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Mohenjo-daro to Mumbai - Indian Streetscape
ByK. Munshi
ProfessorMiddle East Technical University
06531 Ankara, TurkeyTel: 90-312-210 6205
email: munshi999@yahoo.com
I am thankful to the organisers of this
conference for inviting me to present apaper. Time was short for preparation as
the invitation came on 3 April 2001 and thepaper was to be sent on 16 April 2001. I
therefore tried hard to do as much justice aspossible to the topic of this paper and tocomplete it in time, as it would be pity to
miss the opportunity to meet eminentdesigners of Turkey at the conference in this
great historical city of Istanbul.
From the title of this paper you must haverightly guessed that I come from India,
Hindistan, as you know it, and these days I
am visiting professor at METU. You mighthave also noticed that I chose the word'streetscape' rather than street furniture. One
reason is that there is not any significantactivity regarding the design of street
furniture, as we generally understand fromEuropean perspective. Therefore there are
not many modern, good, authentic andhonest examples of street furniture, which
could be shown at this conference.Nevertheless, having such a long and rich
history, of architecture behind us, there aremany things, which could be presented. The
Indian streetscape is one such topic, whichcan be discussed because it is so rich and
varied.
I have chosen a theme that takes us on ajourney of looking at streetscape from the
very earliest times of lndian (Indus)
civilisation through the Buddhist age, andbriefly discuss its impact on the streetscape
of recent times.
Harrapan age
The earliest civilisation of which we havesome record is the Indus Valley Civilisation,
known as the Harappa culture from themodern name of the site of its two great
cities, one on the left bank of River Ravi inPunjab and Mohenjo-daro, the second city,
is on the right bank of the Indus River, some400 km from its mouth.
Harrapa Civilisation - Sites
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It has been difficult for the historians to fixthe date of beginning of this civilization, but
from the faint indications, it seems thatIndus cities began in the first half of 3
rd
millennium BC and continued well into the
2
nd
millennium.
Each city had a well-fortified citadel, which
seems to have been used for both religiousand governmental purposes. The regular,
rectilinear grid plan of the streets and strictuniformity in such features as weights and
measures, the size of the bricks (1:2:4 ratio)and even the layout of the great cities,
suggests of a single centralised state.
The important feature of Harappanstructures apparently was, that they were
very utilitarian and devoid of anyarchitectural decorations or embellishments.
The street plans of Indus cities remained
unchanged for about 1000 years, with citieshaving similar plans. To the west of each
was a 'citadel', an oblong artificial platform30-50 feet high and about 1200 x 600 feet in
area.
Harappa CityHypothetical reconstruction
The main streets, some as much as 30 feetwide were quite straight and divided the city
into large blocks, within which werenetworks of narrow unplanned lanes.
The Main Street
Lanes on which the doors opened
Standardised burnt brick of good quality was
the usual building material for dwellinghouses and public buildings alike. The
houses, often of two or more stories, thoughvaried in size, were all based on much the
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same plan with a central square courtyard,around which there are number of rooms.
Central Courtyard in a Harappa house
This plan is followed today in buildings of
traditional type and even palaces, though thematerials used are varied.
The entrances were usually in the side
alleys, and no windows faced the streets.This is a unique feature, which must have
presented a monotonous streetscape of brickwalls. There is however no evidence of use
of color to enliven the environment and, ofcourse the remains of that would not have
withstood the vagaries of time, if at all it
was there.
Interior of a Harrapa house
Bath in Harrapa house
The houses had bathrooms, the design ofwhich shows that the Harappan, like the
modern Indian, preferred to take the bathstanding, by poring pitchers of water over
his head. The bathrooms were provided bythe drains, which flowed into sewers under
the main streets, leading to soak pits. Thesewers were covered throughout their length
by large brick slabs. This would have beenanother unique feature of their streetscape.
Covered drains under the Main Street
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Covered drains under the lanes
The most striking of the few large buildings
is the great bath in the citadel area ofMohenjo-Daro. This is an oblong bathing
pool 39 x 23 feet in area and eight feet deepconstructed of beautiful brickwork. It could
be opened by a drain at one corner and wassurrounded by a cloister on which opened a
number of small rooms.
The Great Bath at Mohanjo-daro
This concept of tank has been carriedforward till today and we have many
examples, which can be found in templesand palaces and stairwells of Gujarat.
Stair-wells of Gujarat
Ghats on rivers
The Indus Civilisation declined probablysometime early in the second millennium
BC for the excavations reveal that its citieswere then falling into a state of decay. A
Greek writer relates that here were 'theremains of over a thousand towns and
villages once full of men'.
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Remains of a Harappa city
Vedic Age
After this decay, when art of building comes
into view, this no longer consists of well laidout cities of finished masonry, but takes a
much more rudimentary form of humblevillage huts constructed of reeds and leaves
and hidden in the depths of the forest.
Vedic Age style thatched huts as of today
This culture, where the elementary type offorest dwelling appeared probably towards
the end of second millennium BC and incourse of time laid the foundations of Vedic
age.
We still find remnants of such living invillages across India and therefore not
difficult to imagine the streetscape of thosetimes with mud walls of the huts on both
sides of main lanes, and thatched roofsextended to cover the front verandah.
Village hut - today
It is of interest to note that these mud and
thatch dwellings also do not have the doorsor windows opening on the main lanes like
what we see in Harappa culture.
Indian village streetscape - today
It can probably be said that Vedic peoplecarried forward some visual architectural
features / symbols from the earlier Harappaculture, although the technology of brick
making was lost along the way or it was
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found expensive and not relevant to theirnew way of living.
Two theories of exodus of the people of
Indus civilization from their abodes that
could be plausible are, one the devastatingfloods and water logging ravaged their citiesand farm lands or changed course of rivers
creating draught, and two, they weremassacred and looted by foreign aggressors
forcing them to the East into the forests ofGangetic plains, or basins of Narmada,
where they survived on forest foods, andcattle which they brought along. Cattle have
been important for Vedic people as it wasfor Harappa people, and probably became
the primary means of survival in difficulttimes after migration,. The importance of
cattle is evident from the terracotta seals ofHarappa culture.
Harappa terracotta Seal Sacred bull
The cow, which provided sustenance,therefore, became Mother and Holy, in
Vedic Age as well; which it is even now.
Looking at the similarities in the use ofbangles all the way up the arms of women
from Kuchh and the bronze statue ofDancing girl excavated from Mohenjo-
daro, it could be inferred that some of these
people moved to the South into the places,which is now Gujarat and happened to retain
some of the traditions of the earlier times.
If we accept this, we can say that colourful
motifs that people of Kuchh use to decoratethe walls of their homes could possibly have
also come from their earlier aesthetictraditions of Harappa.
Kuchh houses - today
The stepped decoration and particularly theprofile on the walls of these huts is akin to
the brick arches of the windows, doors anddrain outlets of Harappa houses.
It does not seem possible that people with
high engineering and building skills asHarappans, the civilized city dwellers, and
hygiene conscious people, could be so bereftof any aesthetic sense, leaving the brick
walls bare, un-plastered and withoutembellishments. One could probably assume
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that walking along the wide avenues was acolourful experience with plastered walls
painted with colored motifs as we see on thewalls of Kuchh village huts.
Drain outlets with stepped brick arches
Stepped motifs on mud huts in Kuchh
The proportions and decoration on the ShivaPashupati Seal and the design on the
garment of The Priest King is a testimonyto their sense of aesthetic sensibility.
Having to protect themselves and theirproperties from the ravages of wild animals,
Vedic people surrounded their littlecollection of huts (Grama) with special kind
of fence or palisade. This fence took the
form of bamboo (easily available material inthe forests) railing, with the upright posts(Thabha), which were supported by 3
horizontal bars called Suchi, or needles asthey were threaded through holes in the
uprights.
The important element of Indian streetscapewas the village fence or palisade, which later
became the emblem / icon of protection.
From its bamboo origins it was incarnatedand immotalised in stone in Buddhist
architecture of Stupas.
Thabha and Suchis in stone at Sanchi Stupa
It was universally used, not only to enclosethe village, but as a fencing around fields
and to preserve anything of a special orsacred nature. In the palisade encircling the
village, entrances of a particular kind weredevised. These were formed by projecting a
portion of the bamboo fence forward, and aportion at right angle, to create an opening
on the side, so as not to have a throughpassage. A portion of the fence is raised up
to create the gateway arch (Gramadwara).
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This configuration of the fences and gatescontinues to live in the architectural
conscience of Indian society and can be seenin the design of fences in todays villages
and towns and are the noticeable elements of
Indian streetscape.
Gramadwara inVedic village-Reconstruction
Village houses with Vedic style fences and
covered verandah
Through the Gramadwara the cattle passed
to and from their pastures. It survives in theform of Gopuram (cow-gate), the entrance
pylon of the temple enclosures in the south
of India.
From the design of Gramadwara (village-
gate) was derived the characteristic BuddhistArchway called Torna, a structure which
was carried with that religion to the FarEast,
Torna from Mukhteswar temple at Bhubaneshwar
It is known as the Torii in Japan and the Piu-lu of China as a symbol of protection and
safety. The Torna gates at the Stupa inSanchi are well known examples.
To-ri-i at a shrine in Japan and Torna at Sanchi
Towards the middle of first millennium BC
Vedic community expanded and the townsarose at important centres. The traditional
structural features were reproduced on alarger and in more substantial form. Due to
the rivalry between the various groups thetowns were strongly fortified. They were
surrounded by a rampart and woodenpalisades, which closely resembled the
original fences of Vedic village. This wasthe era of timber construction of the Vedic
Civilisation.
Cities largely of wooden construction beganto appear at various parts of the country, and
according to Dhammapala, the great
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Vedic Cities a reconstruction from rock-
cut Buddhist caves
Buddhist commentator, they were plannedby an architect named Maha-Govinda who is
stated to have been responsible for thelayout of the several of the capitals of the
north India.
Vaishnava temple at Srirangam Grid plan
These cities were rectangular in plan andwere divided into four quarters by two main
thoroughfares intersecting at right angles,each leading to a city gate.
In the royal quarter, the palaces were built
around an inner courtyard and had a largecentral window for Darshan or salutation of
the king. This feature has been carriedthrough till recent times. The Mughal,
Rajput palaces had prominent centralbalconies for the purpose of salutation.
Since these had to face the street to the fullview of the people and therefore became an
important feature of Indian streetscape.
Rajput Palace at Udaipur
Palace pavilions with water fountains
The royal quarters had pleasure gardens with
pavilions having fountains and ornamentalwaters attached. In Vedic age these
pavilions were of wood and thatch and latermarble and stone were also used. The
tradition carries on and in many modern daypublic gardens, simulated wood and thatch
is also used for building pavilions.
With the rise of Mauryan dynasty towardsthe end of fifth century BC, marked cultural
progress was made. Among otherachievements, art of building, stimulated by
royal patronage took notable steps forward.Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador who
resided in the court of the EmperorChandragupta about 300 BC, gives a
striking picture of the Mauryan capital ofPatliputra - situated along the banks of
Ganges like immense castellated breakwater (15 Km. long and 2.5 Km. broad),
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surrounded by stupendous timber palisadewith holes for archers. It was protected by a
wide and deep moat around it. At intervalswere bastions with towers, over five
hundred in number and as many as sixty-
four gates. The moat had floated lotus andother aquatic plants and was enclosed withusual railing palisade.
Mauryan capital Pataliputra with surrounding moat
a reconstruction
The balcony in front was minstrels' gallery,and the projected casements on each side
were priests chambers. Covered balconiesand decorative structure are prominent
features of frontage of the houses on thestreets and important elements of streetscape
in Maurayan times and thereafter.
Especially noticeable are the city gates, allof which were designed in much the same
way as gramdwara (village-gate) but inmuch more refined form of Torna. Near the
gateways is what seems to be a formidableangle-tower; while overhanging the walls
are pillared balconies, railed balustrades andmagic casements. Carpenters of the time
were highly skilled manipulators of woodcreating artistic results with embellishments
also having practical use, blending very wellthe functional aspects with aesthetics.
Even in the Rig-Veda the carpenter is
accorded a place of honour among allartisans, as village community depended on
them for some of its most vital needs ofconstruction and defense.
The arched window admitted light throughits tracery. The echoes of this are found in
later day marble, wooden or bamboolatticework called Pinjra.
Latticework examples in Buddhist caves
To filter the light and improve air circulationthrough Pinjra was the architectural
response to the hot climate to keep theinteriors cool and lessen the glare.
Pinjra dominated faade of Hawa Mahal Jaipur
Pinjra concept has been extensively used inRajput and Mughal palaces and in the
colonial period bungalows of the British.
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Pinjras in palace windows
Colonial Bungalow with Pinjra (Jalis)
Later efforts were made to include stonemasonry along with wood to create city
walls. The beginnings are seen in the citywall of Rajgriha, the ancient capital of
Magadha, now in ruins at Rajgir, near Patna,in Bihar. The construction of masonry was
without mortar. These walls of greatstrength and of cyclopean proportions were
made by piling of massive undressed stoneseach between 3 & 5 feet in length but
carefully fitted and bonded together.
Massive stone masonry walls at Rajgir
Buddhist Architectural age
Third Mauryan ruler of Magadha, theemperor Asoka ascended the throne in BC
274. In BC 255, he inaugurated Buddhism
as state religion of the country. With thechange in religious system of India alsocame a marked advance in arts. The
principal contribution during this time were:1) series of edicts inscribed on the rocks
2) construction of Stupas 3) monolithicpillars 4) monolithic accessories to shrines
5) group of rock cut chambers. All thesewere part of public architecture, mostly
meant for spreading the message of theBuddha.
Wanting to immortalise the message ofBuddha, and symbolising the creed, a lofty
free standing column about 30 to 50 feet
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high was devised and erected on speciallyselected sacred sites, each carrying above its
capital a magnificent Buddhist emblem
These were communication devices and
were distributed throughout Asokan Empire
and probably became the focal points in thecities of those times.
While the stupas were significant for theirstructures, the monolithic pillars could be
regarded for their artistic qualities.
Line of pillars at Rampurva, Laurya, Araraj,Nandangarh and Kolhua were evidently
placed at intervals along the ancient royalroute from Pataliputra to the borders of
Nepal (sacred land of Buddhism).
Since then, many kings and emperors haveused this device (pillars towers and
columns) to commemorate the victories orimportant events during their reign.
Many of these marked the courses of aPilgrim's Way to holy places and so were
important elements of streetscape of Asokanperiod and thereafter.
Pillars (Kos Minar) marking Grand TrunkRoad constructed by Sher Shah Suri
An important visual characteristic of all the
stone productions of Asokan period is thehigh lustrous polish resembling fine enamel
with which the surfaces even of rock cutchambers, were invariably treated. So
striking was this appearance that in fifthcentury, it excited the admiration of the
observant Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien for hewrites that it was 'shining bright as glass'
despite weathering thousand years of harshclimatic conditions of Indian plains.
The Buddhist emblem of Dharma Chakra
(24 spoked wheel) is now part of the
National Flag of independent India. Thefour-headed lion, which is atop manyAsokan pillars, has become the seal of the
Government of India.
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During next couple of centuries the Buddhist
art of building flourished, as is exemplifiedby Rock-cut architecture where the facades
were so intricately carved as if the materialwas wood.
Buddhist cave architecture
Stupas also became bigger, more complex
and highly decorative. The style reached itszenith in Amravati stupa, 250 AD.
The refinements took the form of replacing
the impermanent materials like brick and
Amravati Stupa
wood by stone. Chief among these is the
Stupa at Sanchi (reconstructed in B.C.150,
in Central lndia).
Stupa at Sanchi
It is interesting to note the similarities in thevisual concept of the gates and fencing at
Sanchi, to the Torna (gate) and the fencingin the early Vedic villages.
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Sanchi Stupa Plan with 4 Torna gates
These elements have got so sanctified thateven now on special days, the Tornas made
from stringed flowers and leaves are placedon the doors of modem houses, gates of the
buildings, shop fronts to 'preserve what isinside and to ward off eviI. So deep rooted
is concept of Torna in Indian culture as asymbol of safety, it is tied across the bonnet
on the front of the vehicles for protection, onthe auspicious day of Dasera, becoming an
important element of streetscape even now.
Brick architecture flourished mainly in thealluvial plains of India where good quality
clay was available.
Immense buildings almost entirelycomposed of brick were constructed duringthe early medieval period at Mathura and
Benaras. Stupa at Budh Gaya and Sarnathand the shrines around it are good examples
of the brick architecture built in the 7th
Century AD. In these structures the gates
and fencing follows similar patterns ofTorna, Thaba & Suchi as in earlier Vedic
villages.
Great heights were a unique visual feature ofthese brick structures. These were probably
built due to ease of handling bricks becauseof their small size as opposed to stone,
which was heavy and could not be carried to
Stupa at Sarnath
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such heights. Fa-Hien at the beginning offifth century and Hieun Tsiang in the
seventh century was much impressed bytheir tall proportions.
Nalanda Ruins
Referring to 'a great Vihara (Buddhistshrine) some two hundred feet high and toanother shrine containing a copper image
more than eighty feet high in a six storiedbuilding, the Hieun Tsiang writes about the
Nalanda, the great centre of learning - 'thesoaring domes reached to the clouds, and the
pinnacles of the temples seemed to be lost inthe mists of the mornings'.
They also talk about glittering metal roofs,
the glazed tiles of brilliant colours, thepavilion pillars richly carved in the form of
dragons, the beams painted red orornamented with jade, the rafters
resplendent with all the colours of rainbowand the balustrades of carved open work.
This profusion of colour and ornamentation
can also be seen in later day temple andother monumental structures.
Temple at Buddh Gaya when first built a
reconstruction
Geometric patterns found at Sarnath
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In these brick structures, besides sculpturaland organic motifs, geometrical patterns are
also visible. While Nalanda is in the ruins,Buddha Gaya is the sole living example of
this style.
Mahabodhi Temple at Buddha Gaya
Modern age streetscape
During the early years of twentieth century
India saw a surge of big metropolitan citieslike Calcutta, Bombay, New Delhi and
others. The city of Calcutta served as thecapital of the British Raj till 1911 and has
Writers Building, Kolkata - Classical
preserved many buildings, which provide atestimony to the British period Classical
style in Calcutta.
Magnificent European architecture
dominated the new business and port city ofBombay with large public buildings, likeRailway stations, Post & telegraph offices in
Victorian Neo-Gothic style, and privatebuildings in similar styles along the main
streets like DN Road.
Railway Terminus, Mumbai- Neo Gothic
Streetscape D. N. Road, Mumbai
Marine Drive, Mumbai Art Deco Style
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Art Deco building in Mumbai
Art Deco, a distinct new style ofarchitecture, was introduced in Mumbai in
the 1930s. It was well adapted to the cityalong with the Victorian Gothic of the
earlier century.
New Delhi became the capital of BritishIndia in 1911, which was planned by
Architect Lutyens.
Rashtrapati Bhawan Viceroys Palace
The initial precinct usually referred to, as
Lutyens Delhi is known for its wide, tree-lined boulevards and numerous significant
structures. The city was laid around twocentral promenades with focus on the axial
planning.
In the last 100 years or so many Indian citieshave grown through slow evolutionary
process and building activity took placewherever the land became available. There
Broad Avenues of New Delhi
seemed less of planning than was inevidence in the past. Agricultural land
around the old cities was converted intourban land. This activity gained tremendous
momentum during post independence eradue to partition, when millions of refugees
settled around big as well as small cities.Another important factor was migration
from rural hinterland to cities because ofrapid industrialization in and around cities
and lack of opportunities of work in ruralareas. First the houses came up and long
after, they were connected throughpathways, lanes or so called roads. Electoral
politics played the usual role and took thetoll. All these resulted in overcrowding and
Slums of Mumbai
development of slums without social andurban amenities. Notable examples are
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Bombay, Calcutta, Kanpur where hugeslums rose right across the cities because of
this unplanned process. Due to politicalpatronage, the slums have become
permanent urban features. Almost half the
population of Bombay lives in these slums.
Along with this unplanned growth we see
many examples of planned citydevelopment. One good example is
Chandigarh - the capital city of northernstate of Punjab, which was designed by
celebrated French architect Le Carbusier.
Chandigarh Grid Plan
Chandigarh was a grid plan with sectors for
residences, commercial areas, offices,markets etc. Emphasis was also put oncreating monuments - the buildings for
legislature, high court, but little attentionwas paid to objects of smaller scale like
Chandigarh Streetscape
street furniture - lampposts, bus stops etc.Since Chandigarh became a model for
development for many cities, naturally no
attention was paid to streetscape. Streetscapeemerged as default.
Chandigarh Streets
Another example of new city was the
development of Navi Mumbai (NewBombay), which was supposed to be a
counter magnet to the growing population ofBombay. We made the same mistakes again.
Architects with pretensions of city plannerslaid emphasis on apartment blocks, office
blocks, market blocks, and not on habitatconsiderations, sociology of the spaces,
community interactions. Dynamics of livingwas completely ignored. And Navi Mumbai
succumbed to the forces of evolutionaryprocesses. Now we see the hawkers
occupying the pavements, pedestriansspilling on the roads and vehicular traffic in
chaos.
Khargar Railway Station, Navi Mumbai
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Notable exceptions have been design ofsuburban rail stations in New Bombay area,
which are modern, clean and have wellregulated traffic.
The trend that was recently witnessed wasthe rise and fall of builders' lobbyparticularly in Bombay. Archaic rent control
laws coupled with large influx of people andlimited land availability resulted in very
high real estate prices. Builders of apartmentblocks, office blocks started making huge
profits. At one time real estate prices werematching New York prices and with
woefully less amenities.
Upmarket Apartment Block, Mumbai
This resulted in many businesses shifting
offices to suburbs or to other cities. Lessnumber of people came to Mumbai resulting
in the slump in demand. Builders having gotused to high prices tried very hard to
maintain the price line. They offeredadditional and fancy amenities. The
apartment blocks came with club facilities,swimming pools, gymnasiums, satellite dish
connections etc. Building facades became
highly decorative particularly with Europeanmotifs. Gothic started rubbing shoulderswith art nouveau.
Columns and fountains sprung at road
crossings. Landscaping was done alongroads and around buildings. So one would
see a totally new ambience in these areas.
Now builders are competing to outdo eachother resulting in this neo eclecticism. And
that is what we have now in suburbanBombay.
Hiranandani Gardens Precinct, Powai
Mumbai
This trend is very disturbing to the puristsand modernists, as one can understand, but
their voices are quite subdued.Conservationists have however started
making some mark. One of the southBombay streets which is flanked by very
fine examples of colonial architecture hasbeen declared as heritage precinct and
efforts are made to show this in its full gloryby removing very large advertisement
hoarding, sign boards which hide thesebeautiful facades.
Kotachawadi Village in South Mumbai
Conservationists have also succeeded in
getting heritage status for the pre-colonialvillages, which are nestled in the city and
fortunately have so far retained their
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architectural exclusivity, despite tremendouschange around them. The people living in
these villages are really proud of theirheritage and want to continue living there,
bearing many inconveniences and pressures.
Heritage listing will fortunately help them.
One of the recent movements spearheaded
by design institutions along with youngconservation architects, was the study of the
heritage precinct of South Bombay, to makerecommendations about its upkeep and
beautification, and also for the design ofstreet furniture, which will harmonise with
the streetscape of this area. These are merereports and we are not sure when these will
be implemented.
Street Art Gallery
This area being architecturally so very
interesting, many artists are patronising it.
Street art galleries have come up whereartists display at a very nominal charge. In
winter when the weather is good, everySunday a festival is held, now known as
Kala-Ghoda Festival named after theprominent crossing in the area.
These are organised by groups who are keen
on enhancing the cultural scape of Bombaystreets.
Performance at Kala Ghoda Festival
Jehangir Art Gallery in Mumbai
Our institute contributes in a small measure
to this activity. A few years back, Iorganised an exhibition titled 'Sculpture in
Light'; at Jehangir Art Gallery, the premierart gallery of Bombay situated at Kala-
Ghada.
Neons defacing building facades
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The theme was to bring the fluorescent neonlights, used for advertising and which are
such eyesores on the beautiful facades of thebuildings around that area, into the interior
spaces and create objects of art from a very
interesting though highly abused material(lighted neon tube). These are some of thesmall though significant steps taken to
humanise the streetscape elements of thisvast metropolis of Bombay, known in local
Marathi language as Amci Mumbai (ourMumbai).
Neon Sculpture for the interior
I am afraid that this paper has not said
everything about the streetscape from'Mohenjo-Daro to Mumbai '. I have skipped
important periods of architectural history oflndia, notably post Buddhist Hindu and
Mughal period, which are better known, andwell documented, but I hope it will arouse
some more curiosity about the subject. Ifthat happens I will be happy.
References:1. Brown Percy, Indian Architecture
(Buddhist and Hindu Periods), D.B.Taraporewala Sons & co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Bombay, 1959.
2. Basham A.L., The Wonder that wasIndia - A survey of the history and culture ofIndian sub-continent before the coming of
the Muslims, Taplinger PublishingCompany, New York, l967.
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