaHouse,J.M.Holzendorf,athirty-five-year-oldfarmerteacherfromCamden,joinedninety-threeotherrepresentativesinvotingagainstthebill,whileLecturedCrawford,aministerandformerslaverepresentingMcIntoshCounty,abstained.Constitution,July19,1891;GeorgiaHouseJournal,(1891),p.648;Holmes,"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"p.507.ForthecolorfulSmall,areformedalcoholicwhosoonalignedwiththePopulists,seeConstitution,Sept.3-4,1891,andShaw,Wool-HatBoys,pp.31,60,66-67.

32.Constitution,Aug.28-31,1891;Holmes,"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"p.508.ForMattox,seeHistoryofClinchCounty,p.274.

33.Constitution,Aug.29,1891,Oct.26,1892.

34.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:63-73,GDAH;Constitution,Aug.29-30,Sept.1-3,9-10,12,1891.

35.Holmes,"GeorgiaAllianceLegislature,"p.515.Thefiguresusedindescribingthecompositionofthe1892HousehavebeenarrivedatbycomparingthenamesofmemberslistedinGeorgiaHouseJournal(1890),pp.753-57,withthosethatappearontherollinGeorgiaHouseJournal(1892),pp.3-6.

36.Constitution,Oct.27-29,Nov.23,1892;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:81-82,GDAH;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1892),p.14.

37.Constitution,Nov.24,Dec.3,1892.Inhonorofhisdefenseofthehome,StylesavocalopponentofJimCrowlegislationreceivedagold-headedebonycanepresentedbynegrophobeSamSmall,onbehalfoftheFultonCountyConfederateVeteransAssociation.AnimaginativereporterwrotethatStyles'sacceptancespeechwasgreetedwithapplausesothunderousthatit"shooktherooftilthepicturesofLeeandDavisonthewallbowed"andthe"oldConfederateflagquivered."Ibid.,Dec.20,1892;Shaw,Wool-HatBoys,pp.60,138-39;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1892),p.469.

38.Constitution,Dec.3,9,1892;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1892),pp.469-73.

39.Constitution,Dec.9,1892;Shaw,Wool-HatBoys,pp.66,96-97.

40.Constitution,Dec.13-15,1892;GeorgiaSenateJournal(1892),pp.340,350,363,368-71,383-84."Shame!Shame!!Shame!!!,"scoldedtheBrunswick(Georgia)Times.Forreactionbyothernewspapersregardingthelegislature's"mischief"and"cowardice,"seeConstitution,Dec.20,1892,andConVet1(1893):9.

41.Constitution,Dec.15,17,20,1892,Jan.13,Feb.14,1893,Dec.20,1894;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:83-89,GDAH.The

board'sminutesendwiththeJanuary1893meetinganddonotresumeuntiltwoyearslater.

42.Constitution,Jan.29-30,1895,Oct.28,1897;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:90-99,GDAH.

43.Theboard'sminutesendabruptlyfollowingitsOctober25,1897,meetingtodiscussthecourt'sdecree.NodateforRomare'sloanofmorethan$5,000hasbeenfound,thoughitisbelievedtohavebeenmadebeforetheforcedsaleinApril1898,whenthehomewas$4,600inarrears.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:99-106,GDAH;Constitution,Apr.3-6,1898,Jan.23,1901.

44.Constitution,Apr.3-4,1898;ConVet6(1898):145.

45.Exactlywhytheboard'sdealwiththeUDCfellthroughisunclear.Constitution,Apr.6-8,1898;ConVet6(1898):145.

46.Constitution,June5,July20-24,Oct.26,1898,June4,1901.

47.OnconnectionsbetweentheCivilWarandtheSpanish-AmericanWar,seeFoster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.145-49;Buck,RoadtoReunion,pp.306-7;andLinderman,EmbattledCourage,pp.296-97.

48.ArCH,Superintendent'sReport,(1915-1916),p.10,ArSA.

49.Constitution,Oct.26,Nov.8-11,22,1898,May3,1899.GeorgiaHouseJournal(1898),p.391.Withouttheaidoftheboard'sofficialminutesoranyotherfirsthandaccount,IhavebeenunabletofillthevoidbetweenMay1899andOctober1900.

50.GeorgiaHouseJournal(1900),pp.126,533,562-65;Constitution,Oct.30,Dec.4,13,1900,June4,1901.Nootherrepresentative,accordingtoGary,waseithera

veteranorasonofaveteran.Inthefollowinglegislature,however,ex-Confederatesreportedlyoccupiedatotaloffifteenseatsinbothhouses.White,ConfederateVeteran,p.86.

51.GeorgiaHouseJournal(1900),pp.562-65,796;Constitution,Dec.13,16,1900;GeorgiaSenateJournal(1900),pp.435,454,487-89.

52.Constitution,Dec.16,1900;GeorgiaSenateJournal(1900),pp.488-89.Truetohisword,TatumwasamongtheSenatorsvotingforthebill.

53.Constitution,Nov.16,Dec.13,20,22,1900,Jan.12,23-25,Apr.12,1901;GeorgiaLaws(1900),pp.86-88.

54.Constitution,Jan.19-20,1901;Young,"ConfederatePensions,"pp.48-49.Moreover,legislationpermittingthestate'sdisabledandindigentex-Confederatestoselllifeinsuranceand"intoxicants"andpracticemedicinewithoutalicensewasonthebooksby1900.GeorgiaLaws(1895),pp.92-94;(1897),pp.24-25;(1899),p.99.

55.Constitution,June3-4,1901.SeealsoStephenD.LeetoW.LowndesCalhoun,May11,1901,CalhounPapers,WilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,N.C.

56.Constitution,June4,Oct.1-2,1901;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1901),pp.159,679-70;GeorgiaSenateJournal(1901),pp.433,532-33;GeorgiaLaws(1901),p.14;ConVet10(1902):490-91.

57.MontgomeryAdvertiser,Nov.14,1901,Feb.18,June15,July20,1902,Sept.4,11,25,Oct.16,31,1903.

58.PassChristianCoastNews,Dec.7,1893,inM.JamesStevensnotebook,Beauvoir;ConVet11(1903):54,104;23(1915):300;26(1918):499;34(1926):117-18;WarrantyDeed,VarinaDavistoMississippiDivisionoftheUnitedSonsofConfederateVeterans,Oct.

10,1902,Beauvoir;BiloxiDailyHerald,Mar.16,1962;InauguralAddressesoftheGovernorsofMississippi,pp.31-32.ThefateofthebillacceptingBeauvoirasagiftfromtheSCVmaybefollowedinMississippiHouseJournal,(1904),pp.175,387,498-99,518,andMississippiSenateJournal(1904),pp.505,566.BackgroundinformationregardingthemembersofthelegislatureisavailableinRowland,OfficialandStatisticalRegister.

59.ForlegislationextendingvariousbenefitstoSouthCarolina'sConfederateveterans,seeSouthCarolinaActs(1866),p.433;(1879),p.186;(1881),pp.563-64;(1886),pp.708-9;(1887),pp.826-29;(1901),p.855;(1905),p.954;and(1906),pp.118-19.Forthewomen'shome,seeSouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers5(1878):254.Fortheearlierhomeendeavors,seeConVet8(1900):359,andCharlestonNewsandCourier,June23,1963.

60.Regardingthefateoftheinfirmarybill,specifically,seeSouthCarolinaActs(1908),pp.1074-75;SouthCarolinaSenateJournal(1907),pp.207,304,407-8,431;(1908),p.682;andSouthCarolinaHouseJournal(1907),pp.525,529,682;(1908);pp.339,430-31,465-66;(1909),pp.455,720.Fortheincensedveteran'scomments,seeColumbiaState,Feb.19,1908.

61.Forcoverageoftheopeninganddedicatoryceremonies,seeColumbiaState,May11,29,June3-4,1909.SketchesofBrooks,Smith,andWestonmaybefoundinHemphill,MenofMark,4:44-47,347-48,and386-87,respectively.

Chapter5

1.Foraccountsofalmshouseconditions,seeShifflett,PatronageandPoverty,p.72.138;Jackson,NewOrleansintheGildedAge,pp.190-93;andRothman,ConscienceandConvenience,pp.22-24.Foravowalsbythosedeterminedtopreventex-Confederatesfromsufferingtheindignityoftheasylum,seeFrankFreemantoJohnP.Hickman,May20,1901,TSHAA,W.G.W.Clay,TSLA;A.T.BarnestoHickman,Apr.19,1912,TSHAA,G.W.Bruer,TSLA;R.C.TaylortoJamesW.Pegram],Mar.13,1890,LCSHAA,WilliamJohnson,VSL;andRebeccaCamerontoLisaT.Rodman,Oct.30,1900,andRodmantoDaughtersoftheConfederacy,Nov.14,1900,bothinHinsdalePapers,WilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,N.C.SeealsoCalvinC.BurnettetoJ.E.Graves,July15,1910,LCSHAA,Burnette,VSL.Theestablishmentofsoldiers'homesintheNorthwasalsopromptedinpartbythefactthatmanyUnionveteransresidedinpoorhouses.SeeMcConnell,GloriousContentment,andCetina,"HistoryofVeterans'Homes,"pp.114-121.

2.LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1896),p.5,VSL;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers20(1892):315-16;Constitution,Sept.12,1891;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:102,GDAH.

3.MontgomeryAdvertiser,Feb.3,1903;Constitution,Apr.7,1889.

4.ConVet1(1893):59;12(1904):325;NashvilleBannerMay12,1892,Mar.7,1908.

5.SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,May11,1923,p.128,SCDAH;L.R.Wallace,H.H.Turner,J.T.GreentoSupt.,July13,1922,ArCHAA,GeorgeW.Glen,ArSA.

6.BoardofVisitorstoJ.C.Batchelder,Apr.16,1912,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;Raines.YearBookforTexas,1901,

p.58;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:102,182-83,3:2374:40,GDAH.

7.JeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Home,SuperintendentReport(1904),AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery;JosephH.CocketoJohnP.Hickman,May7,1895,TSHAA,EdwinWhitmore,TSLA;Poole,"FinalEncampment,"pp.12-13;W.N.JonestoCharlesDupry,Oct.11,1893,NorthCarolinaBoardofPublicCharities,Report,NCDAH.

8.Constitution,Apr.9,1889.

9.ArkansasGazette,Aug.15,1890.

10.NewOrleansPicayune,Dec.13,1899;Russell,LifeandLabors,p.274;Lea,"PersonalRecollections,"p.28;ConVet16(1908):151,182.

11.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:61,146,293,GDAH.Beginningin1906,administratorsfinallybeganhiringblackservantstorelieveinmatesofthemoreundesirableandstrenuouschores.GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),p.9,GDAH.Tennesseetrusteesreservedtherighttoestablisheitherafarmorfactory,whicheverwouldrenderthe"charity"as"nearlyself-sustainingaspossible."TennesseeActs(1889),pp.342-44.

12."TexasConfederateSoldiers'HomeAModel,"ConVet20(1912):61;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),pp.13-18,TxSA;TexasHouseJournal(1895),pp.392-93;(1905),pp.298-99;(1911),pp.762-64;AustinDailyStatesman,Dec.7,1913.

13.Williams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,'"pp.43-44;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,InvestigativeCommitteeReport(1892),pp.71-75,80,90-91,124,VSL;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:24,45,VSL.SeealsoinmateJ.H.AllentoBoardofVisitors,c.1885,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.

14.Asaworkincentive,theboardthreatenedto"debar"violatorsfromtheprivilegesofthehomeforuptooneyear.CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:22,141,474,5:87-88,LHAC;CNSH,SuperintendentReport(1891),LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,HouseCommitteeReport(1900),LHAC;CNSH,RulesandRegulations(1882),LHAC.

15.W.W.HeardtoMichaelB.Bergeron,Dec.29,1903,CNSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,LHAC;HeinrichDübeltoBoardofVisitors,Apr.4,1887,SamuelV.CorbetttoWilliamH.Terry,Apr.26,1886,V.WrentoJamesF.Chalmers,May8,1892,NathanJ.LewistoJamesW.Pegram,Mar.15,1885,A.B.CartertoFitzhughLee,Feb.11,1885,G.W.RichardsontoPegram,Feb.19,1886,andJ.B.ClarktoLee,May23,1885,allinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;DanielC.HilltoW.P.Smith,July11,1890,R.E.LeeCampRecords,Correspondence,VHS.SeealsoTSHAAs,RobertF.CattelsandJamesCowen,TSLA.

16.VickwaseventuallypermittedtoentertheArkansashomeonOctober1,1920,onlytobedischargedforanunspecifiedreasontwentydayslater.NewtontoVick,Dec.28,1916,ArCHAA,Vick,ArSA.

17.Admissionrequirementscomprisedpartoftheenablingactforanumberofsoldiers'homes.SeeGeorgiaLaws(1900),pp.86-88;VirginiaActs(1884),pp.521-22;TexasLaws(1895),pp.42-44;TennesseeActs(1889),pp.342-44;LouisianaActs(1882),p.73.FortheSouthCarolinian'sremarks,seeW.W.MorristoG.Valentine,

June9,1913,TSHAA,J.F.Houser,TSLA.SeealsoE.MurraytoMaj.HarryHammond,Nov.25,1910,SCCIAA,J.D.Everett,SCDAH,andSCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,Feb.10,1922,p.86,SCDAH.ForOber'squip,seehislettertoPeterJ.Trezevant,May11,1886,AANVPapers,Correspondence,LHAC.Despitethestringentselectioncriteria,impostersoccasionallygainedadmittancetothehomes;however,theywereusuallydismissed.SeeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:72-73,76,GDAH;NCSH,BoardofIncorporators,Minutes,103,NCDAH;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;andConVet17(1909):562.SeealsoLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:205,VSL,inwhichaninmateconfessedtohavingdesertedbutwasallowedtoremaininthehomebecausehehadbeena"goodsoldier."

18.SCCIAA,A.0.Banks,SCDAH.

19.AustinDailyStatesman,Dec.7,1913;TexasLaws(1895),pp.42-44;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.16,TxSA.E.P.WrighttoJohnW.A.Sanford,Jan.21,1909,SanfordPapers,AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery.

20.RufusMcDanieltoH.C.Wheeler,Mar.26,1923,ArCHAA,Wheeler,ArSA.

21.LouisianaActs(1900),pp.124-26;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.9,TxSA;WalterGuiontoHenryH.Ward,Oct.30,1900,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.

22.OneTennesseeveteranadmittedowning160acres,whichhesaidhewould

gladlydeedtothehomeifgrantedentrance.Theboard,however,deniedhisplea.F.M.VaughntoJohnP.Hickman,June1,1899,TSHAA,JohnS.Gregory,TSLA.

23.ThephraseattributedtotheLeeCampwasprintedonitsapplicationforadmission.Fortheotherquotedstatements,seeTxHM,SuperintendentReport(1892),(1898),(1904),(1909),TxSA.

24.SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,May12,1922,p.93-94,SCDAH.

25.J.W.WilksandW.H.EdwardstoBoardofDirectors,May3,1909,SCCIAA,W.G.Parker,SCDAH.

26.Forexamplesofveteranspromisingtocooperatewithhomeauthorities,seeE.F.GriggtoR.H.Bosher,Oct.15,1902,andClarenceThomastoJamesPegram,Sept.30,1887,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;andWashingtonTaylortoNormanV.Randolph,Apr.10,1893,LCSHAA,R.B.Banks,VSL.Formoralendorsementssee,forexample,TSHAAs,GeorgeW.Brown,JosephC.Alsup,PatrickButler,VincentWilloughby,A.W.Baxter,andCharlesT.Clifford,TSLA.Forahighlyunfavorablereport,seeJ.B.PleasantstoCharlesH.Epps,July22,1886,LCSHAA,JohnE.Brooke,VSL.Regardingadministrators'expectationofgentlemanlydeportmentamonginmates,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:264-65,4:18-19,GDAH,andA.J.MontaguetoNormanV.Randolph,Apr.12,1899,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.SeeWilson,BaptizedinBlood,p.87,foradiscussionoftheclaimthatJohnnyRebwassoberalmostateetotalerasasoldier.

27.Theemphasisplaceduponordercame,ofcourse,atatimewhentherewasatremendouspreoccupationwithpersonalself-controlandstabilitywithinsociety.Wiebe,SearchforOrder.GSH,Boardof

Trustees,Minutes,2:36;3:246-47,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),p.10,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home,(1906),p.191,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:386,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),LHAC;CNSH,PresidentReport(1911),LHAC;TxHM,SuperintendentReport(1909),TxSA;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),TxSA;(1902);(1904),AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.

28.ForarareglimpseofthedailyroutinewithinaConfederateveterans'institution,seeAustinConfederateHomeNews,Feb.23,1912.Regardingtheuseofbellsindictatinginmatefunctions,aswellaspoliciesregulatingpersonalhygiene,seeTxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),pp.15-18,TxSA.Forrollcalls,inspections,curfews,passes,guards,andothersurveillancedevices,seeConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia(1901);NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.19,148,164-65,458,GDAH;JDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,MinuteBook,1:222,USM.Foruniforms,seeTxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.14;(1893),p.6,TxSA;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:22,2:133,VSL;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:5-7,28,55,304,LHAC;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,35,TSLA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:35,201,219,3:132,4:22-24,GDAH;Poole,"FinalEncampment,"pp.12-13;SouthCarolinaLaws(1912),sec.178;ArkansasGazette,Aug.7,1892;V.B.Mass,"DiningRoomRecord,"p.39,Beauvoir;andJDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,NinthBiennialReport,USM.In1896,TexassuperintendentWilliamP.Hardemanrecommendedthatabarbed-wirefencesomesixtotenfeettallbestrung"entirelyaroundthepremises"soastoensure

againstthe"constantaggressionofhogsanddogs,"aswellastodetertheft.TxHM,BoardofManagers,SuperintendentReport(1896),TxSA.Forotherhomeenclosures,bothsuggestedandactual,seeConVet1(1893):59;31(1923):48;J.B.HodgkintoHenryC.Stuart,Feb.10,1914,ExecutivePapers,HenryC.Stuart,VSL;Crew,HistoryofNashville,p.566;SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissionersReport,(1913);andJeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Home,SuperintendentReport(1904),AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery.

29.RulesgoverninginmatebehaviorwerereminiscentofthedisciplineprescribedinwartimehospitalsandforeverymemberofthesouthernarmedforcesasdefinedbytheArticlesofWarenactedbytheConfederateCongress.SeeCunningham,DoctorsinGray,pp.90-93,211-12;RegulationsfortheArmyoftheConfederateStates,pp.407-15;Russell,LifeandLabors,p.272;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),pp.13-18,TxSA;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia(1901);GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:49,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:158,2:410,VSL;TexasHouseJournal(1895),pp.392-93.

30.Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,p.3;SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers20(1892):324;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:30,55,3:92,269-70,272-73,276,4:2-5,22-24,66,GDAH;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),5,10-11,TxSA;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:62,VSL;AustinConfederateHomeNews,Feb.17,1912;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),LHAC;SouthernBivouac3(January1885):511;SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,June12,1923,SCDAH;N.W.BrookertoColemanL.Blease,Jan.27,1911,BleasePapers,SCI)AH;MontgomeryAdvertiser,Apr.3,1904.

31.TheparticularoccupationscitedatthebeginningoftheparagraphwerethoseoftheGeorgiahome'sfirstfivesuperintendents,from1901to1906.SeeInvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.167,229,233,244,249,290,GDAH,inwhichinmateswereaskedtocritiquetheirsuperiors'performances.Superintendents,aswellasotherhomeofficers,weresubjecttoannualelections,whichexplains,inpart,theirhighturnoverrate.Fortheapplicationlettersofseveralcandidates,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:152-4,156,3:240,GDAH,whereinSaussey'scommentsmaybefound.ForLoggins'sdescription,seeInvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen,(1917),p.3,TxSA.

32.CNSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,2:267,392-93,LHAC;CNSH,RulesandRegulations(1884),pp.4-8,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:229,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrustees,InvestigatingCommitteeReport,June24,1904[locatedinMinutes],GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),pp.6-7;(1914),pp.6-7,GDAH;ConVet16(1908):181;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1904),AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.;TexasHouseJournal(1901),pp.638-39;(1913),pp.942-43;Mrs.F.C.MillertoFrancisP.Fleming,Jan.19,1902,FloridaSoldiers'HomePapers,JacksonvillePublicLibrary,Jacksonville,Fla.

33.TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),pp.8,16,TxSA;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1887),p.4,LHAC;CNSH,RulesandRegulations(1888),LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:34,4:116,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),p.398,GDAH;ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia(1917),pp.8,19.

34.A.J.MontaguetoNormanV.Randolph,Apr.12,1899,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:41,45,VSL;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(1892),VSL;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.325-30,468-69,GDAH;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.17,TxSA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:50;4:263,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),p.11,GDAH;TennesseeHouseJournal(1911),p.947.

35.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:241,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),p.11,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:128,VSL.

36.Foradiscussionofthisnotion,seeVandeWetering,"PopularConceptof'Home,'"andOwnby,SubduingSatan,p.4.

37.TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.,TxSA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:273,3:144,246-47,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:392-93,LHAC;W.W.HeardtoMichaelB.Bergeron,Dec.29,1903,andFeb.10,1904,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,ExecutiveCommitteeOrders,No.27,May28,1908,VSL.

38.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1886),p.5;(1902),p.14,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:25-26,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,1:290,2:83,218,290,3:7,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1901),GDAH;ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia(1917),p.12;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),p.177,GDAH;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),16,TxSA;LawdonR.MasontoCharlesP.Bigger,Feb.28,1899,J.J.QuantztoLeeCamp,c.Aug.1888,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;TennesseeActs(1909),p.41;NashvilleBanner,Mar.7,1908;SausseyDiary,GDAH;RaleighNewsandObserver.Dec.5,1920;R.E.LeeCampRecords,LeeCampSoldiers'

HomeLibraryRegister,VHS;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes(1909),pp.38,51,TSLA;Poole,"FinalEncampment,"p.17;VirginiaSenateJournal(1899),p.5;LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1904),p.6,VSL;MarthaHaywoodtoJamesJoyner,c.1915,JoynerPapers,NCDAH;ConVet9(1901):549-50.

39.Thephraseandthesis"morethanaroof"isborrowedfromMcClure,MoreThanaRoof.SeealsoConstitution,Sept.12,1891;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:36,102,133,139,3:52,GDAH;"TexasConfederateSoldiers'HomeAModel,"ConVet20(1912):61;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.14,TxSA;Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.56;FredA.ObertoPeterJ.Trezevant,May29,1886,AANVPapers,Correspondence,LHAC;AATPapers,Minutes,2:123,138-39,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,4:53-56,LHAC.

40.Edwardsville,Ala.,StandardNews,Apr.18,1902;JulianS.LevytoAANV,Oct.14,1911,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;TexasHouseJournal(1911),50;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:123,3:200,263,4:43-44,279,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1918),p.5,VSL;ConVet8(1900):264;24(1916):439;34(1926):472;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:104-6,LHAC;Constitution,Apr.9,1889,Sept.12,1891;Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,56;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;TexasHouseJournal(1911),p.50.SeealsoSouthernBivouac2(July1884):508-11;Russell,LifeandLabors,p.272;andInauguralAddressesoftheGovernorsofMississippi,pp.98-100.

41.Fortheclearestpresentationoftheconceptof"totalinstitution,"seeGoffman,Asylums.AlsousefulareFoucault,DisciplineandPunish,andKatz,IntheShadowofthePoorhouse.Foranassessmentofthe"socialcontrol"theoryanditscritics,seeTrattner,"SocialWelfareorSocialControl?."

42.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1886),p.4,LHAC.

Chapter6

1.Cole,"LifeinCampLeeSoldiers'Home."

2.BiloxiDailyHerald,June14,Oct.6,1919;JohnH.OwenstoLidaOwens,c.Apr.22,1912,M.JamesStevensnotebook,Beauvoir;ConVet21(1913):478;33(1925):349;MontgomeryAdvertiser,Aug.6,1902;AustinConfederateHomeNews,Feb.17,1912;JDBMSH,RegisterofInmates,p.59,MississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Jackson.

3.SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,undatedclipping,SCDAH;"LastoftheSouthernConfederacyandOurMostRomanticHeritage,"RaleighNewsandObserver,Dec.5,1920;"TheLastRoll,"NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;"TheConfederateHomesofTexas,"ConVet24(1916):489;"U.D.C.Notes,''ConVet34(1926):472;ColumbiaStateRecord,Dec.29,1924;JeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Home,SuperintendentReport(1904),AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery;MontgomeryAdvertiser,June21,1904.Forothers'impressionsofthehomesfromtheoutside,seeConVet24(1916):570;31(1923):37;Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,p.5;BiloxiDailyHerald,May30,1919;andSouthernBivouac2(July1884):508-11.

4."TheLastRoll,"NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913.

5.ThepoemappearedinThompson'sAustinConfederateHome

Vidette,May15,1912,whichsupersededtheHomeNews.

6.B.G.McDowelltoJohnP.Hickman,June28,1900,TSHAA,WilliamG.Roberts,TSLA;C.W.FrazertoHickman,July19,1895,TSHAA,JohnHuffernan,TSLA.SeealsoCharlesMoore,Jr.,toAANV,Aug.26,1880,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC;JohnA.Clementsto"Tip"Harrison,June1,1901;JohnO.DeantoW.LowndesCalhoun,Jan.14,1901,GSH,BoardofTrustees,Correspondence,GDAH;W.B.TaliaferrotoFitzhughLee,Aug.19,1887,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;andFrancisH.WilliamstoJamesS.Hogg,Nov.24,1890,GovernorsRecords,JamesS.Hogg,TxSA.Branumnotedthat"afewinmatesareinclinedtobesupersensitive,andattributetheirpresenceinthehometosomeweaknesswhichmighthavebeenaverted."NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913.SeealsoE.L.McLendon[CountyClerk,ClevelandCounty,Arkansas]toRufusMcDaniel,Sept.10,1923,ArCHAA,J.StroudGill,ArSA.

7.Cole,"LifeinCampLeeSoldiers'Home."

8.WalltoJamesV.Pegram,Nov.4,1895,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;B.F.WatsontoRufusG.McDaniel,Mar.23,1922,ArCHAA,Watson,ArSA.

9.SeetheletterstoCharlesEuker,Nov.30,1905,andJ.E.Graves,Mar.7,1910,LCSHAAs,H.O.BassandThomasS.Bullock,respectively,VSL.ForHodgkin's

complaints(andsuggestions),seehislettertoHenryC.Stuart,Jan.22,1914,ExecutiveRecords,HenryC.Stuart,VSL.

10.W.W.ColdwelltoE.J.Boshee,June11,1902,LCSHAA,AsaWall,VSL.

11.Forinmatecomplaints,seeletterfrom"6inmates"toJamesHogg,Mar.1,1891,GovernorsRecords,JamesS.Hogg,TxSA;TexasHouseJournal(1897),pp.101,692-93;(1905),pp.298-99,1078,1216-17;(1919),pp.299,544,582,668,673;TexasLaws(1905),p.409;AustinConfederateHomeVidette,Jan.1,1913;DisabledVeteranstoAANV,Jan.8,1885,AANVPapers,Correspondence,LHAC;CharlesA.RobertstoFredOber,Nov.22,1906,AurielAurandtoBoardofDirectors,Sept.30,1903,"16Veterans"toBoardofDirectors,May13,1919,BoardofDirectorstoT.0.Moore,Sept.8,1909,allinCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(Oct.6,1889),LHAC;JohnWatsontoBoardofDirectors,May3,1919,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:99,107,141,150-51,157,219,3:132-35,GDAH;WilliamDeJournetttoCharlesD.Phillips,June25,1907;M.A.Fowleretal.to''GuardiansofHome,"Dec.12,1903,GSH,BoardofTrustees,Correspondence,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Report(1906),p.11,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:171,VSL;letterfromGreenB.Samuels,July17,1899;J.H.AllentoFitzhughLee,Oct.13,1885,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;SouthCarolinaHouseJournal(1920),pp.10-11;J.C.Bridgesetal.toBoardofDirectors,Feb.20,1902,FloridaOldConfederateSoldiersandSailorsHome,BoardofDirectors,LettersReceived,JacksonvillePublicLibrary,Jacksonville,Fla.;"CousinYam"to"CousinsNellie&Bessie,"May25,1921,Beauvoir.

12.C.M.HoopertoBoardofDirectors,June23-25,1901,Florida

OldConfederateSoldiersandSailorsHome,BoardofDirectors,LettersReceived,JacksonvillePublicLibrary,Jacksonville,Jacksonville,Fla.SeealsoHoopertoF.P.Fleming,July5,13,15,1901,andM.E.GaineytoFleming,Dec.14,1902,bothinibid.

13.RuffintoF.P.Fleming,July9,1902,FloridaOldConfederateSoldiersandSailorsHome,BoardofDirectors,LettersReceived,JacksonvillePublicLibrary,Jacksonville,Jacksonville,Fla.SeealsoJohnMcCormacktoD.E.Maxwell,June23,1901,ibid.

14.Disciplineamongmaleinmateswasauniversalcauseofconcerninnineteenthcenturyalmshouses.See,forexample,Weiler,"TheAged,theFamily,andtheProblemsofaMaturingIndustrialSociety,"p.158.Forparticularcomplaintsregardinginmatebehavior,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:78,99,110,112-13,130,150-56,218,297-98,3:88,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.447,GDAH;J.B.HodgkintoHenryC.Stuart,Jan.22,1914,ExecutiveRecords,HenryC.Stuart,VSL;NorthCarolinaDepartmentofHumanServices,InspectionofNCSH,Oct.2,1920,NCDAH.

15.SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1916),3:621.

16.CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:187,242,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,SecretaryReport(May5,1906),LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(May5,1906),LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(Feb.6,1909);(Jan.15,1918),LHAC;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.

19,1913;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:160,185,191,218-19,242,269,293,3:6,12,142-44,237,254,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.251-53,255,265,GDAH;SausseyDiary,GDAH;J.E.GravestoCharlesJ.Anderson,Feb.22,1917,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:105-6,VSL;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,p.46,TSLA;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1894),p.3,TxSA;InvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),p.188,TxSA;MassDiary,4:256,USM.

17.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:83-85,4:113,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,3:325,VSL;InvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),pp.12,28-29,160,162,165,TxSA.

18.SouthernBivouac2(July1884):510;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),p.448,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:96,141,224-25,3:95,102,145-46,GDAH.

19.McCampbell,Ex-ConfederateSoldiers'Home,Richmond.

20.FelixG.Swaimto"WhomitmayConcern,"Aug.14,1909,ArCHAA,Griffing,ArSA;JDBMSH,RegisterofInmates,p.15,MississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Jackson.

21.SeeChambers,Longhurst,andPacey,SeasonalDimensionstoRuralPoverty;Sakamoto-Momiyarna,SeasonalityinHumanMortality;andHenry,Population,pp.37-38.Forreportsofsuicides,seeAustinConfederateHomeVidette,June1,1912;Constitution,Apr.5,1903;andLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,2:25,VSL.

22.RufusMcDanieltoMrs.PearlSims,Mar.20,1926,Jan.24,1927,ArCHAA,WesleyGivens,ArSA;CharlesAllentoJ.E.Graves,Feb.7,1912,andMrs.ClarktoCharlesBigger,Oct.1,1893,LCSHAAs,AllenandClark,respectively,VSL.

23.McDanieltoMrs.LillyPinson,Feb.25,1924,McDanieltoE.L.McLendon,Sept.11,1923,bothinArCHAA,J.StroudGill,ArSA.

24.Roebuck,MyOwnPersonalExperience,pp.5-7.

25.Hewasunsuccessfulinhisappeal.BoisseautoJ.E.Graves,Feb.8,1913,LCSHAA,DavidG.Boisseau,VSL.

26.JohnW.MeekstoRufusG.McDaniel,June13,Aug.8,1922,McDanieltoMeeks,Aug.7,1922,bothinArCHAA,RobertBurrow,ArSA.

27.Foranintroductiontothe"relocationmortalityeffect"syndrome,seeLawtonandYaffe,"Mortality,MorbidityandVoluntaryChangeofResidence";Markusetal.,"ImpactofRelocation";andLieberman,"RelationshipsofMortalityRatestoEntrancetoaHome.''

28.GSH,RegisterofInmates,1:48,GDAH;WarrenG.Frenchto[Mrs.JesseRankin],Mar.4,1948,JDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,USM;ConVet26(1918):499;SCCIAA,JamesM.Hughes,SCDAH.

29.SeetheAppendixforthemethodusedincalculatinginmates'tenure.

30.GSH,RegisterofInmates,1:52,67,503,GDAH;ThinGrayLine,p.74;NCSH,InmateRegister,NCDAH;SCCIAA,JoeBoatright,SCDAH;JDBMSH,RegisterofInmates;TxHM,RosterofInmates,TxSA.

31.Forspecificactsofinmateroughhousing,especiallyduringthetwentiethcentury,seeAustinConfederateHomeVidette,Jan.1,1913;"TexasConfederate

Soldiers'HomeaModel,"ConVet20(1912):61;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:187,193,287-88,4:106,139,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.168,450-52,GDAH;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,p.51,TSLA;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(1899-1924),LHAC;E.P.WrighttoJohnW.A.Sanford,Jan.21,1909,SanfordPapers,AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery.

32.SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Report(1914),SCDAH;BiloxiDailyHerald,Nov.8,9,1916.SeealsoKapnick,Goodman,andCornwell,"PoliticalBehaviorintheAged";PresidentHenryE.Shelley'sremarkthata"largemajority"oftheTexasinmatesparticipatedinpoliticalcampaigns,inTxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1894),p.4,TxSA;andtheTexas-inmatenewspaperthatservedasaDemocraticorgan,AustinConfederateHomeVidette,May15,1912.

33.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:76,89,91,98,101,3:52-33,38,158,165-67,171,177,194,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1911),GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.389,450-52,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,5:6,7,30,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(Nov.30,1900),LHAC;MelzarTitustoF.W.Gras,Feb.5,1916,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;NCSH,Superintendent'sInmateBehaviorLog,p.107,NCDAH;RaleighNewsandObserver,Apr.24-25,1935;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,2:410,VSL;W.L.MorristoFitzhughLee,Feb.3,1885,J.H.AllentoLee,Oct.13,1885,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;InvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),pp.69-71,TxSA;AustinConfederateHomeVidette,May1,1913.

34.Goffman,Asylums,pp.60-63;InvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),p.5,TxSA;MaryE.SmithtoBoardofVisitors,n.d.,

LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.

35.Foranintroductiontotheroleofreminiscing,seeFeldman,Mulcahey,andBrudno,"ADifferentApproachtotheTreatmentoftheOlderMaleVeteranPatient":Friedman,"SpatialProximityandSocialInteraction";Friedman,"Age,LengthofInstitutionalization,andSocialStatus'';Lewis,"ReminiscingandSelf-Concept";HavighurstandGlasser,"AnExploratoryStudyofReminiscence";Tobin,"PreservationoftheSelf";andRichter,"AttainingEgoIntegritythroughLifeReview."

36."TheLastRoll,"NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;ConVet10(1902):296;20(1912):61;Williams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,'"p.45.SeealsoColumbiaRecord,Feb.14,1932,foranarticleentitled"RemnantofGrayHostsClingstoSpiritofSixties;VetsatColumbiaHomeSpinStoriesofBattleandHardship."Thestoryincludedtwophotographsandinterviewswithsixveterans,ranginginagesfromeight-seventoninety-one.

37.JulianLevytoAANV,Oct.14,1911,AANVPapers,VeteransBenefits,LHAC.

38.SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers26(1898):303;SCCLConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,Sept.9,1924,SCDAH;MontgomeryAdvertiser,Oct.5,Nov.18,1902;interviewswithMrs.Daniels(Aug.16,1984),withLilliePatterson(June11,1984),andwithBobGriffin(n.d.),FritzHamerResearchNotes,ConfederateMemorialPark,Marbury,Alabama;MassDiary,1:87,USM;JDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,MinuteBook,1:61,USM;Lumpkin,MakingofaSoutherner,p.125.

39.Newspaperclipping,Feb.28,1929,andundatedclipping,bothinJDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,MinuteBook1,USM.Seealso,BiloxiDailyHerald,June17,1922,forwhathappenedtooneMississippiinmatewhogotseparatedfromtheotherswhileattendingthe1922UCVreunionatRichmond,missedthetrainhome,andwasforcedtoremainintheVirginiahomeforafewdaysbeforethesuperintendentwasabletogofetchhim.Inaddition,seetherecordofJ.D.Binion,whosetwo-and-a-half-yeartenureasaGeorgiainmatetragicallyendedinJune1917,whenhefelloffatrainenroutetoAtlantafromaveterans'reunion.GSH,InmateRegister,2:89,GDAH.

40.BiloxiDailyHerald,Aug.6,1923.

Chapter7

1.BiloxiDailyHerald,Dec.6,1916.

2.McCampbell,Ex-ConfederateSoldiers'Home,Richmond;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1902),pp.3--4,AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.;(1918),p.12,TxSA;InvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),p.238,TxSA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:223,3:121,GDAH;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.398,428-31,GDAH;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:87-88,100,290,3:56,64,180-81,189-90,4:18-19,141,GDAH;JohnWatsontoBoardofDirectors,May3,1919,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,LHAC;TexasHouseJournal(1913),pp.942-43;BenS.WilliamstoS.E.Welch,Dec.3,1920,SCCLConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH;J.W.BryanttoClarenceP.Newton,Oct.18,1915,ArCHAA,Bryant,ArSA;SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1913),3:687-88.

3.ForthecompletetestimonyofMills,seeInvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.187-205,GDAH.SeealsoMills

toW.LowndesCalhoun,Apr.1,1900,GSH,BoardofTrustees,LettersReceived,GDAH,andJ.W.BryanttoClarenceP.Newton,Oct.18,1915,ArCHAA,EdwardTillotson,ArSA.Forinstancesofinmatedrunkennessandmanagementdisgust,seeGSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),pp.6-7,9-10,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:48-50,133,3:185,244,266-67,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,ReportbyCommandantWilliamH.Terry(c.May1887),Correspondence,VSL;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:190,197,LHAC;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),p.6,TxSA.

4.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:123-24,147,165,299,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,3:36,VSL;TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1900),p.9,TxSA;JamesS.FouchétoDr.W.T.C.Bates,Oct.9,1924,SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH;SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,Oct.1923,pp.144-45,SCDAH;SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissionersReport(1913),SCDAH.MorphineaddictionintheUnitedStatesaftertheCivilWarwasknownasthe"armydisease,"asnumerousphysiciansprescribedopiumormorphinetodiseasedordisabledveteransinordertorelievetheirphysicalpainandperhapstheirmentalanguishaswell.SeeCourtwright,"OpiateAddiction."

5.TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1901),p.7,AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.;CarrtoMarthaHaywood,Dec.22,1920,Nov.6,1922,HaywoodPapers,NCDAH;

GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:273,GDAH.SeealsoMrs.JamesPleasantstoNormanV.Randolph,Jan.9,1893,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL,regardingadismissedinsubordinateinmatewhoearnestlydesired"thehelpfulrestraints"ofthehome.

6.Ofthe46inmatesquestionedbytheGeorgiainvestigatingcommitteeinDecember1905,23hadnocomplaints;18indicatedthatdrunkennessandcursingbyfellowinmatesworriedthemthemost;8criticizedthehome'sclothingandfoodquality;2specificallyexpresseddispleasureforpasses,curfews,andthemanagement;whileonly3madeapositivestatementoftheirtreatmentinthehome.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:3,GDAH.

7."TheConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia,"AtlantaJournalMagazine,Apr.28,1912;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:180,3:103,113,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:44,4:15,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(June2,1906),LHAC;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:141,158,2:352,VSL;AustinConfederateHomeNews,Feb.17,1912;"SermonfromaVeterantoComrades,"ConVet9(1901):549-50;SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,May12,1922,pp.93-94,SCDAH.

8.McCampbell,Ex-ConfederateSoldiers'Home,Richmond.

9.TexasSenateJournal(1913),p.93;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,58-59,TSLA;SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,Apr.13,1922,p.90,SCDAH;JamesW.PegramtoComrades,Oct.27,1893,W.GordonMcCabetoJamesPegram,Oct.30,1893,andCharlesW.BingleytoNormanV.Randolph,Apr.14,1891,allinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL.

10.CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:30,LHAC;FredObertoAlexN.Power,Sept.7,1907,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.

11.SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1918),2:62-64;SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,June6,1922,June12,1923,SCDAH.SeeCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes2:397,LHAC,whichundoubtedlyofferedabetteralternativethanDirectorB.T.Walshe'srecommendationthat"anyinmatewhocausedanydisturbance...wouldbesenttoprison."SeealsoTennesseeHouseJournal(1911),pp.947-48.

12.SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1913),3:687-88;JDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,FifthBiennialReport(1912-13),pp.4-5,USM.ForThompson'sobservations,seeInvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.329-32,327,GDAH.ForOber'sremarks,seeCNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(May5,1906),LHAC.

13.SeeL.R.Wallace,H.H.Turner,J.T.GreentoSupt.[McDaniel],July13,1922,andMcDaniel'sreplyofJuly17,1922,bothinArCHAA,GeorgeW.Glen,ArSA.

14.SeeLCSHAA,MarshallS.Brown,VSL,whichalsohastheveteran'srecordasaninmate;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:45,50,79-80,VSL;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:159,185,191,3:70-72,140-41,146,167,GDAH;TSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,pp.20-21,TSLA;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:275,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(June3,1904),LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(Nov.17,1897),LHAC;and

SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,May12,1922,p.93,andJuly11,1924,pp.18990,SCDAH.

15.CardwelltoW.G.Peterson,Dec.16,1910,SCCIAA,JohnF.Johnson,SCI)AH;SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,Sept.,18,1923,SCDAH.

16.J.M.HugheytoCardwell,Jan.10,1910,SCCIAA,Hughey,SCDAH.

17.WilliamBarrtoJohnC.Loggins,Oct.16,1918,TxHM,BoardofManagers,Correspondence,TxSA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Mintues,2:423:88,101,176,GDAHEdwardTraverstoT.C.Will,Dec.27,1908,andJohnEdenstoH.H.Ward,Sept.3,1907,bothinCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;JamesE.ChildresstoA.L.Phillips,June25,1902,LCSHAA,Childress,VSL,;R.P.WillifordtoWilliamJ.McMurray,Mar.22,1893,TSHAA,Williford,TSLA;TennesseeActs(1899),p.1257.

18.G.W.ThompsontoFelixG.Swaim,Oct.5,1909,ArCHAA,Thompson,ArSA.

19.Soonafterward,Thompsonleft.ButtwelveyearslaterhewasreadmittedalongwithhiswifeandhediedatthehomeinJanuary1928.FelixG.SwaimtoAdjutantGeneral'sOffice,Apr.19,May6,14,1911,ArCHAA,G.W.Thompson,ArSA.

20.BonhamtoW.D.Starling,Oct.2,1909,SCCIAA,RileyRowland,SCDAH;MalachiWhittletoB.T.Walshe,June25,1899,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:8-11,39,GDAH.SeealsoapairofDelbridge'sclemencypetitions,onehandwrittenanddatedJan.15,1907,theothertypedanddatedJuly7,1907,GSH,BoardofTrustees,LettersReceived,GDAH.

21.RufusK.HoustontoBoardofDirectors,May1918,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,3:178-79,186-87,VSL.

22.AustinConfederateHomeVidette,.May15,1912;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:148,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(Jan.25,1909),LHAC.

23.Aboutayearandahalffollowinghisreadmission,Hortonwasgrantedadischargeathisownrequest.Hediedofbronchitissixmonthslater.SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,Mar.31,1920;J.I.WardlawtoGov.R.A.Cooper,Aug.27,1920,andS.E.WelchtoWardlaw,Oct.25,1920,bothinSCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes:SCCI,InmateRecords,1:160,SCDAH.

24.SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissionersReport(1913),SCDAH;SCCI,ExecutiveCommittee,Minutes,July11,1922,June1923,pp.98,96,130,SCDAH.

25.ForSevern'sordeal.seehislettertotheBoardofDirectors,Aug.31,1900,JohnJ.AubertintoAldenMcLellan,Sept.1,1900,SeverntoE.E.Smart,Oct.2,1900,andMcLellantoLeonJastremski,Oct.15,1900,allinCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.

26.ForapublishedaccountofthesensationalRipleycase,seeBoardofDirectorstoAANVandAAT,Sept.9,1893,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.SeealsoCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:99-100,LHAC;LouisianaHouseJournal(1894),pp.824-25;andNewOrleansDaily-Picayune,June11,1894.

27.Forcriticismsbyinmates,seeInvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.100,117-128,136-41,228-29,232,280,287-90.292,365,367-68.374.

CNSH.Thecommittee'sfindingsbeginonp.466.FortheCommittee'sorigins,seeGeorgiaLaws(1906),pp.1164-65.Regardinglegislativeinvestigationsofotherhomes,seethepetitionbyE.G.Walletal.,July4,1892,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSI,;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:359-66,2:22-25,VSL;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,5:76-78,LHAC.

28.SeeInvestigationoftheTexasHomeforMen(1917),pp.34-36,39-40,45,85-87,91,114-15,177,TxSA.

29.SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1913),3:687-88;SouthCarolinaHouseJournal,(1920),pp.10-11;DavidCardwelltoMartinAnsel,May6,1910,andAnseltoCardwell,May7,1910,bothinAnselPapers,SCDAH.Regardingthegenerallynonchalantattitudetowardinmateallegations,seeTexasHouseJournal(1901),pp.638-39;NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,Jan.19,1913.Foroverwhelminglyfavorableendorsementsofhomeadministrations,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:149,4:27,29-30,43.GDAH;TexasHouseJournal(1895),p.457;(1907),p.694;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1913),pp.1140-42,1255-57;LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:149-51,VSL,.Forthedefensivepostureadoptedbyhomeofficials,seeInvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),p.177,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,5:75-77,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(Sept.7,1918),LHAC;BoardofVisitorstoJ.C.Batchelder,Apr.16,1912,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,VSL;Rev.G.CroftWilliamstoCapt.J.I.Wardlaw,Sept.3,1920,andWardlawtoWilliams,Sept.7,1920,bothinSCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH.

30.Forallegationsofretributionagainstinmates,seeTennesseeSenateJournal(1897),pp.805-7;H.H.MashburntoJulianS.Carr,Nov.3.1922,HaywoodPapers,NCDAH;the176-pagestenographic

reportfiledinreactiontothepetitionbyE.G.Walletal.,July4,1892(esp.pp.36,39-40,95),VSL,;JohnN.OpietoNormanV.Randolph,Feb.7,1900,LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;InvestigationoftheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home(1906),pp.22-24,40-51,221.GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,5:84,91-92,95-96,LHAC.

31.NormanV.RandolphtoJohnN.Opie,Feb.7,1900,LCSH,BoardofVisitors.Correspondence,VSL.

32.GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:87-88,100,290,3:56,64,180-81,189-90,4:18-19,141,GDAH;JohnWatsontoBoardofDirectors,May31919,CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,LHAC;TexasHouseJournal(1913),pp.942-43;BenS.WilliamstoS.E.Welch,Dec.3,1920,SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH.

33.Fortheetymologyof"inmate,"seeOxfordEnglishDictionary,5:307.Forformalpetitionspresentedbyinmatesandmanagementalike,seethehanndwritten"ExhibitA"byM.L.Fariesetal.,c.Apr.1905,GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:200-21,GDAH;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,3:265,270,279,280-300,LHAC:TSH.BoardofTrustees,Minutes,45,TSLA;UnsignedtoTheExecutiveCommittee,Dec.27,1905,JeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Homerecords,AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,Montgomery.

Chapter8

1.Foster,GhostsoftheConfederacy,pp.3-5,7,178-79,197.

2.Everyhomehadahospital,anoteworthyadditionthateventuallytransformedeachinstitution.SeeOlds,"HistoryoftheSoldiers'HomeatRaleigh,"pp.1,8;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:80-82,GDAH;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1914),p.3,GDAH;LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1897),p.4,VSL;TennesseeBoardofCharitiesReport(1915),p.31;J.L.WardlawtoH.E.Thompson,Jan.5,1917,SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH;SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1911),5:114-15;(1917),2:63-64.

3.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1886),p.9;(1894),pp.7-9;(1896),pp.7-8;(1898),pp.12-14,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:171,LHAC.Theterm"trivial"isusedbySurgeonET.FryinLCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1899),p.7,VSL.

4.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1906),pp.19-20;(1908),pp.17-18;(1914),pp.17-18,LHAC;M.JamesStevensnotebook,Beauvoir.TheArkansashomehospital,originallybuiltin1894,wasfirstexpandedin1907,thenenlargedandrefurbishedin1917,andaddedtoathirdtimein1923.ConVet16(1908):182;Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,p.4.By1915therewerethreehospitalsonthegroundsoftheKentuckyConfederateSoldiers'Home.ConVet23(1915):462-63.

5.Foranunfavorablecritiqueofhospitalcare,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:143,GDAH.ForMoore'soptimisticdata,seeTxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1912),p.9,AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.Lifeexpectancyin1900forAmericanmenagedsixty-fivewas11.9years;fromageseventy-fiveitwas7.1years.Faber,LifeTables.

6.ClarencePNewtontoGeorgeBrackman,Oct.12,1918,ArCHAA,Brackman,ArSA.

7.LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1905),p.7;(1910),p.7;(1915),pp.8-9;(1918),pp.8-9,VSL;JDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,FifthBiennialReport(1912-13),pp.5-6,USM.

8.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1896),p.7;(1902),p.13,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1906),p.7,GDAH.

9.TxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1892),pp.4,8;(1894),p.5,TxSA;Stith,"PlatoftheConfederateHomeatAustin,Texas,"TexasConfederateMuseum,Austin;Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,p.58;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:469,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1906),pp.4,26-39;(1908),pp.24-25,LHAC;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,2:87,GDAH;Poole,"FinalEncampment,"pp.12-13.

10.SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions(1918),2:62-64.

11."GoldKeySouvenirofBeauvoir"(c.1929),JDBMSH,Correspondence,USM;BiloxiDailyHerald,Mar.27,1919;ConVet36(1928):186-87.

12.TheLeeCampHome'smonthlypercapitaexpensesfrom1884to1898averaged$8.09.Duringthatsameperiod,thehomereceived$428,056,63.8percentofwhichrepresentedstateappropriations,theremainderbeingcityandprivatecontributions.

LCSH,BoardofVisitors,Minutes,1:45,77,102-03,167,182-83,VSL;LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1895),pp.5-6;(1896),p.4;(1898),pp.5-6,VSL.TheArkansashomegotofftoashakystart.Afterlessthanonefullyear,itfellintoarrearsbysome$2,500,adebtthatthelegislaturehadtomakegoodin1893.ArkansasGazette,Aug.7,1892;Thomas,ArkansasandItsPeople,1:235.

13.Herndon,CentennialHistoryofArkansas,1:436.ForaglimpseoftheterribletimetheArkansashomeadministratorshadwiththeirfinances,seeArCH,Superintendent'sReport(1915-16),pp.5-10.ThedifficultyinbalancingbudgetsisfurtherillustratedinCNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1914),pp.12-13,LHAC.Thereportshowsthatduringthebiennialperiod1912-14,theinstitution'sexpensessurpassedreceiptsbymorethan$2,000.

14.See,forexample,therecordsoftheArkansashomefortheperiod1923-24.Theprovisions,fuel,andpayrollcostsaccountedformorethantwo-thirdsofthetotaloperatingexpensesof$163,013.62.Thecostforcareandtreatmentoftheinmateswasroughly$15,000,or9percentofthetotaldisbursements.Atapproximatelythesametimethemedicalstaffconsistedofaresidentphysician,anassistantphysician,apharmacist,ahospitalmatron,anurse,andvarious"helpers."ArCH,BoardofManagersReport(1924),p.12.

15.Forjustafewconstructionandrepairscosts,seeGeorgiaLaws(1906),pp.1920;(1911),pp.37-38;andTexasLaws(1917),pp.86-88.Between1905and1918theLeeCampHome'smonthlypercapitaexpensesforfoodandtobaccoaloneaveraged$13.47.LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1905),pp.5-6;(1910),p.5;(1915),p.5;(1918),p.7,VSL.ConcerningthespiralinginflationTexasofficialsgrappledwith,seeTxHM,BoardofManagersReport(1904),p.6;(1916),pp.6-7,AustinPublicLibrary,Austin,Tex.;(1918),p.6,TxSA.

16.Bywayofcomparison,theLouisianastateconstitutionof1898

fixedCampNicholls'sannualpercapitaappropriationsat$130.Beauvoir'sallotmentfrom1909to1919wassetat60centspercapitaperday,whilethestateofTexasoriginallyplacedacaponsoldiers'homefundsat$100,000peryear.CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1906),p.7,LHAC;Raines,YearBookforTexas,1901,57;BiloxiDailyHerald,Apr.26,1916.

17.Thisfigurehasbeencomputedbymultiplyingthepercapitaallowancetimesthestandardonehundredinmatestimesfifteen.AsFigure2intheAppendixindicates,enrollmentintheTennesseeinstitutiondidnotreachonehundreduntil1899,afterwhichinmatepopulationcontinuedtoclimbuntilitreacheditsapexof130in1908.Fromthatpointoninmatepopulationgradually,thenrapidly,declined.TennesseeSenateJournal(1891),p.174;(1897),pp.118,922;TennesseeHouseJournalAppendix(1895),pp.3-4;TennesseeHouseJournal(1899),p.303;TennesseeHouseandSenateJournalAppendix(1905),p.1;TennesseeActs(1909),p.41;(1911),pp.17-18;(1915),p.98.

18.AccordingtoWhite,ConfederateVeteran,pp.113-14,thetotalcostforallfifteenConfederatehomesin1914aloneamountedto$518,000;trulyabargain,comparedtoConfederatepensionpaymentsbysouthernstates,whichtotaled$7.4millionduringthesameyear.Fordebtamortizationandmiscellaneousdisbursements

intheTennesseeandotherhomes,seeTennesseeSenateJournal(1909),p.41;TennesseeActs(1911),pp.17-18;Connor,ManualofNorthCarolina,p.167;LouisianaActs(1902),pp.382--83;andTexasLaws(1917),pp.86-88.ForSuperintendentTartt'srequest,seeJDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,EighthBiennialReport(1918-19),Beauvoir.

19.GSH,BoardofTrusteesReport(1910),p.7,GDAH;TxHM,SuperintendentReport(1904),p.8,TxSA;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1902),p.5,LHAC;LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1901),p.5,VSL;ConVet18(1910):280.

20.ChartermembersoftheNashvilleauxiliaryincludedmenGovernorPeterTurney,JohnOverton,AmericaneditorDuncanCooper,attorneyJohnChildressaswellasthewivesofveteranactivistsGeorgeGuild,JohnHickman,andGideonBaskette.Poppenheim,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,1:234;NashvilleDailyAmerican,Apr.10,1890.Forarenderingofsomeofthegroup'smanygifts,seeTSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,p.56,TSL-A;andConVet23(1915):441-42;16(1908):180.Seealso,Climer,"ProtectorsofthePast";andCody,TennesseeDivisionUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,pp.39-46.

21.Thephrase"secondarybureaucracy"hasbeenborrowedfromHall,TheOrganizationofAmericanCulture,pp.262-63,thoughitisuseddifferentlyhere.FortheemotionalvisittotheTennesseehome,seeConVet14(1906):271.Regardingvisitstootherhomes,seeCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,2:75,385,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,HouseCommitteeReport(Dec.2,1905),LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,PresidentReport(June6,1900);(Sept.30,1900);(May7,1904);(June3,1904),LHAC;RaleighNewsandObserver,Dec.5,1920;Poole,"FinalEncampment,"p.16;White,ConfederateVeteran,p.113;ConVet2(1894):367;5(1897):114-15,546;18

(1910):280;MontgomeryAdvertiser,May26,1903;andMountainCreek,Ala.,News,Apr.21,28,1904.

22.ConVet5(1897):179;9(1901):226-27;BenS.WilliamstoMrs.CorneliaG.Walker,Nov.29,1929,SCCI,ConfederateHomeCommissioners,Minutes,SCDAH;BiloxiDailyHerald,Nov.23,1914,Feb.4,8,May8,July4,Oct.6,10,25,1916.Forthe"proper"roleofwomenintheveterans'institutions,seeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:11,13,GDAH.Forotherclashesbetweenwomenandmanagement,seeTSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,45,TSLA;GSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,3:234,243,GDAH;SausseyDiary,GDAH;GeorgiaHouseJournal(1925),pp.1280-84;lettersfromMrs.NormanV.Randolph,May3,1899,andMrs.KateP.Minor,c.1899,bothinLCSH,BoardofVisitors,Correspondence,VSL;andlettersfromMrs.EdwardGottschalk,Aug.1,1912,andGeorgeH.Lord,Aug.21,1912,bothinCNSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,LHAC.

23.Huey,AlabamaDivision,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,pp.81-86.

24.Intheend,onlytheFloridahomeexcludedwomeninmates.SCCI,InmateRecords,SCDAH.Fortheshiftinwomen'srolesatCampNicholls,seeCNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1904),p.6;(1918),p.15;(1922),p.4,LHAC;CNSH,BoardofDirectors,Minutes,4:145,147,LHAC;NewOrleansTimes-Picayune,Jan.5,1921;andCNSH,BoardofDirectors,HouseCommitteeReport(Mar.31,1921),LHAC,inwhichthecommitteechairmancommenced,"LadiesandGentlemen..."orasimilar

changeintheNorthCarolinainstitution,seeWilliamC.StronachtoRebeccaCameron,Oct.23,1900,HinsdalePapers,WilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,N.C.;NorthCarolinaLaws(1891),p.795;NCSH,WarrantsandWeeklyPayroll(1910),NCDAH;andNorthCarolinaDepartmentofHumanServices,InspectionofNCSH,1920and1924,NCDAH.SeealsoSouthCarolina.cts(1921),pp.119-20;BiloxiDailyHerald,Mar.16,1962;andConVet35(1927):197.

25.In1949,afterthelastConfederateveteranhaddied,thehomewasopenedtoveteransofallwars.Lashley,"Oklahoma'sConfederateVeteransHome,"pp.34-45;Lashley,"ConfederateVeteransinOklahoma."

26.Richardson,Wallace,andAnderson,LoneStarState,p.316.

27.SeeWilliams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,'"p.41,whicharguesthat,astheageofresidentsincreased,problemsofmisbehaviorattheLeeCampIlomewerefewerandtheruleswerealteredtoaccommodateoldermen.Notwithstandingthisargument,theofficialrecordsoftheinstitutionrevealotherwise.From1897to1899,forexample,asmanyassixteenLeeCampHomeinmatesweredismissedforcause;between1915and1917,fourteenwereexpelled,onlyaslightdecrease.LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1898-1900,1916-18),VSL.SeealsoCNSH,BoardofDirectors,InvestigatingCommitteeReport(1900,1915,1919),LHAC.BetweenJuly1,1899,andNov.16,1900,CampNichollsofficialscited101inmatesforrulesviolationsrangingfromintoxicationtodisturbingthepeace,assaultandbattery,threats,andinsubordination.BetweenJan.4,1913,andDec.5,1914,thirtyinmateswerebroughtuponcharges:fourteenfordrunkennessandbootlegging,eightfordisturbingthepeaceandfighting,andfourforthreateningandabusinghomeofficers.In1918,eightinmateswerefoundguiltyofcreating

disturbances,includingclimbingthefrontfence.So,whilethenumberofinfractionsclearlyappearstohavedecreasedovertime,thepresumptionthatagedinmatestendedtobemorepassiveinlatteryearsisquestionableindeed.

28.SeeGSH,BoardofTrustees,Minutes,4:279,GDAH,andNCSH,Superintendent'sInmateBehaviorLog(1923-24),pp.107-8,NCDAH,forrecordedbreachesindiscipline.Forthewords"creditableappearance,"seeCNSH,BoardofDirectors,HouseCommitteeReport(June6,1919),LHAC.Forexamplesofasuperintendent'scontinuedconcernforveterans'hygiene,seeMassDiary,1:26-27,39,41,USM.

29.ForRixey'sproposals,seeCong.Rec.,55thCong.,3rdsess.,vol.32,pt.1,p.268;57thCong.,1stsess.,vol.35,pt.1,pp.627,632,637;and58thCong.,2ndsess.,vol.38,pt.2,p.1873.ForreactiontotheVirginian'sbills,seeCong.Rec.,57thCong.,1stsess.,vol.35,pt.1,pp.628-34,andpt.8,Appendix,pp.91-92.ForthestatementattributedtoGardner,seeMontgomeryAdvertiser,Apr.27,1902.

30.SeeSenateCommitteeonMilitaryAffairs,HomesforConfederateVeteransHearing,andHouseCommitteeonInvalidPersons,ClaimsofConfederateSoldiersHearing.SeealsoConVet23(1915):102-3;24(1916):8,56,90.

31.Cong.Rec.,64thCong.,1stSess.,pp.24,83.ForWilson'sremarks,seeConVet25(1917):296-97,andLink,PapersofWoodrowWlilson,42:451-53.RegardinghowtheFirstWorldWarremindedsouthernersoftheir"sacredduty"toJohnnyReb,seeConVet25(1917):143,232-33,364,506-12;28(1918):240,428-29,539;27(1919):35,45,409-10,478.

32.ConVet18(1910):33,280;34(1926):118;Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,18.ForamournfulaccountofavisittotheConfederatehomeatPikesville,Maryland,seeConVet29(1921):176-78.

33.ConVet18(1910):6.

34.TexasBoardofControlReport(1920),TxSA;TexasLaws(1919),pp.323-27.TheTexashomeretained"Confederate"initsofficialtitleuntilitsclosing,thoughthelastConfederateveteraninresidencehaddiedin1954.Newspaperaccountsareusefulinreconstructingtheinstitution'slatteryears,whenitservedasastatehospital.SeeespeciallyAustinAmericanStatesman,May25,1941,June5,1957,May21,1963,Aug.11,1966,Nov.4,Dec.20,1970.

35.Lancaster,FloridaDivision,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,pp.11-13;FloridaLaws(1921),pp.262-64.

36.LCSH,BoardofVisitorsReport(1921),pp.3-4,VSL;Williams,"'Home...fortheOldBoys,"'p.46.

37.W.J.Edwards,thelastveteranadmittedtotheTennesseehome(in1937),diedthreeyearsafterhisenrollment.TSH,RecordofInmates(1918),p.129,TSLA.TennesseeDepartmentofInstitutions,BiennialReport(1934);Poole,"FinalEncampment,"14-17;Casey,Encyclopedia,p.142;CNSH,BoardofDirectorsReport(1938),LHAC;FloridaTreasurer'sReport(1940),p.105;FloridaLaws(1921),pp.262-64;Lancaster,FloridaDivision,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,p.19;ConVet34(1926):90;39(1931):431.

38.Forexample,thefirstofeighty-twowidowsandwiveswasadmittedtotheSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmaryonApril4,1925.Thefirstofseventy-fivedaughterswasadmittedinSeptember1935.Thefirstsisterofaveteran(ageseventyyearsorolder)wasadmittedinJuly1930,byvirtueofalegislativeactpassedthe

previousyear;andbeginningin1943,thestateallowedniecestobeadmittediftheyhadbeenbornpriorto1873.

39.ConfederateVeteranOfficialBulletin,SouthCarolinaDivision,UCV(July1935,p.3;SouthCarolinaStatutesatLarge(1957),p.446;ColumbiaState,June30,1957,June18,1963;ColumbiaRecord,Feb.11,June12,1957;CharlestonNewsandCourier,June23,1963.

40.Kane,DearDorothyDix,pp.270-71.

41.J.L.PeetetoMrs.JosieC.Rankin,June9,1948,WarrenG.Frenchto[Rankin],Mar.4,1948,andMrs.EmileJoffrionto[Rankin],Jan.20,1948,allinJDBMSH,BoardofDirectors,Correspondence,USM.SeealsoThomasERichardson(ofNewHaven,Conn.)toOldSoldiersHome,Sept.29,1947,andRankintoC.C.Shores(ofOklahomaCity),Sept.3,1947,bothinibid.

42.MississippiLaws(1940),pp.569-73;(1955),pp.287-88;NewOrleansTimes-Picayune,Jan.11,1954;DixieTimes-PicayuneStatesRotoMagazine,June5,1955;Bassett,"HistoryofBeauvoirJeffersonDavisShrine,"pp.47-66;McCain,Minutes,BoardofDirectors,pp.108-9;BiloxiDailyHerald,Mar.16,1962.

43.Gaither,ArkansasConfederateHome,p.6;ConVet18(1910):11,224;21(1913):348;29(1921):177;M.L.Smithto[PensionCommissionersforYorkCounty],Apr.4,1911,SCCIAA,ThomasThomasson,SCDAH.

Epilogue

1.ConVet34(1926):73;37(1929):164,191,311,432;38(1930):200;LosAngelesTimes,Apr.16,1929.

Appendix

1.Wiley,LifeofJohnnyReb,pp.322-24.

2.Hammond,''CommonDisordersoftheAged";Chen,"ControlandDiarrhoealDisease,MorbidityandMortality";RichardJ.Anderson,"MedicalDiagnoses."

3.Hunt,"WorkersatGainfulOccupations,"pp.393-425.

4.SeePowers,MeasuresofSocioeconomicStatus.

5.TennesseansintheCivilWar.Forarelatedstudylinkingsocioeconomicstatusandrank,seeKrick,Lee'sColonels.

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SubscriberstotheConfederateSoldiers'HomeandWidows'andOrphans'Asylum

KentuckyConfederateSoldiers'Home,PeweeValleyBoardofTrustees,MinutesClothingIssueBookCommandantReportsHospitalRegisterInmatesRegisterMiscellaneousReportsOfficerandEmployeePayrollPhysicianandUndertakerRecordsPurchaseLedgersRulesandRegulations

LouisianaHistoricalAssociationCollection,Howard-TiltonMemorialLibrary,

TulaneUniversity,NewOrleansCampNichollsSoldiers'Home,NewOrleans

BoardofDirectorsCorrespondenceHouseCommitteeReportsInvestigatingCommitteeReportsMembershipListsMinutesPresidentReportsReports,1886-1938SecretaryReports

ClippingsandPamphletsFinancialRecordsRulesandRegulations

SuperintendentReportsSurgeonReports

WilliamD.McCainlibrary,UniversityofSouthernMississippi,Hattiesburg

JeffersonDavisBeauvoirMemorialSoldiers'Home,Biloxi,Mississippi

BoardofDirectorsCorrespondenceMinuteBook,1920-36Reports

MississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,JacksonJeffersonDavisBeauvoirMemorialSoldiers'Home,Biloxi

RegisterofInmates

NorthCarolinaDivisionofArchivesandHistory,RaleighNorthCarolinaSoldiers'Home,Raleigh

BoardofIncorporators,Minutes

BuildingandMaintenanceExpensesDrugandWhiskeyAccountHospitalRecordofPatientsHospitalRegisterInmateExpensesInmateRecordInmateRegisterInmateRollBookLedgerAccountsPaidRecordofClothingIssuedSuperintendent'sInmateBehaviorLogVisitors'RegisterWarrantsandWeeklyPayroll

SouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,ColumbiaSouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary,Columbia

ApplicationsforAdmissionConfederateHomeCommissioners

MinutesReports

ExecutiveCommittee,MinutesInmateRecords

TennesseeStateLibraryandArchives,NashvilleTennesseeSoldiers'Home,Hermitage

ApplicationsforAdmissionBoardofTrustees

MinutesReport,1894

FinancialReportsRecordofInmates,1918RegisterofInmates

TexasStateArchives,AustinTexasConfederateHomeforMen,Austin

ApplicationsforAdmissionBlueprintsandDrawingsBoardofManagers

CorrespondenceReports,1891-1920

Patients'Ledger,HospitalRecordRosterofInmatesSuperintendentReports,1892-1909

VirginiaStateLibrary,RichmondLeeCampSoldiers'Home,Richmond

ApplicationsforAdmissionBoardofVisitors

ExecutiveCommitteeOrdersCorrespondenceInvestigativeCominitteeReportsMinutesReports,1886-1931

RegisterofInmates

MANUSCRIPTS

AlabamaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,MontgomeryJohnW.A.SanfordPapers

AtlantaHistoricalSociety,Atlanta,GeorgiaBruceandMorgan,ArchitectsBusinessFileConfederateVeteransFile

BarkerTexasHistoryCenter,UniversityofTexas,AustinHenryC.LindseyPapers

Beauvoir,theJeffersonDavisMemorialShrine,Biloxi,MississippiV.B.;ass,"DiningRoomRecordoftheJeffersonDavisSoldiers'Home,Beauvoir,Miss,1917-18,BookNo.1"

NI.JamesStevensNotebook

ConfederateMemorialPark,Marbury,AlabamaFritzHamerResearchNotes

GeorgiaDepartrentofArchivesandHistory,AtlantaJointCommitteeofIlouseandSenateInvestigationofthe

ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia,Stenographer'sTranscription,1906

JacksonvillePublic,Library,Jacksonville,FloridaFloridaSoldiers'HomePapers

LouisianaHistoricalAssociationCollection,Howard-TiltonMemorial

Library,TulaneUniversity,NewOrleansAssociationoftheArmyofNorthernVirginiaPapers

CorrespondenceMembershipReliefCommitteeReportsVeteransBenefits

AssociationoftheArmyofTennesseePapersCorrespondenceExecutiveCommitteeReportsMembershipMinutesReliefCommitteeReportsVeteransBenefits

JosephA.CharlaronPapers

WilliamD.McCainlibrary,UniversityofSouthernMississippi,Hattiesburg

V.B.MassDiary,1919-20

NationalArchives,Washington,D.C.

ConfederateCompiledServiceRecords

NorthCarolinaDivisionofArchivesandHistory,RaleighCivilWarPapers

WhartonJ.GreenScrapbookDanielG.FowlePapersMarthaHaywoodPapersJamesY.JoynerPapersNorthCarolinaBoardofPublicCharities,ReportNorthCarolinaDepartmentofHumanServices,EngineeringFiles

forStateBoardofHealthInspectionofStateInstitutions,InspectionRecords,NorthCarolina

Soldiers'Home,Raleigh,1920-1934NorthCarolinaPensionApplicationsFredA.OldsPapersLeonidasI..PolkPapersAlfredM.ScalesPapersWakeCountyLadiesMemorialAssociationPapers

ClippingsCorrespondenceMrs.(arlandJones,"LadiesMemorialAssociationofRaleigh,

NorthCarolina,"c.1902MinutesTreasurer'sBooks

WilliamR.PerkinsLibrary,DukeUniversity,Durham,NorthCarolinaWilliamLowndesCalhounPapersJohnW.HinsdalePapersCharlesE.JonesPapersWilliamH.ThomasPapers

SouthCarolinaDepartmentofArchivesandHistory,ColumbiaMartinF.AnselPapers

ColemanL.BleasePapers

SouthernHistoricalCollection,WilsonIibrary,UniversityofNorthCarolina,

ChapelHillJulianS.CarrPapersRaleighE.ColstonPapers

TennesseeStateLibraryandArchives,NashvilleBenjaminF.CheathamBivouacMinutesTennesseeConfederatePensionApplications

TexasConfederateMuseum,Austin"TheConfederateHomeinAustinbeforetheTurnoftheCentury,"

1954D.C.Stith,"PlatoftheConfederateHomeatAustin,Texas,

Containing25Acres"

TexasStateArchives,AustinFrankBrown,"AnnalsofTravisCountyandtheCityofAustin

(FromtheEarliestTimestotheCloseof1875),"unpublishedscrapbook

GovernorsRecordsM.A.FergusonJamesS.HoggDanMoody

TexasLegislativeCommitteetoInvestigateStateDepartmentsandInstitutions,

ConfederateHomeforMen,Stenographer'sTranscription,1917TexasStatutoryDocuments.Deeds,AbstractsandCessionsof

Jurisdiction,StateEleemosynaryInstitutions

VirginiaHistoricalSociety,RichmondGrandCampConfederateVeterans,DepartmentofVirginia,R.E.

LeeCampNo.1,Richmond,Va.,RecordsCorrespondenceLeeCampSoldiers'HomeLibraryRegisterMinutesRoster

VirginiaStatelibrary,RichmondExecutivePapers

WestmorelandDavisFitzhughLeeHenryC.StuartClaudeA.Swanson

MEMBERSHIPROLLS,ROSTERS,ANDBIOGRAPHICALCOMPILATIONS

Booth,AndrewB.,comp.RecordsofLouisianaConfederateSoldiersandLouisianaConfederateCommands.3vols.1920;reprint,Spartanburg,S.C.,1984.

ConfederateGrayBook,JohnBellfloodCamp,No.103,UCC.Austin,[c.1904].

ConfederateVeterans'EmploymentBureau.ListofApplicantsforEmployment.NewOrleans,[c.1895].

Donovan,TimothyP,andWillardB.Gatewood,eds.TheGovernorsofArkansas:EssaysinPoliticalBiography.Fayetteville,Ark.,1981.

Elliott,ColleenM.,andLouiseA.Moxley,eds.TheTennesseeCivilWarQuestionnaires.5vols.Easley,S.C.,1985.

Evans,ClementA.,ed.ConfederateMlilitaryHistory:,LibraryofConfederateStatesHistory.12vols.Atlanta,1899.

FrankCheathamBivouac,U.C.V.,Nashville.ConfederateGrayBook.Nashville,1911.

Garrett,William.ReminiscencesofPublicMeninAlabama.1875;reprint,Spartanburg,S.C.,1975.

Goodwin,AdolphO.,comp.Who'sWhoinRaleigh.Raleigh,1916.

Hemphill,J.C.AMenofMarkinSouthCarolina.4vols.Washington,D.C.,1907.

InauguralAddressesoftheGovernorsofMississippi,1890-1980.Oxford,Miss.,1980.

Krick,RobertK.Lee'sColonels:ABiographicalRegisteroftheFieldOfficersoftheArmyofNorthernVirginia.Dayton,Ohio,1979.

McBride,RobertM.,ed.BiographicalDirectoryoftheTennesseeGeneralAssembly.5vols.Nashville,1975-.

Mathes,JamesH.TheOldGuardinGray:ResearchesintheAnnalsoftheConfederateHistoricalAssociation.Memphis,1897.

MlenofAffairsinProgressiveNewOrleans.NewOrleans,1908.

Northen,WilliamJ.,ed.MenofMarkinGeorgia.7vols.1907;reprint,Spartanburg,S.C.,1974.

RolloftheAssociationoftheArmyofTennessee,LouisianaDivision,CampNo.2,U.C.VNewOrleans,1902.

Roster,LouisianaDivision,ArmyofNorthernVirginia,NewOrleans,La,Camp.No.1,U.C.VNewOrleans,1893.

RosterofInmatesoftheSoldiers'Home,Raleigh,NorthCarolina.Raleigh,1904.

Speer,WilliamS.,comp.SketchesofProminentTennesseans.Nashville,1888.

TennesseansintheCivilWar:AMilitaryHistoryofConfederateandUnionUnits,withAvailableRostersofPersonnel.2parts.Nashville,1964.

Who'sWhoinTennessee.Memphis,1911.

NEWSPAPERS,PERIODICALS,ANDCITYDIRECTORIES

ArkansasGazette(LittleRock),1889-92.

AtlantaConstitution,1889-1959.

AtlantaJournal,1965.

AtlantaJournalMagazine,1912.

AustinAmericanStatesman,1941-70.

AustinConfederateDrummer,1886.

AustinConfederateHomeNews,1912.

AustinConfederateHomeVideo,1912-13.

AustinDailyStatesman,1884-1913.

AustinRecord,1887.

BaltimoreAmerican,1888.

BiloxiDailyHerald,1914-62.

CarolinaFreePress(Columbia),1931.

CharlestonNewsandCourier,1963.

CharlotteHome-Democrat,1884.

Chataigne'sDirectoryofRichmond,Va,1883-84.

ChattanoogaDailyTimes,1889.

Clanton,Ala.,Banner,1902.

ColumbiaRecord,1957.

ColumbiaState,1908-63.

ConfederateVeteran,1892-1987.

ConfederateVeteran-OfficialBulletin,SouthCarolinaDivision,UCU(Columbia),1935.

Dixie,Times-PicayuneStatesRotoMagazine(NewOrleans),1955.

Edwardsville,Ala.,StandardNews,1902.

FloridaTimes-Union(Jacksonville),1892-1939.

Georgetown,Ky.,WeeklyTimes,1881-83.

HoustonChronicle,1944.

KnoxvilleJournal,1889.

MemphisDailyA.ppeal,1889.

MontgomeryAdtertiser,1901-4.

MountainCreek,Ala.,Neus,1904.

NashvilleBanner,1887-1908.

NashvilleCityDirectories,1885-1901.

NashvilleIDaily.rnerican,1885-89.

NewOrleansDaily-Picayune,1866-1915.

NewOrleansPicayune,1894-1954.

NewOrleansTimes-Democrat,1885.

NewOrleansTimes-Picayune,1880-1921.

NewYorkJournal,1889.

NewYorkSun,1884.

NewYorkTimes,1884.

NewYorkTribune,1884.

OrphansFriendandMasonicJournal(Raleigh),1926.

PassChristian,Miss.,PassNews,1895.

Polk'sAtlantaCityDirectoryfor1889.

RaleighDailyCall,1889.

RaleighNewsandObserver,c.1902-55.

RichmondTimes-Dispatch,1885-1989.

Soard'sNewOrleansCityDirectoryfor1883.

SouthernBivouac,1884-85.

SouthernHistoricalSocietyPapers,1885-92.

PUBLISHEDREPORTS,ADDRESSES,CONTEMPORARYHISTORIES,ANDYEARBOOKS

Anderson,Archer.AddressontheOpeningoftheLeeCampSoldiers'Home.Richmond,1885.

AssociationofConfederateSoldiers,TennesseeDivision.Minutes.Nashville,1898.

Benson,C.II."Yank"and"Reb":HistoryofaFraternalVisitPaidbyLincolnPost,No.11,G.A.R.ofNewark,NewJersey.Newark,1884.

Charlaron,JosephA."'CampNicholls,'TheSoldiers'HomeofLouisiana.OfficialSouvenirandHandBook.New(rleans,1905.

Codv,AnnieE.,comp.HistoryoftheTennesseeDivisionUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy.Nashville,[c.1947].

Cole,Howson,ed."LifeinCampLeeSoldiers'Home."VirginiaMagazineofHistoryandBiography70(1962):468-7).

ConfederateVeteransAnnualYearbook.Atlanta,1925.

Crew,H.H.HistoryofNashville,Tennessee.Nashville,1889.

Davis,T.Frederick.HistoryofJacksonville,FloridaandVicinity;1513-1924.1925;reprint,Gainesville,FIa.,1964.

Dorris,MaryC.PreservationoftheHeritage,1889-1915:Annals,History,andStories.Nashville,1915.

Caither,ZellaH.ArkansasConfederateHome.LittleRock,1922.

Cobrecht,J.C.HistoryoftheNationalHomesforDisabledVolunteerSoldiers.Dayton,Ohio,1875.

Goodspeed'sBiographicalandHistoricalMemoirsofLouisiana.3vols.Chicago,1892.

Guild,GeorgeB.ABriefNarrativeoftheFourthTennesseeCavalryRegiment,Wheeler'sCorps,ArmyofTennessee.Nashville,1915.

Hempstead,Fay.HistoricalReviewofArkansas.3vols.(Chicago,1911.

Herndon,DallasT.CentennialHistoryofArkansas.3vols.LittleRock,1922.

HistoryofClinchCounty[Georgia].Macon,Ga.,1916.

Huey,MattieMN.HistoryoftheAlabamaDivision,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy.Opelika,Ala.,[c.1937].

Hunt,WilliamC."WorkersatGainfulOccupationsattheFederalCensusesof1870,1880and1890."BulletinoftheDepartmentofLabor,no.11.Washington,I).C..1897.

Kendall,JohnS.HistoryofNewOrleans.3vols.NewOrleans,1922.

Lasswell,Mary,comp.anded.RagsandHope:TheRecollectionsofValC.Giles,FourYearswithHood'sBrigade,FourthTexasInfantry;1861-1865.NewYork,1961.

Lea,Mrs.R.J."MyPersonalRecollectionsoftheArkansasConfederateHome."SouthernMagazine2(1935-36).

Link,ArthurS.,ed.ThePapersofWoodrowWilson.67vols.Princeton,1966-.

Livermore,ThomasL.NumbersandLossesintheCivilWar:1861-1865.1900;reprint,Bloomington,Ind.,1957.

Lumpkin,KatherineDuPre.TheMakingofaSoutherner.NewYork.1947.

McCain,WilliamD.,comp.Minutes,BoardofDirectors,MississippiDivision,UnitedSonsofConfederateVeterans,June4,1954-June3,1958.Hattiesburg,Miss.,1958.

McCampbell,S.J.N.TheEx-ConfederateSoldiers'Home,Richmond,la..inVerse,byanInmate.Richmond,1886.

McMurray,WilliamJ.HistoryoftheTwentiethTennesseeRegimentVolunteerInfantry;C.S.A.Nashville,1975[1904].

MarylandLineConfederateSoldiers'Home.Baltimore,1889.

MinutesoftheSecondConventionofConfederateSoldiers,TennesseeDivision.Nashville,1889.

Olds,FredA."HistoryoftheSoldiers'HomeatRaleigh."OrphansFriendandMasonicJournal,Dec.1926.

Poppenheim,MaryB.TheHistoryoftheUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy.2vols.Raleigh,1956.

Richardson,FrankI."MyRecollectionsoftheBattleofthe14thofSeptember,1874."LouisianaHistoricalQuarterly3(1920):498-5(1.

Rodgers,RobertI,.,comp.HistoryoftheConfederateVeteransAssociationofFultonCount,Georgia.Atlanta,1890.

Roebuck,J.E.MyOwnPersonalExperienceandObservationasaSoldierintheConfederateArmy..N.p.,1911.

Rood,HoseaW.,andE.B.Earle,comps.HistoryoftheWisconsinVeterans'Home1886-1926.Milwaukee,1926.

Rosenburg,R.B.,ed.''FortheSakeofMyCountry'"TheDiaryofColonelWilliamW.Ward,9thTennesseeCavalry,Morgan'sBrigade,C.S.A.Murfreesboro,Tenn.,1992.

Russell,Mrs.A.J.LifeandLaborsofAlbertJ.Russell.Jacksonville,Fla.,1897.

Smith,JamesE.AFamousBatteryandItsCampaigns,1861-'64.Washington,D.C.,1892.

ThinGrayLine,1861-1922.Atlanta,1922.

Thomas,DavidY.,ed.ArkansasandItsPeople.4vols.NewYork,1930.

Waddill,EdwardNM.TheSongoftheSoldiersHomeofRaleigh.Raleigh,1895.

White,RobertH.,andStephenV.Ash,eds.,MessagesoftheGovernorsofTennessee.10vols.Nashville,1952--90.

Wooldridge,J.,ed.HistoryofNashville,Tennessee.Nashville,1890.

STATERECORDSANDGOVERNMENTPUBLICATIONS

ArkansasHouseJournal.

"CampNichollsTheSoldiers'HomeofLouisiana."LouisianaSecretaryofStateReport.BatonRouge,1894.

ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia:ActoftheGeneralAssemblyandRulesandRegulationsGoverningtheHome.Atlanta,1917.

ConfederateSoldiers'HomeofGeorgia:ActoftheGeneralAssembly,BoardofTrustees,RulesandRegulations.Atlanta,1901.

Connor,R.D.W.,ed.AManualofNorthCarolina.Raleigh,1913.

FloridaLaws.

FloridaTreasurer'sReport.

Gammel.H.P.N.,comp.LawsofTexas,1822-1897.10vols.Austin,1898.

GeorgiaHouseJournal.

GeorgiaLaws.

GeorgiaSenateJournal.

JournaloftheCongressoftheConfederateStatesofAmerica.7vols.Washington,D.C.,1905.

LouisianaActs.

LouisianaHouseJournal.

LouisianaSenateJournal.

MarylandLaws.

MississippiLaws.

Newsome,A.R.,ed.andcomp.NorthCarolinaManual,1929.Raleigh,1929.

NorthCarolinaHouseJournal.

NorthCarolinaLaws.

NorthCarolinaSenateJournal.

Raines,C.W.YearBookforTexas,1901.Austin,1902.

.YearBookforTexas,1902.Austin,1903.

RegulationsfortheArmyoftheConfederateStates.Richmond,1863.

Rowland,Dunbar,ed.andcomp.TheOfficialandStatisticalRegisteroftheStateofMississippi.Nashville,1904.

SouthCarolinaActs.

SouthCarolinaHouseJournal.

SouthCarolinaReportsandResolutions.

SouthCarolinaSenateJournal.

SouthCarolinaStatutesatLarge.

TennesseeActs.

TennesseeBoardofAdministration.BiennialReports.1918-1924.

TennesseeBoardofCharities.Reports.1896,1898,1903,1911,1915.

TennesseeCommitteeonCharitableInstitutions.Report.1913.

TennesseeDepartmentofInstitutions.BiennialReports.1924-1934.

TennesseeHouseandSenateJournalAppendix.

TennesseeHouseJournal.

TennesseeHouseJournalAppendix.

TennesseeSenateJournal.

TexasBoardofControl.Reports.1920-1944.

TexasHouseJournal.

TexasLaws.

TexasSenateJournal.

U.S.BureauoftheCensus."SoldiersandWidows."CompendiumoftheEleventhCensus:1890.Pt.3,Population.Washington,D.C.,

U.S.Congress.House.CommitteeonInvalidPensions.ClaimsofConfederateSoldiersHearing.64thCong.,1stsess.,Washington,D.C.,1916.

U.S.Congress.Senate.CommitteeonMilitaryAffairs.HomesforConfederateVeteransHearing.64thCong.,1stsess.Washington,D.C.,1916.

VirginiaActs.

VirginiaSenateJournal.

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Bailey,FredA.ClassandTennessee'sConfederateGeneration.ChapelHill,1987.

Barr,Alwyn.ReconstructiontoReform.TexasPolitics,1876-1906.Austin,1971.

Bartley,NumanV.TheCreationofModernGeorgia.Athens,Ga.,1983.

Benner,JudithA.SulRoss:Soldier,Statesman,Educator.CollegeStation,Tex.,1983.

Bradley,ChesterD.100YearsofVeteranCare,1870-1970.Hampton,Va.,1970.

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Chesson,MichaelB.RichmondaftertheWar,1865-1890.Richmond,1981.

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Hays,SamuelP.TheResponsetoIndustrialism,1885-1914.Chicago,1957.

Henry,Louis.PopulationAnalysisandModels.NewYork,1976.

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Horn,StanleyF.TheHermitage:HomeofOldHickory.1958;reprint,Nashville,1960.

Jackson,JoyJ.NewOrleansintheGildedAge:PoliticsandUrbanProgress,1880-1896.BatonRouge,1969.

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Katz,MichaelB.IntheShadowofthePoorhouse:ASocialHistoryofWelfareinAmerica.NewYork,1986.

Lancaster,CathrynG.EarlyYearsoftheFloridaDivision,UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,1896-1921.Jacksonville,1983.

Landry,StuartO.TheBattleofLibertyPlace:TheOverthrow,ofCarpet-BagRuleinNewOrleans.NewOrleans,1955.

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Linenthal,EdwardT.:ChangingImagesoftheWarriorHero:AHistoryofPopularSymbolism.NewYork,1982.

McClure,Ethel.MoreThanaRoofTheDevelopmentofMinnesotaPoorFarmsandHomesfortheAged.NewYork,1968.

McConnell,StuartC.GloriousContentment:TheGrandArmyoftheRepublic,1865-1900.ChapelHill,1992.

McMath,RobertC.,Jr.PopulistVanguard.AHistoryoftheSouthernFarmers'Alliance.ChapelHill,1975.

Magdol,Edward,andJonL.Wakelyn,eds.TheSouthernCommonPeople:StudiesinNineteenth-CenturySocialHistory.Westport,Conn.,1980.

Nixon,RaymondB.HenryW.Grady,SpokesmanoftheNewSouth.NewYork,1943.

Osterweis,RollinG.TheMythoftheLostCause,1865-1900.Hamden,Conn.,1973.

Ownby,Ted.SubduingSatan:Religion,Recreation,andManhoodintheRuralSouth,1865-1920.ChapelHill,1990.

Powers,MaryG.,ed.MeasuresofSocioeconomicStatus:CurrentIssues.Boulder.Colo.,1982.

Richardson,RupertN.,ErnestWallace,andAdrianN.Anderson,Texas:TheLoneStarState.3rded.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.,1970.

Riley,MatildaW.,ed.AgingfromBirthtoDeath:InterdiscplinaryPerspectives.Washington,D.C.,1979.

Roberts,Bobby,andCarlMoneyhon.PortraitsofConflict:APhotographicHistoryofArkansasintheCivilWar.Fayetteville,Ark.,1987.

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Shaw,Barton.TheWool-HatBoys:Georgia'sPopulistParty.BatonRouge,1984.

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Thompson,WarrenS.,andP.K.,Whelpton.PopulationTrendsintheUnitedStates.1933;reprint,NewYork,1969.

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Chen,L.C."ControlandDiarrhoealDisease,MorbidityandMortality:SomeStrategicIssues."AmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition31(1982):2284-90.

Courtwright,DavidT."OpiateAddictionasaConsequenceoftheCivilWar."CivilWarHistory24(1978):101-11.

Davis,HaroldE."HenryGrady,theAtlantaConstitutionandthePoliticsofFarminginthe1880s."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly71(1987):571-600.

"HenryW.Grady,MasteroftheAtlantaRing,1880-1886."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly69(1985):1-38.

Dean,EricT,Jr."'WeWillAllBeLostandDestroyed':Post-TraumaticStressDisorderandtheCivilWar,"CivilWarHistory37(1991):138-53.

Dovenmuele,RobertH.,E.W.Busse,andE.G.Newman."PhysicalProblemsofOlderPeople."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety9(1961):208-17.

Feldman,Peter,CeceliaMulcahey,andJosephBrudno."ADifferentApproachtotheTreatmentoftheOlderMaleVeteranPatient."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety9(1961):119-24.

Franklin,JohnH."PublicWelfareintheSouth,1865-1880."SouthernServiceReview44(1970):379-92.

Friedman,EdwardP."Age,LengthofInstitutionalizationandSocialStatusintheHomefortheAged."JournalofGerontology22(1967):474-77.

."SpatialProximityandSocialInteractioninaHomefortheAged."JournalofGerontology21(1966):566-70.

Goodman,JosephI."TheProblemsofMalnutritionintheElderly."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety5(1957):504-11.

Hammond,William."CommonDisordersoftheAged."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety4(1956):215-23.

Harrington,L.Garth,andA.CooperRice."AlcoholisminaGeriatricSetting:DisciplinaryProblems,MaritalStatusandIncomeLevel."

JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety10(1962):197-200.

Hattaway,Herman."Clio'sSouthernSoldiers:TheUnitedConfederateVeteransandHistory."LouisianaHistory12(1971):213-42.

"TheUnitedConfederateVeteransinLouisiana."LouisianaHistory16"(1975):5-37.

Havighurst,RobertJ.,andRichardGlasser."AnExploratoryStudyofReminiscence."JournalofGerontology27(1972):245-53.

Holmes,WilliamF."TheGeorgiaAllianceLegislature."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly68(1984):479-515.

"TheSouthernFarmers'Alliance:TheGeorgiaExperience."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly72(1988):627-52.

Kapnick,PhilipL.,JayS.Goodman,andElmerE.Cornwell."PoliticalBehaviorintheAged:SomeNewData."JournalofGerontology23(1968):305-10.

Klebaner,BenjaminJ."PovertyandItsReliefinAmericanThought,1815-61."JournalofSocialHistory38(1964):382-99.

Lashley,TommyG."Oklahoma'sConfederateVeteransHome."ChroniclesofOklahoma55(1977):34-45.

Lawton,M.Powell,andSilviaYaffe."Mortality,MorbidityandVoluntaryChangeofResidencebyOlderPeople."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety18(1970):823-31.

Lewis,CharlesN."ReminiscingandSelf-ConceptinOldAge."JournalofGerontology26(1971):240-43.

Lieberman,M.A."RelationshipsofMortalityRatestoEntrancetoaHomefortheAged."Geriatrics16(1961):515-19.

Markus,Elliot,MargaretBlenker,MartinBloom,andThomasDowns."TheImpactofRelocationuponMortalityRatesofInstitutionalizedAgedPersons."JournalofGerontology26(1971):537-41.

Miller,ThomasL."TexasLandGrantstoConfederateVeteransandWidows."SouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly69(1965):59-65.

O'Connor,Flannery."ALateEncounterwithtieEnemy."InAGoodManIsHardtoFind.NewYork,1953.

Poole,Herbert."FinalEncampment:TheNorthCarolinaSoldiers'Home."ConfederateVeteran(July-August1987):10-17.

Range,Willard."HannibalI.Kimball."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly29(1945):47-70.

Rao,DoddaB."ProblemsofNutritionintheAged."JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety21(1973):362-67.

Reid,JosephD.,Jr."WhiteLand,BlackLabor,andAgriculturalStagnation:TheCausesandEffectsofSharecroppinginthePostbellumSouth."InMarketInstitutionsandEconomicProgressintheNewSouth,1865-1900,editedbyGaryMI.Walton,pp.33-55.NewYork,1981.

Richter,RobertL."AttainingEgoIntegritythroughLifeReview."JournalofReligionandAging2(1986):1-11.

Rutland,Robert."CaptainWilliamB.Walton,MexicanWarVeteran."TennesseeHistoricalQuarterly11(1952):171-79.

Sutherland,DanielE."Exiles,EmigrantsandSojourners:ThePost-CivilWarConfederateExodusinPerspective."CivilWarHistory51(1985):237-56.

"SouthernFraternalOrganizationsintheNorth."JournalofSouthernHistory53(1987):587-612.

Tobin,SheldonS."PreservationoftheSelfinOldAge."SocialCasework69(1988):550-55.

Turner,BarbaraE"PersonalityTraitsasPredictorsofInstitutionalAdaptionamongtheAged."JournalofGerontology27(1972):61-68.

VandeWetering,Maxine."ThePopularConceptof'Home'inNineteenth-CenturyAmerica."JournalofAmericanStudies18(1984):5-28.

Vandiver,Frank."TheConfederateMyth."SouthwestReview46(1961):199-204.

Ward,RussellA."TheNever-MarriedinLaterLife."JournalofGerontology34(1979):861-69.

Williams,EmilyJ."'AHome...fortheOldBoys':TheRobertE.LeeCampConfederateSoldiers'Home."VirginiaCavalcade28(1979):40-47.

Young,JamesR."ConfederatePensionsinGeorgia,1886-1929."GeorgiaHistoricalQuarterly66(1982):47-52.

THESESANDDISSERTATIONS

Bassett,MarthaB."TheHistoryofBeauvoir-JeffersonDavisShrine."NI.A.thesis.UniversityofSouthernMississippi,1970.

Bellows,BarbaraL."TemperingtheWind:TheSouthernResponsetoUrbanPoverty,1850-1865."Ph.D.dissertation,UniversityofSouthCarolina,1983.

Cetina,JudithG."AHistoryofVeterans'HomesintheUnitedStates,1811-1950."Ph.D.dissertation,CaseWesternReserveUniversity,1977.

Climer,PatriciaF."ProtectorsofthePast:TheUnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy,TennesseeDivision,andtheLostCause."NI.A.thesis,VanderbiltUniversity,1973.

Davis,G.Stephen."JohnnyRebinPerspective:TheConfederateSoldiers'ImageinSouthernArts."Ph.D.dissertation,EmoryUniversity,1979.

Huffman,FrankJ.,Jr."OldSouth,NewSouth:ContinuityandChangeinaGeorgiaCounty,1850-1880."Ph.D.dissertation,YaleUniversity,1974.

Lashley,TommyG."AHistoryofConfederateVeteransin(klahoma."I.A.thesis,OklahomaStateUniversity,1975.

Ruoff,JohnC."SouthernWomanhood,1865-1920:AnIntellectualandCulturalStudy."Ph.D.dissertation,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign,1976.

Simpson,JohnA."S.A.CunninghamandtheConfederateHeritage."Ph.D.dissertation,UniversityofOregon,1987.

Weiler,N.Sue."TheAged,theFamily,andtheProblemsofaMaturingIndustrialSociety:NewYork,1900-1930."Ph.D.

dissertation,UniversityofIllinoisatChicago,1983.

Adams,James(inmate),35

AlabamaConfederateHome.SeeJeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Home

Allen,Charles(inmate),101

Allen,RobertW.(inmate),104

Anderson,Archer,12,28

Ansel,GovernorMartinF.,71,126

Applicationforadmissionforms,79-80,155

objectionsto,96

ArkansasConfederateHome,16(ill.)

foundingof,12,42-44

fund-raisingfor,43

appropriationsfor,44

floorplanof,74-75

andtheUDC,95

inmatesof,101-2,117,152

repairsto,137

financesof,137,209(nn.12,13,14)

Arthur,T.S.(inmate),148

Ashe,SamuelA'Court,36

AssociationoftheArmyofNorthernVirginia(AANV),7-9,30,34,107,124

AssociationoftheArmyofTennessee(AAT),8-9,30,34,124

Atkinson,WilliamY.,59

AtlantaConstitution,xiii,48-49,54,56,68

Aubertin,JohnJ.(superintendent),124

Augustin,John(administrator),32,125

Banks,AmosO.(inmate),80-81

Baskette,GideonH.,11-12,37,179(n.19)

Bass,H.O.(inmate),96

Battleof,LibertyPlace,8

Beasley,ColonelWilliamF,36

Beauregard,GeneralP.G.T,177(n.11)

Beavers,G.F(inmate),103(ill.)

Beecher,HenryWard,27

Belcher,H.E.(inmate),18

Bell,JudgeHoratioW.(administrator),83,89,104,111

BenjaminF.CheathamBivouacNo.1,9-10,37-39

Best,Nathan(inmate),136(ill.)

Bigger,CharlesP(superintendent),86

Binion,J.D.(inmate),204(n.39)

Black,JamesC.C.,50

Blackfoot,E.B.(inmate),117-18

Blacks:

andConfederatesoldiers'homes,61,66,192(n.31),193(n.37);

asemployees,95,110,127,133,195(n.11)

asinmates,136

Blue-Grayreunions,26

Boatright,Joe(inmate),104

Boden,George(inmate),15

Boisseau,DavidG.(inmate),101

Bonner,AndrewJ.(inmate),23

Booth,ThomasW.(inmate),16

Borland,Harold(inmate),152

Bradfield,J.O.(inmate),94

Bradford,J.C.(inmate),146(ill.)

Bridges,JuliusC.(inmate),97-98

Bromson,J.M.(inmate),127

Brooks,J.Hampden,70

Brown,JamesM.(inmate),152

Brown,JosephE.,48

Brown,Thomas(inmate),15

Brown,WesleyJ.(inmate),152

Bullitt,William(superintendent),86

Bullock,RufusB.,50

Bullock,Thomas(inmate),96

Burrow,Robert(inmate),102

Busbee,Fabius,36

Caldwell,J.P.(superintendent),121

Calhoun,WilliamLowndes(administrator),48,50,53,59-60,62,67,83,90

CaliforniaConfederateHomeSeeDixieManor

Cameron,W.C.(inmate),121

CampNichollsSoldiers'Home,7,34(ill.),107

establishmentof,30,34-35

oppositionto,30-32

dedicationof,35

fund-raisingfor,35

descriptionof,91

inmatesof,94,99,119-20,124,133

investigationof,124

hospitalof,133

groundsof,134

inmateenrollmentof,142

closingof,148

Candler,GovernorAllel,67

Cantrill,captainJamesF.,28

Cardwell,David(administrator),81,117,120

Carleton,Fred(administrator),33

Carr,JulianShakespeare(administrator),36,112

Carrington,WilliamC.,9

Carter,A.B.(inmate),79

Cathey,GeorgeI.(inmate),103(ill.)

Caylat,CharlesF.(inmate),15

Chapel,115(ill.)

asmoralitystage,113

Charity:aversionto,95-97,101,144

Charlaron,JosephA.(administrator),30

Chenoweth,JamesQ.(superintendent),82,87

ChildrenoftheConfederacy,67,145

Childress,Frank(inmate),156(ill.)

Cemlents,R.B.(inmate),18

Cleveland,PresidentGrover:endorsesLeeCampHome,27

Cline,G.C.(inmate),105

Coke,SenatorRichard,32

Colemanr,HenryDudley,9,31

Colquitt,SenatorAlfred,48,50,125

Colquitt,Hugh11,

(inmate),125

ConfederateMemorialDay,14,54,107,152

Confederatesoldiers'homeless:

antecedentsof,4

fundingfor,5,144,173

Unionveterans'supportfor,7,26-27,35,46,52

southerners'oppositionto,50-32,34,37-38,55

commercializationof,51(ill.)

children'sinvolvementin,67,145,147

entrancerequirementsfor,79-83

rulesandregulationsof,85-86

managementof,86

asfamilywritlarge,86,87

publicactivitiesat,90,107,145,147

blackemployeesof,95,110,127,133,195(n.11)

womenemployeesof,97,99,118,141

investigationsof,125-27;

hospitalsof,133-34

benefactorsfor,135

budgetsof,135,157

andthe1IDC,63-64,109,139-40

inmateenrollmentof,142,156,161,171

andfederalgovernment,144

andWorldWarI,144-45

Confederateveterans:

organizationsof,7-11,29-30,33,35,57,42,43-44,47-48,60,71,76

politicalactivismof,8,30,55,36,57,43,48-49,57,60

inVirginia,9,12

inLouisiana,9,14-15,17-18,50,32,34-35

inTennessee,9-13,15,22-25,37

andtheKlan,11,86

inArkansas,12,42-43,76

inAlabama,14,69,71,181(n.12)

discriminationagainst,18

inNewYorkCity,26-27,56

inKentucky,29

inTexas,32-33

inNorthCarolina,36

inMaryland,44

inMissouri,44

inFlorida,44,148;

inWestVirginia,45

inGeorgia,47-48,60

inChicago,56

andPopulists,61,66

inSouthCarolina,148

inCalifornia,153

numberof,162-64

ConfederateVeterans'EmploymentBureau,9,31

Cooke,GeneralJohnR.,9

Cooley,J.S.(inmate),43(ill.)

Corbett,Samuel(inmate),15

Corcoran,WilliamW.,27

Cutts,ColonelAllenS.,54-55,59

Davis,Jefferson,4,48,176(n.2)

birthdayof,67,71

Davis,Varina,70,139-40

Dawson,HenryJ.(inmate),13

Delbridge,WilliamJ.(inmate),120

Denton,AndrewJ.(inmate),22

DeSaussure,JohnM.(inmate),17

Discharges:

honorable,89(ill.),100,102

dishonorable,96

Discipline,82-85,87,89,92

DixieManor,153

Dobbins,Greenberry(inmate),24-25

Drunkenness,88,98,111

attemptstocombat,113-16

Eagle,GovernorJamesP.,42,44

Edwards,W.J.(inmate),212(n.37)

Ellis,WilliamD.,52

Employees:women,97,99,125,141

black,95,127,133,135;

theftby,99

German,126;

intimidationby,127

numberof,172

English,JamesW.,50

Evans,GeneralClementA.,59,62,65,73,90

Ex-ConfederateAssociationofArkansas,43,76

Falkner,JeffersonManly,xviii,2,69,74

Family:conceptofinhomes,73,86,87

Ferguson,Jasper,152

Fleming,GovernorFrancisP.,14,44

Fleming,WilliamH.,55-56,59-61

Fletcher,DuncanU.,145

Fletcher,JohnGould,42-43

FloridaOldConfederateSoldiersandSailorsHome:foundingof,44

conditionswithin,97-98

inmatesof,97-98

criticismsof,98

enrollmentat,138

andtheUDC,147

closingof,148

FloridaSoldiers'HomeAssociation,44

Folkes,H.M.(homesurgeon),134

Foster,GovernorMurphyJ.,32

Fox,Amos,50

Freeman,Frank(administrator),125,127

Fry,HughI.,15

FultonCountyConfederateVeteransAssociation,47-48,50,60,125

Gary,WilliamT.,65-66,68

GeorgiaSoldiers'Home:inmatesof,xi,63(ill.),68(ill.),104,117

burningof,47

foundingof,47-67

passim;fund-raisingfor,49

oppositionto,55-59,61,66

legislature'srejectionof,56,62,66

abandoned,62-63

attemptedauctionof,62-63

locationof,91

womenemployeesof,99,118,125,135

disturbancesat,105,118

inmatesof,105,118,120,125,127,142

investigationof,125

deathratein,134

andtheUDC,147

Gilmore,JamesY.,9,31

Ginter,Lewis,9

Givens,Wesley(inmate),101

Glynn,JohnB.(inmate),14

GonewiththeWind(movie):debutof,xi,153

Gordon,GeneralJohnB.,26,28,48-49,76

Grady,Henry,46-67passim,76

GrandArmyoftheRepublic,4,46

inLouisiana,26,35

andConfederatesoldiers'homes,26-27

Grant,PresidentU.S.:contributesto

LeeCampHome,27

Griffing,W.IL.(inmate),93-94,100

Guild,GeorgeB.,10-11,42

Hale,JamesB.(inmate),15

Haps,John(inmate),94,104

Hardeman,WilliamP.,197(n.28)

Harding,PresidentWarrenG.:greetsConfederateveterans,110

Harrison,William''Tip,"53,64,74,104

Hays,C.C.(inmate),97

Hemphill,W.A.,48,63

Herod,A.J.(inmate),104

Herring,MarcusD.(inmate),94

Hickman,JohnP.,10,38

Hill,DanielC.(inmate),79

Hill,I.D.(homesurgeon),112

Hill,Sue,99

Hill,Warner,57,60-61

Hillyer,GeorgeT.,50

Hodgkin,DoctorJ.B.(inmate),96,127

Hogg,GovernorJamesS.,33,90

Holderby,A.R.(homechaplain),127

Holt,JamesT.(inmate),15

Home:ideaof,73,88

Hooper,C.M.(inmate),97-98

Hoover,PresidentHerbert:Confederateveteransatinauguralof,110

Horton,C.C.(inmate),121

Houston,Rufus(inmate),120

Howell,Clark,xiii,54,61,66

Howell,Evan,48,50,59

Huffernan,John(inmate),95

Hughes,JamesM.(inmate),102

Hughey,J.M.(inmate),118

Hymel,F(inmate),94

Ingraham,Prentiss(inmate),102,150

Inman,John,50

Inman,SamuelM.,48,53,59

Inmates:

disabilitiesof,14,23,158,165

occupationsof,18,158,165

maritalstatusof,23,157-58,167,182(n.26)

workexpectationsof,37,75,79

workperformedby,78,104

screeningof,79-83,96

disciplineprescribedfor,83-86,114,124

dresscodefor,84

anddeference,84,143

punishmentof,87,101,116-20,121,124,143-44

expulsionof,88

dischargesof,89(ill.)

generaltreatmentof,93-95,111

entertainmentsfor,94,107,135,139,141,145

apparenthappinessof,94-95

fearsof,95-96,101

abuseof,97

complaintsof,97-98,101,104,113,124-26

complaintsagainst,98

drunkennessof,98,111-14,118

refusaltoworkby,99

violenceby,99,104-6,117,127

"escapes"by,99-101

seasonalmigrationof,100

suicidesby,100,112

"tenure"of,102-4,159,168

fightsbetween,104-5,120

substanceabuseby,105,112,204(n.4)

reminiscingby,106-7

excursionsby,110-11,204(n.39);

behaviorof,117-18,121,211(n.27)

reinstatementof,118-21

petitionsby,130,148,201(n.11),207(n.27,33)

medicaltreatmentof,133-34,138

deathratefor,134

burialof,138

andtheUDC,139-40

oppositiontohomeclosingsby,148

birthplacesof,156-57

religiousaffiliationof,159

socioeconomicstatusof,159

wealthof,159,166-67

estimatednumberof,161

ageatadmissionof,165

agingof,168

birthdatesof,170

James,J.W.(inmate),121

JeffersonDavisBeauvoirMemorialSoldiers'Home:

inmatesof,14,40(ill.),93-94,102,111,122(ill.)

foundingof,70

applicationforadmissionto,79-80

conditionswithin,94

cemeteryof,102,150

chapelof,115(ill.)

employeesof,133

hospitalsof,133

fundraisingfor,135

improvementsto138

appropriationsfor,138-39

closingof,150-51

preservationof,151

JeffersonManlyFalknerSoldiers'Home:

inmatesof,15,81,95,102,108-9,128(ill.)

foundingof,69

developmentof,74;

locationof,91

conditionswithin,95

officialsandstaffof,108(ill.);

andtheUDC,141,150

closingof149-50

reopeningof,150

Johnny,Reb:

mythof,xii

imageof,6,12,43,58(ill.),78-79,82-83,86-87,91,113

memorialized,12,25,28,31-32,38,43,50,70,145

andtheSpanish-AmericanWar,65

defined,179(n.21)

asteetotaler,197(n.26)

Johnson,GeneralBradleyT.,44

Johnson,J.T(inmate),117

Johnston,GeneralJosephE.,54

Jones,CharlesC.,Jr.,50

Jones,JamesR.(inmate),xi

Jones,N.W.(inmate),121

Karr,JohnM.(inmate),15

KentuckyConfederateSoldiers'Home(Georgetown),28-29

KentuckyConfederateSoldiers'Home(PeweeValley):foundingof,29

dedicationof,29-30

celebrationat,147

Killen,GeorgeW.(inmate),127

Kimball,HannibalI.,52

Kimbrough,MaryH.Southwood,140-41

King,Rufus(superintendent),114

Kiser,MarionC.,49

KuKluxKlan:andConfederateveterans,11,86

LadiesHermitageAssociation,38

LadiesMemorialAssociation,36,47,187(n.30)

Lamar,HenryG.(inmate),105

Lampton,WalterM.,135

Leake,WilliamW.,30

Leavy,Julian(administrator),107

Lee,GeneralFitzhugh(administrator),9,27,79

Lee,RobertE.:birthdayof,67,107

LeeCampSoldiers'Home,29(ill.)

dedicationof,12,28

fund-raisingfor,26-27

establishmentof,27-28

descriptionof,28

platof,77

conditionswithin,93,96,99,112,114

applicationsforadmissionto,96

messhallof,97(ill.)

inmatesof,112,114

investigationof,127

inmateenrollmentof,142-43,147

closingof,148

extantbuildingsof,149

LeMonnier,YvesR.(homesurgeon),115,134

Levy,JulianS.(administrator),32

Levy,Mendel(inmate),102

Lewis,AlfredJ.(administrator),35

Lewis,NathanJ.(inmate),14

Liggin,H.H.(inmate),127

Loggins,JohnC.(superintendent),87,106,126

Longstreet,GeneralJames,54

Lord,George(administrator),83

LostCause:

interpretationof,6-7

exploitationof,48

LouisianaConfederateSoldiers'Home(Mandeville),30,176(n.8)

LouisianaConfederateSoldiers'Home.SeeCampNichollsSoldiers'Home

Lubbock,FrancisR.,32

McDaniel,Rufus(superintendent),75,101,117

McEnery,GovernorSamuelD.,32

McMurray,WilliamJ.,11,37,42

McNairy,WilliamJ.(inmate),14

McNamara,ThomasW.(inmate),150

Maney,WilliamH.(inmate),23

Manliness:attitudestoward,14,30-31,33-34,73,96,101

MarylandLineConfederateSoldiers'Home,44,48,139,148,152

Milledge,John,47,62

Mills,JamesM."UncleJim"(inmate),102,112

MississippiConfederateHome.SeeJeffersonDavisBeauvoirMemorialSoldiers'Home

MissouriConfederateSoldiers'Home,44,74,102

Moore,Charles,Jr.(inmate),18

Moore,TF.(homesurgeon),133

Morgan,J.D.(inmate),102

Mosby,JohnK.(superintendent),116

Nance,Clement(inmate),22

NationalHomesforDisabledVolunteerSoldiers,4-5,61

Nevins,William(inmate),23

Newton,ClarenceP.(superintendent),79,133

Nicholls,GeneralFrancisT.,35

Nolen,HenryClay(inmate),24

NorthCarolinaSoldiers'Home,11(ill.)

foundingof,56

tourof,94

inmatesof,94,103(ill.)

groundsof,134

closingof,148

Northen,GovernorWilliamJ.,49,59

Ober,FredA.(administrator),80,112,115-16

O'Donnell,Thomas(inmate),120

OklahomaConfederateHome,74,142

Order:emphasisupon,75,83

Owens,JohnH.(inmate).94

Pace,JamesB.,9

Parker,W.G.(inmate),83

Passes,97,197(n.28)

Pensions:

attitudestoward,14,31

inGeorgia,54

Phillips,CharlesD.(administrator),89,111

Polk,ColonelLeonidasL.,57

Pollard,HenryR.,9

Populists:andtheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home,61,66

Poverty:attitudestoward,14,31,33-34

Pressley,R.C.(inmate),144

Randolph,NormanV.(administrator),114,127

Rankin,Mrs.JosieC.(superintendent),150

Rector,GovernorE.W.,12,42

Reese,WilliamO.(inmate),15

Reid,Bell,99

Relocationmortalityeffect:impactofuponinmates,102

Reminiscing:byinmates,106-7

Richard,JamesI.(homesurgeon),133

Richardson,H.W.(superintendent),105

Ripley,W.B.(inmate),124-25

Rixey,JohnF,144

Roach,E.J.,47

RobertE.LeeCampNo.1,9,27

Roberts,William;.(inmate),95

Roe,Samuel(inmate),23

Roebuck,J.E.(inmate),14,101

Rogers,AndrewJ.(inmate),120

Rogers,BenjaminJ.(inmate),93,95

Rogers,JudgeWalterH.,30,87

Rogers,Z.M.(inmate),104

Roosevelt,PresidentFranklinD.:visitsBeauvoir,150

Ross,GovernorLawrence"Sul,"33

Rothrock,RobertG.,37

Rounsaville,Mrs.HallieA.,64

Rowland,Riley(inmate),119-20

Ruffin,EmmettF.(inmate),97

Russell,MajorAlbertJ.,44

Saffold,RobertS.(inmate),105

Saucier,Napoleon(inmate),15

Saussey,GeorgeN.(superintendent),86

Scales,GovernorAlfredM.,36

Scobey,JosephB.(inmate),25

Severn,ThomasJ.(inmate),124

Shelley,HenryE.(administrator),82

Shiplett,WilliamA.(inmate),78

Skelton,J.A.(inmate),xi

Small,ReverendSam,57,192(n.31),193(n.37)

Smith,Baxter,11

Smith,GeneralEdmundKirby,54

Soldiers'HomeAssociationofNorthCarolina,36

SonsofConfederateVeterans(SCV),11,67,71,145,150

Soraparu,Iouis(inmate),120

SouthCarolinaConfederateInfirmary,20(ill.)

foundingof,70-71

dedicationof,71;

applicationsforadmissionto,80-81,84(ill.)

inmatesof,94-95,117,119-21,126-27,152

inspectionof,99

entertainmentsheldat,107

investigationof,126

employeesof135;

andtheIJDC,140;

closingof148-49;

destructionof,149

SouthernFarmers'AllianceMovement:inGeorgia,49,57,60;

inNorthCarolina,57

Spanish-AmericanWar:impactofuponConfederatesoldiers'homemovement,64-65,71

Speer,CharlesM.(inmate),103

Spencer,ColonelC.A.,27

Spindle,S.J.(inmate),15

Spurr,MarcusA.,10

Starling,W.D.(superintendent),117

Stewart,MajorJosephH.,32,46,65

Stewart,W.H.(superintendent),86

Stronach,WilliamC.,36

Styles,WilliamH.,61

Superintendents:

concernforinmatesonthepartof,75,82;

anddiscipline,83;

trainingof,86,198(n.31);

dutiesof,86-87

Swair,FelixG.(superintendent),119

Tanner,CorporalJames,26-27

Tartt,Elnathan(superintendent),105,138

Taylor,GovernorRobertI.,38,69

TennesseeSoldiers'Home,24(ill.);

establishmentof,12,37-38;

inmatesof,13,15,19,22,38,117;

oppositionto,38-39

fundingfor,39

dedicationof,39,42;

descriptionof,74,91

libraryof,90;

investigationof,127

debtof,138;

andtheUI)C,139-40;

closingof,148

Terrell,AlexanderW.,34

Terry,WilliamH.(superintendent),112

TexasConfederateHomeforMen,31(ill.);

foundingof,32-34;

fund-raisingfor,32-33,46-47

inmatesof,32,81,95,106

aselectionissue,33

locationof,91

conditionswithin,94

investigationof,106,126

employeesof,126,135;

groundsof,134;

financesof,137

Thomasson,ThomasJ.(inmate),152

Thompson,G.(inmate),118-19

Thompson,JohnA.(superintendent),106

Thompson,Taylor(inmate),95,106

Thompson,V.S.(administrator),116

Tillman,JohnH.,145

Todd,WilliamF.(inmate),17

Toon,R.A.(inmate),15

Tourgee,JudgeAlbionW.,26-27

Uniforms,90

UnitedConfederateVeterans(UlCV),4

and1898reunion,64

UnitedDaughtersoftheConfederacy(UDC),4

inMlinnesota,22

andtheGeorgiaSoldiers'Home,63-64,147

inMississippi,70

inSouthCarolina,70-71

andCampNicholls,109

andtheTennesseeSoldiers'Home,139

aspolicymakers,147,153;

inCalifornia,153

U.S.Soldiers'Home,4

Vance,GeneralZebulonB.,36

Vardaman,GovernorJamesK.,70

Vaughan,W..(inmate),18

Vick,W.T.(inmate),79

Vinson,ThomasStokley(inmate),24

VirginiaConfederateSoldiers'Home.SeeLeeCamipSoldiers'Home

Wade,William(inmate),22

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