improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of ...ppcl/esp_publications/shawdishionconnell et...

MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW : Development and Psychopathology � Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

MATERNALDEPRESSIONANDCHILDPROBLEMS

Severaltypesofparentalpsychopathologyhavebeenassociatedwithincreasedriskofchildpsychopathol-ogy(Connell&Goodman,2002;DelBello&Geller,2001;Goodman&Brumley,1990;Lapalme,Hodgins,&LaRoche,1997).Oneofthemosthighlyresearchedrelationshipsofthistypehasbeenbetweenmaternaldepressionanddifferentformsofchildadjustment.Thisisnotsurprisingaswomenmoreoftenserveasprimarycaregiverscomparedtomen,andtheinci-denceofdepressionisquitehighamongfemalesbeginningduringadolescence.Moreover,beingtheprimarycaregiverofseveralyoungchildrenishighlyrelatedtodepressioninwesterncultures(Strickland,1992).

Thelinkbetweenmaternaldepressionandchild-hoodproblembehaviorisunlikelytobeincidental.Findingsintheextantliteratureprovidesubstantialevidenceforarelationbetweenmaternaldepressionandnegativechildoutcomesacrossdevelopmentstagesofchildhoodandadolescence,includingbothexternalizingandinternalizingchildproblembehav-iors(forreviewsofthisliterature,seeBeardslee,Ver-

Improvements in Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Intervention Effects on Early Childhood Problem Behavior

DANIEl S. ShAW, ThoMAS J. DIShIoN, ARIN CoNNEll, MElVIN WIlSoN, FRANCES GARDNER

AbstrAct

Maternal depression has been consistently linked to the development of child problem behavior, par-ticularly in early childhood. Despite this link, interventions typically address either adult depression, or child behavior, as separate foci. The current study examines the possibility that an intervention can address both maternal depression and child behavior problems in unison, using a sample of 731 high risk families receiving services from a national food supplement and nutrition program. Families with toddlers between ages 2 and 3 were screened and then randomized to a brief family intervention, the Family Check Up, which included linked interventions that were tailored and adapted to the fami-lies needs. Follow-up intervention services were provided at age 3 and follow-up of child outcomes occurred at ages 3 and 4. Following a previous report showing the intervention to be effective for reducing child externalizing problems, latent growth models also revealed intervention effects for early internalizing problems from 2 to 4, and reductions in maternal depression from ages 2 to 3. More importantly, reductions in maternal depression mediated improvements in both child externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. The results are discussed with respect to possibility of linking psychosocial preventive interventions for adult depression and early childhood adjustment problems within a comprehensive framework.

sage,&Gladstone,1998;Cummings&Davies,1994;Gelfand&Teti,1990).Theseassociationshavebeenfoundtobeparticularlyrobustduringearlychild-hoodwhenmothersandchildrenspendmoretimetogetherthanatlaterages(Marchand,Hock,&Wida-man,2002;Shawetal.,1994,1998).Despitethecon-sistencyofassociationsbetweenmaternaldepressionandchildadjustmentduringearlychildhood,mostinterventionprogramsaimedatreducingchildprob-lembehaviorhavebeenexplicitlyfocusedonchangingparentingpracticesratherthanmaternaldepressionperse.Morerecentversionsofparentingprogramsforyoungchildrenhaveincludedcomponentsdedicatedtoparentalwellbeingandsocialsupport(Baydar,Reid,&Webster-Stratton,2003;Olds,2002);how-ever,thevastmajoritycontinuetofocusonmodify-ingcaregivingpractices(Brinkmeyer&Eyberg,2003;Webster-Stratton&Reid,2003).

Afocusonparentingpracticeshassubstantialfaceandempiricalvalidity,especiallyduringearlychild-hoodwhenchildrenundergodramaticchangesincognitiveandemotionaldevelopmentfrominfancy

� MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Development and PsychopathologyUnauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

SHAW,DISHION,CONNELL,WILSON,GARDNER

tothepreschoolperiod(Shaw&Bell,1993)andelicitmanychallengestocaregivers(Fagot&Kavanagh,1993).Relatedtoparentingmodels,severaltheoristshavenotedhowmaternaldepressionmightcompro-miseaparent’sabilitytobeconsistentlyandactivelyengagedwithchildrenandbeattentiveandresponsivetotheirsocio-emotionalneeds(Belsky,1984;Conger,Patterson,&Ge,1995;Patterson,1980),yetrelativelyfewstudieshavedirectlyexaminedwhetherchildbehaviormightbeimprovedbyreducingmaternaldepressivesymptoms,withthenotableexceptionofresearchonparentmanagementtrainingamongrecentlydivorcedfamilies(DeGarmo,Patterson,&Forgatch,2004;Patterson,DeGarmo,&Forgatch,2004).Thepresentstudysoughttoaddressthisissuebyexaminingwhetheraparent-centeredinterventiontopreventtheemergenceofearlyconductproblemsalsoprovedsuccessfulinimprovinglevelsofmaternaldepressivesymptoms,andifso,whetherreductionsinmaternaldepressionmediatedimprovementsinsubsequentlevelsofchildproblembehavior.

Maternal Depression and child AdjustmentTheassociationbetweenmaternaldepressionandpoorchildoutcomesisoneofthemostrobustfind-ingsinpsychologicalresearch(Gross,Shaw,&Moil-anen,2007).Bothmaternalclinicaldepressionandsub-clinical,elevatedlevelsofdepressivesymptomshavebeenfoundtoberelatedtochildmaladjust-ment(Cummings,Keller,&Davies,2005;Farmer,McGuffin,&Williams,2002).Asaresult,thetermmaternaldepressionwillbeusedthroughoutthispapertodescribebothcriteria.Studiesofchildrenofdepressedmothersacrossbothnarrowly-defineddevelopmentalperiodsandbroadagespans(Good-man&Gotlib,1999)haveyieldedconsistentfind-ingslinkingmaternaldepressiontodisruptionsinbothsocio-emotionalandinstrumentalfunctioning(Elgaretal.,2004;Gelfand&Teti,1990;Hay,Pawlby,Angold,Harold,&Sharp,2003;Leve,Kim,&Pears,2005;Sinclair&Murray,1998).Theseassociationshavebeencorroboratedmostconsistentlyduringearlychildhood,whenmaternaldepressionhasbeenlinkedtofussinessanddifficultchildtemperament(Cutrona&Trouman,1986;Whiffen&Gotlib,1989),insecureattachment(Campbelletal.,2004;Fieldetal.,1988),behaviorproblems(Marchand,Hock,&Widaman,2002;Shaw,Keenan,&Vondra,1994),andreducedmentalandmotordevelopment(Murray,Fiori-Cow-ley,Hooper,&Cooper,1996a;Sharpetal.,1995).Also,therearesomedatatosuggestthatelevatedratesofmaternaldepressionduringthetoddleryearsmaybemorepredictiveoflaterchildadjustmentproblemsthanwhenassessedinthepreschoolperiod.Forexample,Shawandcolleagues(2000)foundadirect

linkbetweenmaternaldepressivesymptomswhenchildrenwere1.5and2yearsofageandclinically-elevatedreportsofschool-basedconductproblems(CP)whenchildrenwereage8(d=.73atage1.5),associationsthatwereappreciablystrongerthanpar-entreportsofCPatages1.5and2.Inaddition,themagnitudeofeffectsofmaternaldepressiononage-8CPdecreasedwiththechild’sincreasingage(d=.27whenmaternaldepressionwasmeasuredatage5.5).Asevidencelinksmaternaldepressionduringearlychildhoodtosubsequentchildproblembehavior,itfollowsthattargetingchangesinmaternaldepressionduringthetoddlerperiodmightleadtoreductionsinlaterchildproblembehavior.

the toddler Years as a Period of transition for children and ParentsTheconceptofsocio-emotionaltransitionshasbeenafocusfordevelopmentalandinterventionsscientists,ascriticalperiodstounderstand,andpossibleoppor-tunitiesforprevention(Sameroff,1981;Cicchetti&Toth,1995).Thetoddlerperiodisonesuchdevelop-mentallycriticaltransitionforbothparentsandchil-dren.Thetoddleryearsrepresentatimeofmarkedchangeforchildrenintermsofcognitive,emotional,andphysicalmaturation.Despitegrowthinalloftheseareas,children’sdevelopingcognitiveabilitiesarenotwellmatchedtothechallengesaffordedbytheirnewfoundphysicalmobility.Theirnewmobilitypermitschildrentoambulatequicklybutwithoutthecognitiveappreciationtoanticipatetheconsequencesofviolatingother’spersonalspace,understandingtheprinciplesofelectricityorgravity,orconsideringthepotentialhazardsofstrayingtoofarfromcaregiversinnovelsettings(e.g.,shoppingmalls).Thus,toddlersrequireproactiveinvolvementandmonitoringtolit-erallykeepthemoutofharm’sway(Gardner,Sonuga-Barke&Sayal,1999).Forparentsdealingwiththistransformation(Shaw,Bell,&Gilliom,2000),thenatureoftheparent-childrelationshipchangesfromafocusonresponsivityandsensitivitytotheimmo-bileinfant’semotionalneedstomonitoringamobileandnaivetoddler.Asaresult,parentalpleasureinchildrearinghasbeenshowntodecreasefromthefirsttosecondyears(Fagot&Kavanagh,1993).PreviousresearchsuggeststhathowcaregiversrespondtothesechangesandhowinvolvedtheyareduringthisperiodhasbeenshowntohaveimportantrepercussionsforearlyCP(Gardneretal.,1999;Shawetal.,2000;2003),asthecourseofCPhasbeenshowntobemoderatedbycontrolling,uninvolved,andrejectingparenting(Aguilaretal.,2000;Campbelletal.,1996).Asnotedabove,similarassociationshavebeenfoundbetweenmaternaldepressionandsubsequentchildCP,andseveralstudieshaveexplicitlyattemptedtoaddress

post-partummaternaldepressionduringinfancyinthehopesofimprovingthequalityoftheparent-childrelationship(e.g.,Murray,Cooper,Wilson,&Roma-niuk,2003).

ItwouldseemprudenttodesigninterventionsthataddresstheseuniquedemandsasapreventivestrategytoreducechildmentalhealthproblemssuchasCPandinternalizingsymptoms.ExamplesofsuccessfulpreventiveinterventionsthattargetearlychildhoodincludeOlds’(2002)Nurse-FamilyPartnershipforfirst-timeparentswithnewborns,Webster-Stratton’sIncredibleYearsProgram(Baydaretal.,2003)forchil-drenapproachingformalschoolentry,andDishion’sFamilyCheckUp(FCU,Shawetal.,2006),whichhasalsobeenpreviouslyappliedtoadolescentpopulations(Dishion&Kavanagh,2003).Todate,fewinterven-tionsinitiatedinearlychildhoodhavespecificallyexaminedwhetherreductionsinmaternaldepres-sivesymptomsareapotentialmechanismunderlyingimprovementsinearlychildproblembehavior.Wheresuchchangessubstantiallyaccountfortheinterven-tioneffect,thenmaternaldepressionwouldqualifyasamediatingmechanism(Kraemer,Wilson,Fair-burn,&Agras,2002;Rutter,2005).Tofillthisvoid,thepurposeofthecurrentstudywastoexaminetheefficacyofafamily-centeredinterventioninimprov-ingmaternaldepressionandtestwhethersuchchang-esiffound,accountedforreductionsinbothchildexternalizingandinternalizingproblembehaviors.AlthoughthestudywasdesignedtospecificallytargetchildCP,wealsotestedthesameissueswithchildinternalizingproblemstoevaluatethegeneralizabilityoftheintervention’seffects.Toassesstheviabilityofthisapproach,weselected731familieswithtoddlersparticipatinginWomen,InfantsandChildrenNutri-tionalSupplementProgram(WIC)servicesystemsinurban(Pittsburgh,PA),suburban(Eugene,OR),andrural(Charlottesville,VA)locations.Toddlerswerescreenedtobeatriskforshowingearly-startingpath-waysofCPandthosemeetingeligibilityrequirementweresubsequentlyrandomlyassignedtotheinterven-tioncondition.Follow-upresultsonmaternaldepres-sionandchildCPandinternalizingproblemswereavailableoneandtwoyearsafterinitialcontact.

barriers to Family Interventions and the Family check- UpOneofthebarrierstoimplementingfamilyinter-ventionswithinservicesettingsisparentmotivation(Dishion&Stormshak,2006).Manyoftheefficacyandeffectivenesstrialsthatformthebackboneofourempiricalliteraturearebasedonhighlevelsoffundingforboththeresearchcomponentandthefamilies’participation.Forexample,DishionandcolleaguesdevelopedtheAdolescentTransitions

Program(ATP),whichcomprised12parentgroupsessionsthatemphasizedfamilymanagementprac-tices.Withinthecontextofaclinicaltrial,theinter-ventionreducedobservedcoerciveparent-adolescentinteractions,decreasedantisocialbehaviorandsubse-quentsubstanceuse(Dishion,Andrews,Kavanagh,&Soberman,1996).However,inimplementingthepro-gramoutsidethecontextofawellfundedinterventiontrial,parentparticipationwasdifficulttoobtain,anddependenceonparentgroupsastheexclusivedeliv-eryformatdeemedimpractical.Stormshakandcol-leagues(2002)alsoreportdifficultyrelyingexclusivelyonparentgroupswithasetformatandagendaasabarriertochangingparentingpractices.

Theproblemisthatmanyofourfamily-centeredinterventionsdonotexplicitlytargettheparents’motivationtochange.Parentresistancetochangehasbeenprogrammaticallystudiedbyinvestigatorswhowhostudyparentmanagementtraining(e.g.,Patterson&Chamberlain,1994;Patterson&For-gatch,1985).Forgatchandcolleagues(2006)foundthattrainingtherapiststoeffectivelyaddressfami-lies’resistancetochangewasprognosticofpositiveinterventionoutcomes(Forgatch,DeGarmoetal.,2005).Ingeneral,therapisttrainingindevelopingcollaborativerelationshipswithparentsandworkingthroughmotivationissuesintherapyisakeytothechangeofparentingpractices.Thisiseventruewhenparentsvoluntarilycometothetreatmentsettingsandrequesthelp,suchasinthestudiesofparentmanage-menttraining.

Millerandcolleagueshavedevelopedthetechniqueofmotivationalinterviewingtoencapsulatethethera-pist-clientdynamicsthataremostlikelytoresultinproductivechange.Forexample,inthefieldofalcoholmisuse,TheDrinkersCheckUpisadirectapplicationofmotivationalinterviewingdesignedtopromotechangeinadultswhodrinkheavily(Miller&Roll-nick,2002).TwoofthekeystrategiesoftheDrinker’sCheckUparetouseassessmentdatainafeedbackinterviewtoelicitinteractionsbetweentheclientandtherapistthatinfluencechange,andprovideaflexiblemenuofchangestrategiesfortheclienttoselecttoachievereductionsindrinking.SeveralstudiesrevealthatrandomassignmenttothebriefDrinkersCheckUpwasaseffectiveas28daysofcostlyinpatienttreat-mentforreducingproblemdrinkinginadults(Miller&Rollnick,2002).

TheFamilyCheckUp(FCU)wasdirectlyinspiredbytheworkofMillerandcolleaguesonmotivationalinterviewing.TheFCUisabriefinterventionthatcontainsabroadassessmentofthefamilycontextandparentingpractices,aninitialget-to-know-youmeet-ingwiththefamily,andaformalfeedbacksession.WeseetheFCUasthefoundationofanecological

approachtochildandfamilyinterventions,thefirststepinamenuofempirically-supportedchildandfamilyinterventionsthatreduceproblembehaviorandpromoteemotionalwellbeinginchildrenandfamilies.Incontrasttothestandardclinicalmodel,theecologicalapproachisseenasahealthmainte-nancemodel,whichexplicitlypromotesperiodiccontactwithfamilies(ataminimumyearly)overthecourseofkeydevelopmentaltransitions.ThecurrentstudyfocusesprimarilyontheFCUforfamiliesandtoddlersat-riskforearlyCPengagedintheWICser-vicesystem.

PreviousresearchwiththeFCUinvolvedrandomassignmentofyoungadolescentsinpublicmiddleschoolstoafamilyresourceroomincontrasttoa‘middleschoolasusual’controlcondition.Thefam-ilyresourceroomswerestaffedbytrainedpersonnelfocusedonengagingfamiliesintheFCUandavarietyofotherlinkedfamilyinterventions(seeDishion&Kavanagh,2003).Usinganintentiontotreatdesign,theauthorsfoundthatproactiveparentengagementreducedsubstanceuseamonghigh-riskadolescents,andpreventedsubstanceuseamongtypicallydevel-opingyouth(Dishion,Kavanagh,Schneiger,Nelson,&Kaufman,2002).Significantreductionsintheseproblembehaviorsresultedfrom,onaverage,sixdirectcontactmeetingswithparentsoverthecourseofthreeyears.ComplierAverageCausalEffectmodelssupportthenotionthattheFCUwasthekeyinterven-tionstrategy,andthatreceiptoftheFCUandlinkedservicesasneededleadtosignificantlong-termreduc-tionsinsubstanceuseandantisocialbehavior,includ-ingdecreasedsubstanceusediagnosesandfewerarrestsbytheendofhighschool(Connell,Dishion,Yasui,&Kavanagh,inpress).

WehavepreviouslyappliedtheFamilyCheckUptohighriskfamiliesoftoddlersinvolvedinWIC,anationalprogramfornutritionsupportforincomeeligiblefamilieswithchildrenages0to5.Randomlyassigning120familiesoftoddlerstoWICasusual,versusWICwithaFamilyCheckUpatage2wasfoundtoresultinreductionsinproblembehaviorandimprovementinparentinvolvementatages3and4,respectively(Shawetal.,2006).Inaddition,interven-tioneffectswereevidentforthosefamilieswithariskprofileforearly-startingCP,includingabove-averagelevelsofmaternaldepressivesymptomsandchildfear-lessness.ThosefamiliesassignedtotheinterventiongroupwiththisriskprofileshowedasharpdeclineonchildCPbetweenages2and4comparedtofamiliesinthecontrolgroupwithsameriskprofileatage2.

ThispreviousstudyoftheFCUwithfamiliesoftoddlerswaslimitedbyasmallsamplesize,theuseofonlymalechildrenrecruitedfromanurbancom-munity,andtheextentofinterventionservicesoffered

tothefamilies.Thecurrentstudy,whichwerefertoastheEarlyStepsMultisiteStudy(ESMS),remediesthesethreelimitationsandprovidesabroaderperspectiveonpossiblemediatingmechanismsofchange.First,thesamplesizeincludes731at-riskfamilies,halfofwhomwererandomlyassignedtotheEcoFIT,versusWICasusual.Thefamilieswererecruitedfromthreegeographicallyandculturallyuniqueregions,includ-ingmetropolitanPittsburgh,PennsylvaniasuburbanEugene,Oregon,andruralCharlottesville,Virginia.Thesamplealsoreflectsculturaldiversity,includingAfricanAmerican,EuropeanAmerican,andLatinofamilies.Inaddition,weutilizedtheentireEcoFITmodel, inthatfamilieswereprovidedadditionalservicesfollowingtheFamilyCheckUp,consistentwithanadaptive,tailoredapproachtointervention.ExtendinganearlierreportontheESMSthatdemon-stratedtheFCUtobeassociatedwithimprovementsinchildCPandpositiveparenting(Dishionetal.,2007),thecurrentstudytestswhethertheinterven-tionwasalsosuccessfulinreducinglevelsofmaternaldepressivesymptomsandchildinternalizingprob-lems,andwhetherchangesinmaternaldepressionmediatedreductionsinchildCPandinternalizingsymptoms.

Method

Participants Participantsincluded731mother-childdyadsrecruit-edbetween2002and2003fromWICProgramsinthemetropolitanareasofPittsburgh,PA,andEugene,Oregon,andwithinandoutsidethetownofChar-lottesville,VA(Dishionetal.,2007).FamilieswereapproachedatWICsitesandinvitedtoparticipateiftheyhadasonordaughterbetween2years0monthsand2years11monthsofage,followingascreentoensurethattheymetthestudycriteriabyhavingsocioeconomic,family,and/orchildriskfactorsforfuturebehaviorproblems.Riskcriteriaforrecruitmentweredefinedatoraboveonestandarddeviationabovenormativeaveragesonseveralscreeningmeasureswithinthefollowingthreedomains:(a)childbehavior(conductproblems,high-conflictrelationshipswithadults),(b)familyproblems(maternaldepression,dailyparentingchallenges,substanceuseproblems,teenparentstatus),and(c)socio-demographicrisk(loweducationachievementandlowfamilyincomeusingWICcriterion).Twoormoreofthethreeriskfactorswererequiredforinclusioninthesample.

AscanbeseeninFigure1andpartitionedbysiteinTable1,ofthe1666parentswhowereapproachedatWICsitesacrossthethreestudysitesandhadchil-drenintheappropriateagerange,879familiesmettheeligibilityrequirements(52%inPittsburgh,57%

inEugene,49%inCharlottesville)and731(83.2%)agreedtoparticipate(88%inPittsburgh,84%inEugene,76%inCharlottesville).Thechildreninthesamplehadameanageof29.9months(SD=3.2)atthetimeoftheage2assessment.

Ofthe731families(49%female),272(37%)wererecruitedinPittsburgh,271(37%)inEugenesite,and188(26%)inCharlottesville.MoreparticipantswererecruitedinPittsburghandEugenebecauseofthelargerpopulationofeligiblefamiliesintheseregionsrelativetoCharlottesville.Acrosssites,thechildrenwerereportedtobelongtothefollowing

racialgroups:27.9%AfricanAmerican(AA),50.1%EuropeanAmerican(EA),13.0%biracial,and8.9%otherraces(e.g.AmericanIndian,NativeHawaiian).Intermsofethnicity,13.4%ofthesamplereportedbeingHispanicAmerican(HA).Duringtheperiodofscreeningfrom2002to2003,morethantwo-thirdsofthosefamiliesenrolledintheprojecthadanannualincomeoflessthan$20,000,andtheaveragenumberoffamilymembersperhouseholdwas4.5(SD=1.63).Forty-onepercentofthepopulationhadahighschooldiplomaorGEDequivalency,andanadditional32%hadonetotwoyearsofpost–highschooltraining.

Retention:Ofthe731familieswhoinitiallypar-ticipated,659(89.9%)wereavailableattheone-yearfollow-upand619(84.7%)participatedatthetwo-yearfollow-upwhenchildrenwerebetween4and4years11monthsold.Atages3and4,selectiveattritionanal-ysesrevealednosignificantdifferencesinprojectsite,children’srace,ethnicity,orgender,levelsofmaternaldepressionorchildren’sexternalizingbehaviors(par-entreports).Furthermore,nodifferenceswerefoundinthenumberofparticipantswhowerenotretainedinthecontrolversustheinterventiongroupsatbothages3(n=40andn=32,respectively)and4(n=58andn=53,respectively.

MeasuresDemographicsquestionnaire.Ademographicsquestionnairewasadministeredtothemothersduringtheage2,3,and4visits.Thismeasureincludedquestionsaboutfamilystructure,parentaleducationandincome,parentalcriminalhistory,andareasoffamilialstress.

Center for Epidemiologi-cal Studies on Depression Scale (CES-D).TheCES-D(Radloff,1977)isawell-establishedandwidelyused20-itemmeasureofdepressivesymptomatologythatwasadministeredtomoth-

ersattheage2and3homeassessments.Participantsreporthowfrequentlytheyhaveexperiencedalistofdepressivesymptomsduringthepastweekonascalerangingfrom0(lessthanaday)to3(5-7days).Itemsaresummedtocreateanoveralldepressivesymptomsscore.Forthecurrentsample,internalconsistencieswere.76and.75attheage2and3assessments.

Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000).TheCBCLforages1.5-5isa99-itemquestionnairethatassessesbehavioralproblemsinyoungchildren.MotherscompletedtheCBCLattheages2,3,and4visits.TheCBCLhastwobroad-band

Study Candidates ScreenedN = 1666

Study Candidates Quali�edN = 879

Study Candidates ParticipatedN = 731

Participants in Age 2 Assessment Assigned to

Control ConditionN = 364

Treatment ConditionN = 367

Figure 1.Participantflowchart.

factors,InternalizingandExternalizingthatwereusedtoevaluatethefrequencyofproblembehav-iorduringthestudyperiod,forwhichinterventioneffectsoftheExternalizingfactorhavebeenprevi-ouslybeenreportedelsewhere(Dishionetal.,2007).InternalconsistenciesforExternalizingwere.86,.89,and.86atages2,3,and4,respectively.ForInternal-izing,internalconsistencieswere.82,.86,and.91atages2,3,and4,respectively.

Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory.This36-itembehaviorchecklistalsowasadministeredattheages2,3,and4assessments(Robinsonetal.,1980).TheEybergincludestwofactorsthatfocusontheper-ceivedintensityanddegreethebehaviorisaproblemforcaregivers.AstheIntensityfactorissimilarincontentandstructuretotheCBCLExternalizingfac-tor,forthecurrentstudywefocusedontheProblemfactor,whichaskscaregiverstoreportontheextentthebehaviorisaproblemfortheparentusingaseven-pointscale.TheInventoryhasbeendemonstratedtobehighlycorrelatedwithindependentobservationsofchildren’sbehavior,todifferentiateclinic-referredandnonclinicpopulations(Robinsonetal.,1980),andshowhightest-retestreliability(.86)andinternalcon-sistency(.98)(Webster-Stratton,1985).Inthecurrentstudy,internalconsistenciesfortheProblemfactorwere.84,.90,and.94atages2,3,and4,respectively.

Assessment protocol.Parents(i.e.,mothersand,ifavailable,alternativecaregiverssuchasfathersorgrandmothers)whoagreedtoparticipateinthestudywerethenscheduledfora2.5-hourhomevisit.Eachassessmentbeganbyintroducingchildrentoanassortmentofage-appropriatetoysandhavingthemplayfor15minuteswhilethemotherscompletedquestionnaires.Afterthefreeplay(15minutes),whichbeganwiththechildbeingapproachedbyanadultstranger(i.e.,undergraduatefilmer),eachprimarycaregiverandchildparticipatedinaclean-uptask(5minutes),followedbyadelayofgratificationtask(5minutes),fourteachingtasks(3minuteseachwiththelasttaskbeingcompletedbyalternatecaregiverandchild),asecondfreeplay(4minutes),asecondclean-uptask(4minutes),thepresentationoftwoinhibition-inducingtoys(2minuteseach),andamealpreparationandlunchtask(20minutes).

Theexacthomevisitandobservationprotocolwasrepeatedatages3and4forboththecontrolandinter-ventiongroup.

Familiesreceived$100forparticipatingintheage2homevisit.Familieswerereimbursed$120attheage3assessmentand$140attheage4assessmentfortheirtime.Therandomizationsequencewascomputer-generatedbyamemberofstaffwhowasnotinvolvedwith recruitment.Randomizationwasbalancedongendertoassureanequalnumberofmalesand

femalesinthecontrolandinterventionsub-sample.Toensureblindness,theexamineropenedasealedenvelope,revealingthefamily’sgroupassignmentonlyaftertheassessmentwascompleted,andsharedthisinformationwiththefamily.Examinerscarryingoutfollow-upassessmentswerenotinformedofthefamily’sassignedcondition.

Forpurposesofthepresentstudy,onlymaternalreportsofchildproblembehaviorwereusedfromtheage3and4assessments,withmaternalreportsofdepressionbeingusedfromtheage3assessment.

InterventionProtocol:TheFCU.Familiesrandom-lyassignedtotheinterventionconditionwerethenscheduledtomeetwithaparentconsultantfortwoormoresessionsdependingonthefamily’spreference.TheFCUisabrief,three-sessioninterventionbasedonmotivationalinterviewingandmodeledaftertheDrinker’sCheckUp(Miller&Rollnick,2002).Typi-cally,thethreemeetingsincludeanInitialContactSession,anAssessmentsessionandaFeedbackses-sion(Dishion&Kavanagh,2003).However,toopti-mizetheinternalvalidityofthestudy(i.e.,preventdifferentialdropoutforexperimentalandcontrolconditions),theassessmentswerecompletedbeforerandomassignmentresultswereknowntoeithertheresearchstafforthefamily.Thus,forpurposesofresearchstudiesonly,thesequenceofcontactswasanassessment(baseline),randomization,aninitialinterview,aFeedbacksession,andpossiblyfollow-upsessions.Familiesweregivenagiftcertificateof$25forcompletingtheFCUattheendofthefeedbacksession,whichcouldbeusedatlocalsupermarketsorvideostores.

Thus,theinitialmeetingwasanassessmentcon-ductedwithresearchstaff,asdescribedabove,wherethefamilyengagedinavarietyofin-homevideotapedtasksofparent-childinteractionandcaregiverscom-pletedseveralquestionnairesabouttheirown,theirchild’s,andtheirfamily’sfunctioning.Duringthishomeassessment,staffalsocompletedratingsofpar-entinvolvementandsupervision.Thesecondsessionwasa“get-to-know-you”(GTKY)meetingwiththeparentconsultant,duringwhichtimesheexploredparentconcerns,focusingonfamilyissuesthatwerecurrentlythemostcriticaltothechild’swellbeing.ThethirdmeetinginvolvedaFeedbacksession,wheretheparentconsultantsummarizedtheresultsoftheassessmentusingmotivationalinterviewingstrate-gies.Caregiverswereprovidedwithfeedbackontheirownadjustment,themarriage(ifmarried),thechild’sbehavior,andtheirparentingpractices.Normsareintegraltothefeedbackprocess,withstrengthsdefinedascontextualand/orparentingpracticesinthenormativerange,andfamilyissuesthat‘needattention’beingscoresthatwerestatisticallyinthe

clinicalrange.Forexample,aCES-Dscoreof16andabove(Radloff1977),wouldsuggestthattheparent’slevelofdepressedmoodwasclinicallysignificant,andcouldrequireattention.

AnessentialobjectiveoftheFeedbacksessionistoexploretheparents’willingnesstochangeprob-lematicparentingpractices,tosupportexistingpar-entingstrengths,andtoidentifyservicesappropri-atetothefamilyneeds.AttheFeedback,theparentwasofferedfollow-upsessionsthatwerefocusedonparentingpractices,otherfamilymanagementissues(e.g.,co-parenting),andcontextualissues(e.g.,childcareresources,maritaladjustment,housing,voca-tionaltraining).

ParentconsultantswhocompletedtheFCUandfollowupparentingsessionswereacombinationofPh.D.-andMaster’s-levelserviceworkers,allwithpre-viousexperienceincarryingoutfamily-basedinter-ventions,butatthestudy’soutsetmodestexperienceinusingtheFCU.Parentconsultantswereinitiallytrainedfor2.5-3monthsusingacombinationofstrat-egies,includingdidacticinstruction,androle-play-ing,followedupbyongoingvideotapedsupervisionofinterventionactivity.Beforeworkingwithstudyfamilies,ParentConsultantswereinitiallycertifiedbyleadParentConsultantsateachsite,whointurnwerecertifiedbyDr.Dishion.Certificationwasestablished

byreviewingvideotapesoffeedbackandfollow-upinterventionsessionstoevaluatewhetherparentcon-sultantswerecompetentinallcriticalcomponentsoftheinterventionasdescribedbelow.ThisprocessisrepeatedyearlytoreducedriftfromtheinterventionmodelfollowingthemethodsofForgatch,Pattersonetal.(2005),inwhichitwasfoundthatdirectobserva-tionsoftherapistfidelitytoparentmanagementtrain-ingpredictedchangeinparentingpracticesandchildbehavior.Inaddition,cross-sitecaseconferenceswereconvenedonaweeklybasisusingvideoconferencingtofurtherenhancefidelity.Finally,annualParentConsultantmeetingswereheldtoupdatetraining,discusspossiblechangesintheinterventionmodel,andtoaddressspecialinterventionissuesreflectedbytheneedsoffamiliesacrosssites.

Ofthefamiliesassignedtotheinterventioncondi-tion,77.9%participatedintheGTKYandfeedbacksessionsatage2,65.4%atage3,and65.3%atage4(seeTable1forsite-specificdata).Ofthosefamilieswhometwithaparentconsultant,theaveragenum-berofsessionsperfamilywas3.32(SD=2.84)atage2and2.83(SD=2.70)atage3,includingtheGTKYandFeedbackastwoofthosesessions.Wealsotestedwhetherthenumberofsessionsparentshadwithpar-entconsultantswasrelatedtoCBCLExternalizingandInternalizingorEybergProblemfactorscoresatages3

or4,examiningcorrelationsbetweennumberofsessionsatage2inrefer-encetomaternalreportsofproblembehavioratage3,andnumberofses-sionsatage3inrelationtoreportsofproblembehaviorsatage4.Inpre-viousresearchusingtheFCUwithtoddlers,noassociationsbetweeninterventionsessionsandlaterprob-lembehaviorwerefound(Shawetal.,2006).Inthecurrentanalyses,initialcorrelationsrevealedapat-ternofmodestpositiveassociations

betweennumberofses-sionsandlaterproblembehavior.Atage3,cor-relationswithallthreechild outcomes werenonsignificant trends(all threers= .10,p<.10).Inrelationtothenumberof sessionsatage3,correlationswithage4childbehavioralsowerepositive,rangingfrom r= .086 (ns) forCBCLExternalizing,r=.093(p<.10)forEyberg

Problem,andr=.126(p<.05)forCBCLInternalizing.However,wheninitiallevelsofchildproblembehaviorwereaccountedforusingpartialcorrelations,noneofthesixcorrelationsremainedstatisticallyreliable(i.e.,allwithp-levels>.10,exceptforage4Internal-izing,forwhichp<.10),consistentwiththenotionthatnumberofsessionswasrelatedtolevelsofinitialparentconcernaboutchildbehavior.Forallanalysesbelow,weuseanintentiontotreatdesign,includingthe22.1%offamiliesintheinterventiongroupwhodidnottakepartintheFCU.

resultsDescriptivestatisticsforallvariablesareshowninTable2.Foreaseofinterpretation,wepresentT-scoresontheEybergandCBCLmeasures,althoughrawscoreswereusedformodelstoavoidpotentialageandgendercorrections.ThepercentageoftherespondentsintheclinicalrangeonthesemeasuresateachageisalsopresentedinTable2.Intermsofvalidatingchildren’sproblembehaviorstatus,forboththeCBCLExternalizingandEybergProblemfactors,meanscoreswereapproximatelyonestan-darddeviationabovenormativescoresatage2,withCBCLInternalizingscoresapproximately.6standarddeviationsabovethenormativeaverage.Usingtheborderlineclinicalcutoffofthe90thpercentilefortheCBCL,48.6and38.6%ofchildrenwerereportedtohaveclinically-elevatedscoresontheExternaliz-ingandInternalizingfactorsatage2.Inbothcases,thispercentagewasreducedovertimeto23-24%atage4.Atage2,41.5%ofmothersreportedclinicallymeaningfullevelsofdepressivesymptomsusingthecutoffscoreof16.

Correlationsforallvariablesfromage2to4areshowninTable3.Importantly,nosignificantasso-ciationswere foundbetween interventiongroupandchildgenderorethnicity,orlevelsofmaternaldepressivesymptomsoranytypeofchildproblembehavioratage2,suggestingthatrandomizationwassuccessful.Modesttomoderateassociationswereconsistentlyfoundbetweenmaternaldepressionandfactorsofchildproblembehaviorconcurrentlyandovertime,andamongdifferentfactorsofchildprob-lembehavior.

Thecentralanalysesinthispaperexaminedthreemajorissues.Thefirstinvolvedtestingwhetherinter-ventioneffectswereevidentinthegrowthofinternal-izingsymptoms.Wealsoreportonpreviouslyreportedinterventioneffectsforgrowthinchildexternalizingsymptomsandexternalizingproblemsbeingaprob-lemformothers(seeDishionetal.,2007)tobeusedinlaternewanalysesinvolvingmaternaldepressionasapotentialmediatorofinterventioneffects.Asecondgoalwastoexaminewhetherrandomassignmentto

theFCUwasassociatedwithreductionsinmaternaldepressivesymptomsfromages2to3.Athirdandfinalgoalwastoexplorewhetherreductionsindiffer-entfactorsofchildproblembehaviorfromages2to4weremediatedbyreductionsinmaternaldepressivesymptomsfromages2to3.UsingM-Plus,allanalysesusedfullinformationmaximumlikelihoodestimation(Muthen&Muthen,2004),whichprovidesamethodforaccommodatingmissingdatabyestimatingeachparameterusingallavailabledataforthatspecificparameter.Afterinitialmodelswerecomputed,eachwasrecomputedtoseewhethermodelfitwasimprovedbyaddingchildgenderorethnicity.

Intervention Effects on child Problem behaviorOurfirstgoalwastoexaminewhethertheinter-ventionwassuccessfulinreducingchildproblembehaviorbetweentheagesof2and4.Asreportedpreviously(Dishionetal.,2007),modelfortheCBCLExternalizingprovidedexcellentfittothedata(χ2[df=3]=6.01,p=.11;CFI=.99;RMSEA=.04;SRMR=.02).Themodelyieldedsignificantintercept(esti-mate=20.63,SE=.27)andslopevalues(estimate=-2.00,SE=.22),aswellassignificantresidualvari-anceintheintercept(estimate=41.57,SE=3.82)andslopeparameters(estimate=11.24,SE=1.79).Theeffectofinterventionontherateofchangeinproblembehaviorwassignificant(estimate=-.82,SE=.29;β=-.12).Theresultsindicatedthatrelativetochildreninthecontrolgroup,childrenintheinterventiongroupshowedasignificantlysharperdecreaseinExternal-izingsymptomsfromages2to4.

ThemodelforCBCLInternalizingalsoprovidedanexcellentfittothedata(χ2[df=3]=1.42,p=.70;CFI=1.00;RMSEA=.00;SRMR=.01).Themodelyieldedsignificantintercept(estimate=12.45,SE=.24)andslopevalues(estimate=-.57,SE=.18),aswellassignificantresidualvarianceintheintercept(estimate=35.28,SE=2.14)andslopeparameters(estimate=7.10,SE=1.35).Theeffectofinterven-tionontherateofchangeinproblembehaviorwassignificant(estimate=-.58,SE =.24;β=-.11).SimilartothepatternfoundforExternalizing,childrenintheinterventiongroupwerereportedtodemonstrateasignificantlyhigherrateofdeclinethancontrolchil-drenfromages2to4.

ThemodelfortheEybergProblemalsoprovidedanexcellentfittothedata(χ2[df=3]=.52,p=.91;CFI=1.00;RMSEA=.00;SRMR=.001).Asreportedelsewhere(Dishionetal.,2007),themodelyieldedsignificantintercept(estimate=14.22,SE=.24)andslopevalues(estimate=.49,SE=.24),aswellassig-nificantresidualvarianceintheintercept(estimate=23.70,SE=3.33)andslopeparameters(estimate=12.75,SE=1.93).Theeffectofinterventionontherate

ofchangeinproblembehaviorwassignificant(estimate=-.71,SE=.32;β=-.10).Theresultsmirroredthose found for the twoCBCLfactors,withperceptionsofprob-lembehaviorremainingstableforthoseintheinterventiongroup,butproblembehaviorincreasingformothersinthecontrolgroup.

All models were re-comput-ed includingchildgender (0=female,1=male)andethnicity(0=Caucasian,1=ethnicminority)ascontrolvariables.Theinterven-tioneffectremainedsignificantinallanalyses,andexcellentmodelfitwasretained.

Intervention Effects on Maternal DepressionOursecondgoalwastotestwheth-er the interventionwasassoci-atedwithareductioninlevelsofmaternaldepressive symptomsformothersintheinterventiongrouprelativetocontrolsbetweenages2and3,controllingforage2depressivesymptoms.Atwo-waveautoregressivemodelwascomputedtoexaminetheeffectofinterventiononage3maternaldepressivesymptoms,controllingforage2symptoms.Thismodelprovidedexcellentfittothedata(χ2[df=1]=.23,p=.63;CFI=1.00;RMSEA=.00;SRMR=.01).Age3maternaldepressivesymp-tomsweresignificantlypredictedbyintervention(estimate=-1.95,SE=.78;β=-.09),andbyage2maternalsymptoms(estimate=.44,SE=.04;β=.42).Mothersintheinterventiongroupreportedasignificantlygreaterdecreaseindepressivesymptomsthancontrolmothers.Resultswereunchangedaddingchildgenderandethnicityascovariates.

Mediation Effects of Maternal DepressionMediatoranalysesexaminedtheindirecteffectofinterventionontherateofchangeinproblembehav-iorsthroughtheeffectofinterventiononmaternalsymptomsatage3.Foreaseofinterpretation,theseresultsareshowninFigures2,3,and4.Inallmod-els,theslopeofproblembehaviorswasregressedonage3maternaldepressivesymptomsandinterven-

tionstatus,whilematernalsymptomsatage3wereregressedoninterventionstatusandmaternalsymp-tomsatage2.Thus,thismodeltestswhetherinter-ventionisrelatedtothechangeinmaternalsymptomsfromage2to3,andwhetherthischangeinmaternalsymptoms,inturn,predictstherateofchangeinchildbehaviorproblemsfromage2to4,controllingforthedirecteffectofintervention.Astatisticaltestofthesignificanceoftheindirecteffect(i.e.,themediationeffect)frominterventiontothechangeinmaternalsymptomstotherateofchangeinproblembehaviorwasexamined.StandarderrorsforindirecteffectswerecalculatedusingtheDeltamethoddescribedby

–.10*

–.08*

–.02–.16*

Indirect effect: –.02*

.09.04

Intercept Slope

Mom DepAge 3

Mom DepAge 2

Gender

Ethnicity

Treatment

Age 2 Age 3

Figure 2.Mediationmodelforexternalizing.

–.10*

–.08

–.14

–.17*

.09.04

Intercept Slope

Mom DepAge 3

Mom DepAge 2

Gender

Ethnicity

Treatment

Age 2 Age 3

Figure 3.Mediationmodelforinternalizing.

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MacKinnonandcolleagues(2002,2004).AsshowninFigure2,themodelforCBCLExter-

nalizingprovidedreasonablefittothedatabymostindicesofmodelfit(χ2[df =10]=39.48,p<.05;CFI=.97;RMSEA=.06;SRMR=.04),andthenonsig-nificantchi-squaremayberelatedtothelargesamplesize.Inthismodel,thedirecteffectofinterventionontheproblembehaviorslopewasnotsignificantwithmaternalsymptomsincludedinthemodel,indica-tionthatmaternaldepressionmediatedtheeffectofinterventiononCBCLExternalzing.Interventionsig-nificantlypredictedreductionsinmaternalsymptomsfromage2to3.Highermaternaldepressivesymp-tomspredictedgreatergrowthinproblembehavior(conversely, lowersymptomswererelatedto lessgrowthinproblembehavior).Themediationeffectfrominterventiontoreducedmaternalsymptomstolowergrowthinproblembehaviorwasstatisticallysignificant,althoughsmallinmagnitude.

SimilarresultswereobtainedfortheCBCLInter-nalizing(seeFigure3).ThemodelforInternalizingprovidedreasonablefittothedatabymostindicesofmodelfit(χ2[df=10]=39.13,p<.05;CFI=.98;RMSEA=.06;SRMR=.03).Inthismodel,thedirecteffectofinterventionontheinternalizingslopewasnotsignificantwithmaternalsymptomsincludedinthemodel,indicationthatmaternaldepressionmedi-atedtheeffectofinterventiononCBCLInternalzing.Interventionsignificantlypredictedreductionsinmaternalsymptomsfromage2to3.Highermater-naldepressivesymptomspredictedgreatergrowthininternalizingproblems(andlowersymptomswererelatedtolessgrowthininternalizingproblems).Themediationeffectfrominterventiontoreducedmater-

nalsymptomstolowergrowthininternalizingproblemswasstatis-ticallysignificant,althoughsmallinmagnitude.

ThemodelfortheEybergProb-lemscale(seeFigure4)providedreasonablefittothedatabymostindicesofmodelfit(χ2[df =10]=43.26,p<.05;CFI=.95;RMSEA=.07;SRMR=.03).Thenonsignifi-cantchi-squaremayberelatedtothelargesamplesize,aschi-squareissensitivetosamplesize.Inthismodel,thedirecteffectofinterven-tionontheproblembehaviorslopewasnotsignificantwithmaternalsymptomsincludedinthemodel,again indication thatmaternaldepression mediated the effectof intervention on the EybergProblemscale.Interventiondid

significantlypredictgreaterreductionsinmaternalsymptomsfromage2to3.Highermaternaldepres-sivesymptomspredictedgreatergrowthinproblembehavior(conversely,lowersymptomswererelatedtolessgrowthinproblembehavior).Themediationeffectfrominterventiontoreducedmaternalsymptomstolowergrowthinproblembehaviorwasstatisticallysignificant,althoughsmallinmagnitude.

DiscussionThreemajorissueswereaddressedinthecurrentpaper.Thefirstinvolvedcorroboratingthatinter-ventioneffectswereevidentinthereducedgrowthofchildCPandinternalizingsymptomsasaresultofrandomassignmenttotheFCU,aswellasper-ceptionsofexternalizingproblemsbeingaprob-lemformothers.CorroboratingandextendingtherecentfindingsofDishionandcolleagues(2007),wefoundthattheFCUwasrelatedtoreducedgrowthinchildinternalizingsymptomsinadditiontothepreviouslyfoundreductioninchildCPandpercep-tionofCPbeingaproblem.AsecondgoalwastoexaminewhetherrandomassignmenttotheFCUwasassociatedwithreductionsinmaternaldepres-sivesymptomsfromages2to3.Inlinewithpredic-tions,motherswhoreceivedinterventionreportedreductionsindepressionacrossages2to3,relativetomothersinthecontrolgroup.AthirdandfinalgoalwastoexaminewhetherreductionsinchildCPandinternalizingproblemsfromages2to4weremedi-atedbyreductionsinmaternaldepressivesymptomsfromages2to3.Infact,forallthreechildproblembehaviors,includingCPandinternalizingsymptomsaswellasperceptionsofCPbeingaproblem,direct

–.08

–.11*

.02.03

Intercept Slope

Mom DepAge 3

Mom DepAge 2

Gender

Ethnicity

Treatment

Age 2 Age 3

Figure 4.MediationmodelforEybergProblemBehavior

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effectsbetweeninterventionstatusandchildproblembehaviorfromages2to4weremediatedbychangesinmaternaldepressionfromages2to3.

Thecurrentfindingscorroborateandexpanduponresultsfromthebroaderliteratureontheeffective-nessofpreventiveinterventionsaimedatreducingchildCPinearlychildhood(Baydar,Reid,&Web-ster-Stratton,2003,Olds,2002),demonstratingthattheinterventionisalsoeffectiveinreducingmaternalperceptionsofinternalizingsymptoms.ThefindingsalsoprovideadditionalsupportfortheeffectivenessoftheFCUingeneral(Connelletal.,inpress;Connell,Dishion,&Deater-Deckard,2006)anditsapplicationtohigh-riskfamiliesduringthetoddlerperiodinpar-ticular.Previously,wehadfoundthatthatonedoseoftheFCUwassuccessfulinreducingsubsequentchildCPandimprovingpositiveparentingandparentalinvolvementwithasmallersampleoftoddler-ageboysfromanurbancommunity(Gardneretal.,inpress;Shawetal.,2006).However,nobetween-groupdif-ferenceswerefoundwithrespecttomaternaldepres-sivesymptomsintheearlierstudy,suggestingthatrepeatedcontactwithfamiliesatage3mighthavefacilitatedthisnewchange.Inaddition,thepreviousapplicationoftheFCUfoundnointerventioneffectsforchildinternalizingsymptoms,alsosuggestingthepotentialbenefitofrepeated,albeitrelativelybrief,contactwithfamilies.

Accounting for change in Maternal DepressionOneofthemostinterestingfindingsofthestudywasthattheFCUwasassociatedwithimprovementsinmaternaldepressivesymptomseventhoughformostfamiliesmaternaldepressionwasnotlistedasapri-marygoalbyparentsoratopicthatwasexplicitlyaddressedbyparentconsultants.Thefindingofarelativelybriefinterventionfocusingonmotivationtochangehavingsignificanteffectsisconsistentwiththegeneralliteratureonmotivationalinterviewing(Miller&Rollnick,2003).Caregiversweregivenfeed-backontheirlevelsofdepression,andgoalsrelatedtoimprovingdepressionwerelabeledas‘selfcare’.Itwasrare,however,thatparentconsultantsprovideddirecttreatmentfordepression.Ananalysisofthefirst235of360interventionfamiliesrevealedthatthebroadcategoryof‘parentselfcare’wasthesixthmostendorsedgoal(24.3%),fallingbehindotherssuchaschildproblembehavior(50.2%),disciplinestrategies(31.9%),andfamilyselfsufficiency(30.2%,Schlatteretal.,2005).Inadditiontoincludingmaternaldepres-sion,parentselfcarealsoincludedissuessuchas‘find-ingtimeformetorelax’and‘doingmorethingsasmyown;’thus,itislikelythatthoseinterestedinworkingonimprovingdepressivesymptomswereconsiderablylessthan24%ofmothers.Despitethefactthatrela-

tivelyfewmothers’depressivesymptomsweretreateddirectly,thereareatleastthreepossibleexplanationstoaccountforhowreductionsinsymptomsofmater-naldepressionoccurred.

Onepossibleexplanationisthatchangesindepres-sionwereattributabletochangesparentsmadeincaregivingpractices,specificallypositiveparenting.Infact,DeGarmoandcolleagues(2004)foundresultsconsistentwiththenotionthatimprovementsinpar-entingskillsprecededimprovementsinchildantiso-cialbehavior,whichinturnprecededlaterreductionsinmaternaldepressivesymptoms.Usingthecurrentsample,wefoundthatimprovementsinchildCPfrom2to4wereaccountedforbyimprovementsinposi-tiveparentingintheinterventiongroup(Dishionetal,2007).However,follow-upanalysesrevealedthatpositiveparentingandmaternaldepressionwereonlymodestlycorrelatedatages2and3,althoughinterventionpredictedchangesineachdomainfromage2to3.Further,positiveparentingandmaternaldepressioneachmadeindependentcontributionstotheslopeofproblembehaviorfromages2to4.Thelowcorrelationbetweenpositiveparentinganddepressionatage2and3andtheextentthatchangesinbothcontributedtochangesinchildbehaviorsug-gestsheterogeneityinfamilyriskprofiles,withasig-nificantnumberofcaregiverswithparentingskillsbutstressfullivesthatexacerbatedepression.Perhapssomedepressedmotherswereempoweredbypositivefeedbackandsupportontheirparentingstrengths,whichbuttressedtheirmotivationtocontinueparent-ingandimprovedtheirmood.Futureanalyseswillfocusonexploringheterogeneityandthepossibilityoffeedbackloopsbetweenmaternaldepressionandgrowthinparentingpracticesaschildrenmature,especiallyforchildrenthatdemandmoreactiveandattentiveparenting(Shawetal.,2004).

Asecondpossibleexplanationisthatchangesinmaternaldepressionwererelatedtomorenonspecificfactorswithintheparent-parentconsultantrelation-ship,includingsuchfactorsastrust,havingacon-fidanttotalkto(evenifthiscontactdoesnotoccuroften),andaccesstoanexperttodiscussthechalleng-esofraisingatoddler.Forexample,inthere-analy-sisoftheNIMHdepressiontrialitwasfoundthattherapeuticcontent(e.g.,interpersonalversuscogni-tivebehavioral)accountedforaminisculeamountofvariationinoutcome.However,nonspecifictherapistfactorsaccountedforsubstantial(12%)amountofvariationintheoutcomes(Wampold,2001).Cumu-lativelythesenonspecifictherapistfactorsmayhaveresultedinimprovingmaternaldepressedmood.Inaddition,parentconsultantswereavailabletoprovideassistancetomotherswhosufferedshort-termcrises(e.g.,afireburningdowntheirresidence,lackoffood,

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nomoneytopayforelectricity),orlong-termchal-lengesinliving(e.g.,recentimmigrants’familiaritywithEnglishandAmericanculture,movingoutofprojectneighborhoods,isolationforruralfamilies,spousalabuse).Asfamilieswerescreenedonthebasisofmultiplesocioeconomic,family,andchildriskduringadevelopmentperiodknowntobechal-lengingevenforparentswithgreatereconomicandfamilyresources(Fagot&Kavanagh,1993),itseemsprobablethathavingrepeatedcontactwithsomeoneinthecommunitytohelpnavigatethesechallengesmayhavelessenedinitiallevelsofdepression,whichatbaselineaveragedabovetheclinicalcutoffontheCES-Dforbothcontrolandinterventionfamilies.Inthissense,theparentconsultantisseenasasup-portinfluencethatwouldminimizetheexperienceofstressandconcomitantdepression.

Thefactthataninterventiontargetingparentingresultsinchangesindepressionisnotsurprising.Thereislargebodyofevidencedemonstratingasso-ciationsbetweenmaternaldepressionandmultipleformsofchildproblembehavior(Cummingsetal.,2005,Farmeretal.,2002;Gelfand&Teti,2002;Leveetal.,2005).However,fewinterventionstudieshavedocumentedthatmodifyingmaternaldepressivesymptomsaccountsforinterventioneffectsonchildproblembehavior(Pattersonetal.,2004).Weseethisfindingassupportiveofanecologicalapproachtofamilyinterventionandtreatment(Dishion&Storm-shak,2007),inthatchangeofcontextcanaddressmultiplefamilymentalhealthproblemsthattendtobeetiologicallylinkedandclustered(e.g.,maternaldepression,childproblembehavior).Thusafamilycenteredinterventionmaybenefitmultiplefamilymembersinverydifferentways.Inthissense,itmaybebettertotakeafamily-centeredapproachtothetreatmentofcommonadultmentalhealthproblems,especiallywhenfactorssuchasdepressionareembed-dedwithinarelationshipand/orfamilycontext.

Thesefindingsalsosuggesttheneedtomoreexplic-itlyfocusonfactorssuchascaregivermoodandaffectwithinthecontextofinterventionsdesignedtoreduceproblembehavior,orpreventfutureproblembehav-ior.Thecurrentresultssuggestthatdevelopersofearlyinterventionprogramsmaywanttoexplicitlyfocusonmaternaldepressionasatargetofchange,particularlyprocedureswithaproventrackrecordofsuccessinreducingdepressivesymptomatology(e.g.,cognitivebehaviortherapy,interpersonaltherapy).

LimitationsThestudyhasafewmethodologicallimitationsthatmeritconsideration.Firstandforemostistheissueofpotentialreporterbias.Thereisconsistentevidenceintheliteraturethatmotherswithelevatedlevels

ofdepressivesymptomsshowatendencytoreporthigherlevelsofchildren’sproblembehavior(Fergus-son,Lynskey,&Horwood,1993).Asmothersreport-edonbothdepressivesymptomsandchildren’sCPandinternalizingproblembehavior,reductionsinmaternaldepressivesymptomsthatappearedtobeafunctionofrandomizationtotheinterventiongroupmayhavealsoamplifiedgroupdifferencesinproblembehaviorandmaternalperceptionsoftheseverityofCP(i.e.,EybergProblemfactor).Ontheonehand,itispossiblethatgroupdifferencesarepartiallyrespon-sibleforperceivedchangesinchildproblembehav-ior.However,Dishionandcolleagues(2007)recentlyfoundthatobservedparentingbehaviorspredictedimprovementsinmother-ratedbehaviorproblemsinthissample,supportingthenotionthatmotherreportedproblemsrelatetoindependentlyobservedparentingbehaviorinthepredictedmannerinthisstudy.Inaddition,theresultsareconsistentwithpreviousresearchindicatingthatelevatedlevelsofdepressivesymptomsduringthetoddlerperiodarerelatedtoteacherreportsoflow-incomechildren’sCPduringmiddlechildhood(Shawetal.,2000),sug-gestingthatthemodificationofmaternaldepressionmayberelatedtoreducedCPatschoolduringmiddlechildhood.Futureplannedassessmentsthatincludeteacherandafter-careproviderreportswillshedlightonwhetherimprovementsinproblembehaviorarelimitedtomaternalperceptionsandthehomeenvi-ronment,aswellastime.

Second,althoughwepresentedevidencetosuggestthattheFCUisassociatedwithimprovementsinchildproblembehaviorandmaternaldepressivesymptoms,effectsizes,albeitmeaningfulfromapublichealthperspective,wererelativelymodest(d’srangedfrom.14to.19).FurtherrefinementoftheFCUwillbeneededtoincreaseitsefficacyformorefamilies.

Implications and Future DirectionsThecurrentfindingscorroboratepreviousevidencethatlongitudinalchangesinchilddisruptivebehaviorcanbeachievedwithabrieffamily-basedinterven-tionfortoddlers,andthatsuchchangeappearedtobemediatedbyimprovingpositiveparentingpractices.Thiswasachievedusinganexisting,nationally-avail-able,servicedeliverysettingwithlow-incomechil-drenwhoareatriskforearly-startingpathwaysofexternalizingproblembehaviorandwhosefamiliesdonottypicallyusementalhealthservices(Hainesetal.,2002).Futurefollow-upofthepresentcohortshouldclarifyissuesregardingtheintervention’senduranceandgeneralizabilitytoothercontexts.

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