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International Journal of Chemical and Biomedical Science
2018; 4(3): 46-53
http://www.aascit.org/journal/ijcbs
ISSN: 2472-9574 (Print); ISSN: 2472-9590 (Online)
Identification and Antibiogram of Bacteria from Naira Notes Used in Wukari Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria
Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth1, *
, Olofinlade Olamide Gloria1, Joseph Torshian Ugye
2
1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Federal University, Wukari, Nigeria 2Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Federal University, Wukari, Nigeria
Email address
*Corresponding author
Citation Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth, Olofinlade Olamide Gloria, Joseph Torshian Ugye. Identification and Antibiogram of Bacteria from Naira
Notes Used in Wukari Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria. International Journal of Chemical and Biomedical Science.
Vol. 4, No. 3, 2018, pp. 46-53.
Received: July 21, 2017; Accepted: November 8, 2017; Published: May 30, 2018
Abstract: Forty (40) samples of naira notes, of eight (8) different denominations (₦5, ₦10, ₦20, ₦50, ₦100, ₦200, ₦500,
₦1000) were randomly collected from categories of individuals; food vendors, traders, provision stores, cobblers, meat
vendors at strategic places in Wukari city for investigation using standard microbiological techniques. The aim of these study
was to isolate and identify bacteria allied with the surface of naira notes and there antibiogram. The result showed isolates of
Escherichia coli 40 (19.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34 (16.3%), Bacillus species 27 (12.9%), Streptococcus species 17
(8.1%) and Klebsiella species 15 (7.7%) and Staphylococcus aureus 67 (31.6%) and Salmonella species 9 (4.3%).
Staphylococcus aureus 67 (31.6%) was more predominant while Salmonella species 9 (4.3%) was the least. The colony
forming units of isolates from the various denomination of ₦5, ₦10, ₦20, ₦50, ₦100, ₦200, ₦500 and ₦1000 were 2.7x105,
3.1x105, 1.8x10
5, 3.0x10
5, 3.0x10
5, 2.9x10
5, 2.6x10
5 and 1.8x10
5 respectively. The antibiogram of the isolates show that all
isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin and resistant to augmentin. Other antibiotics (gentamycin, streptomycin,
chloramphenicol and ampiclox) has various degree of susceptibility and resistant. In conclusion, naira notes in circulation
harbour and serve as vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic bacteria via human/anthropogenic factors either through poor
sanitation and hygiene or poor handling of the naira notes. Contaminated naira notes are potential risks to public health as they
can serve as agents for the dispersal of different infectious pathogen which has found to be resistant to most of the
commercially marketed antibiotics, making their treatment more difficult. Therefore, care should be taken to prevent these
notes coming in contact with pathogenic bacteria.
Keywords: Naira, Bacteria, Antibiogram, Identification, Wukari
1. Introduction
The Naira note is the official currency of the federal republic
of Nigeria, issued and regulated by the central bank of Nigeria
(CBN) which was introduced into the country in 1945 and since
then several changes have been made to different denominations
used as a legal tender, as a medium for exchange of goods and
services, settlements of debts and for deferred payments in
economic activities [1]. There are various denominations of
naira notes comprising of ₦5, ₦10, ₦20, ₦50, ₦100, ₦200,
₦500, ₦1000 notes. The naira notes are classified into two
categories; the paper category (1000, 500, 200, 100-naira notes)
which is made up of 75% cotton and 25% linen and polymer
category (50, 20, 10, 5-naira notes) which are made up of
polymer such as Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP) [2];
[3]. The ₦5, ₦10, ₦20, ₦50, ₦100, ₦200-naira notes are the
most common and widely used in the daily transactions of
Nigerians especially those living in the rural areas, villages and
small towns but the ₦500, ₦1000 notes are mostly used by the
wealthy populace and in corporate transactions [4]; [5]. The
contamination of currency notes could be from several sources;
atmosphere during storage, usage and handling [6]. Daily
47 Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth et al.: Identification and Antibiogram of Bacteria from
Naira Notes Used in Wukari Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria
transactions have made currency notes pass through many hands
and pathogens have been imposed on them, poor handling
practices like spraying during ceremonies where such notes may
be trampled upon when they fall to the ground [7]. Paper
currencies provide a large surface area as breeding site for
pathogens and bacteria are ubiquitous; their ability to
contaminate objects such as the naira notes is highly prevalent
[8]. Other negative handling attitudes such as the wetting of
hands or fingers with saliva or use of contaminated water to
lubricate the hands in counting, improper hand washing after
using the toilet, coughing and sneezing on hands then
exchanging money, and placement and storage of notes on dirty
surfaces also leads to contamination and easy transfer of
bacterial and cross contamination [9]. Contamination of
different objects by potential pathogenic microorganisms is a
serious concern of public health because items that pass from
one hand to another gives the opportunity of contamination with
wide range of pathogenic microorganisms [10]. The physical
transfer of material from hands, surfaces and the environment
can contaminate paper currencies due to the fact that almost
every socio-economic setting regularly handle the paper
currencies [11]. Paper currencies acts as a vehicle through which
pathogen could be transmitted, most individual do not care how
dirty their hands and fingers are when handling money; from the
butcher’s bloody hands, the food vendors wetly oiled hands, the
auto-mechanic greasy palms and so many others receive or
handle paper currency with contaminated hands unknowing to
them leading to the vast contamination of the notes with
microorganisms [12]. There are various sources of microbial
contamination on paper currencies, which could be from the
counting machine, atmosphere, during storage, usage and
production. Transactions are made with the paper currencies
which are transferred from one handler to another, as such
pathogens are imposed on the notes before they are finally
deposited in the banks [10]. Archaic handling methods of
placing currency notes underneath brassier with sweat, under the
carpet or rugs, in socks and squeezing is still common especially
market women, motorcyclists, bus drivers, bus conductors,
butchers and meat sellers, are a major source of contamination
[7]. Storage of paper currencies in pockets, polytenes, cotton,
leather bags in humid and dark conditions also favour the
growth of microorganisms. Moreover, the contamination of the
notes can also be traced to dust, soil, water, contact with
traumatized skin and saliva when counting the notes [13].
Potentially dangerous bacterial agents that have been isolated on
paper currency include Streptococcus species, Staphylococcus
species, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Salmonella species [9]. This study is therefore
necessary to isolate and identify bacteria from the surface of
naira notes and to determine the tolerance and susceptibility of
these isolates to different antibiotics.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Population
This study was carried out in the Department of
Microbiology, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State,
Nigeria. Wukari metropolis is a large town which is the
Headquarter of Wukari Local Government Area of Taraba
State. Geographically, Wukari lies between latitude 7°55’42”
North and longitude 9°47’59” East. It has an area of 4,308
km2 and a population of about thirty thousand (30000).
Wukari is home to Federal University Wukari and Kwararafa
University. The major languages spoken are Jukun, Kutep,
Tiv, Hausa and Fulani [14].
2.2. Sample Collection
A total of forty (40) samples of Nigerian naira notes,
which consists of eight (8) denominations of naira notes (₦5.
₦10, ₦20, ₦50, ₦100, ₦200, ₦500, ₦1000) were randomly
collected from categories of individuals; food vendors,
traders, provision stores, cobblers, meat vendors at strategic
places in the Wukari metropolis. The samples were collected
aseptically in a sterile aluminum foil papers from the
individuals using disposable hand gloves. The samples were
labeled and taken immediately taken to the laboratory for
analysis.
2.3. Physical examination of the Currency
The currencies were in various physical conditions and
were categorized as clean, dirty or mutilated. The term clean
describes notes that had a clear appearance without any
evident of damage. The term dirty or mutilated describes
notes that does not have a clear appearance and are squeezed,
damaged, soiled, or held together with cello tapes or paper
tapes.
2.4. Preparation of Currency for Analysis
The naira notes collected were soaked in 100ml of distilled
water for few minutes at room temperature with intermittent
shaking to dislodge the cells into the suspension.
2.5. Bacteriological Investigation
Standard bacteriological methods were used for the
isolation of the various bacteria. The water from the soaked
notes was serially diluted in a tenfold serial dilution from 10-1
to 10-3
dilution factor and 1ml was inoculated into sterile
petri dishes and freshly prepared media of Nutrient agar and
MacConkey agar was used.
2.6. Antibiotic Susceptibility Test
Standard Antibiotic sensitivity test was carried out using
disc diffusion method on nutrient agar. The inhibition zone
was measured to ascertain the susceptibility and resistivity of
the organism to the antibiotics [15].
3. Result
The result of the study shows the presence of various types
of bacteria isolates on the naira notes. Although the vast
majority of the naira notes used were dirty, mutilated,
International Journal of Chemical and Biomedical Science 2018; 4(3): 46-53 48
wrinkled or odorous, the clean looking notes were also found
to be contaminated with various kinds of pathogenic bacteria
as well. Table 1 shows the physical conditions of the naira
notes used of different denominations. Table 2 depicts the
overall characteristics of isolated bacterial species from the
different sampled naira notes. Table 3 shows the colony
forming unit of the denominations of the naira notes. Table 4
shows the frequency of occurrence of bacteria on each of the
respective sampled naira notes. Table 5 shows the
antimicrobial sensitivity patterns of the different bacterial
isolates and table 6 shows the percentage occurrence of
bacterial isolates. Figure 1 shows a chart which depicts the
frequency of occurrence of bacterial isolates on the N5, N10
and N20 notes sampled. Figure 2 shows the frequency of
occurrence of bacterial isolates on the N50, N100 and N200
notes sampled. Figure 3 shows the frequency of bacterial
isolates on the sampled N500 and N1000 notes and Figure 4
shows the percentage of isolation of each bacteria species.
Table 1. Physical conditions of a sample of each naria denominations.
S/No. Denomination Physical condition
1 ₦5 Clean, dirty and mutilated
2 ₦10 Dirty and mutilated
3 ₦20 Clean, dirty
4 ₦50 Dirty, mutilated
5 ₦100 Dirty, mutilated and odorous
6 ₦200 Dirty and mutilated
7 ₦500 Clean, dirty and mutilated
8 ₦1000 Dirty and mutilated
Table 2. Overall characteristics of isolated bacteria from naira notes.
S/No Morphological
Characteristics
Gram
Staining
Biochemical tests Bacterial isolate
Coa Cat Cit Oxi Glu Suc Gal Gas H2S
1 Pink, round, flat, dry -ve rod - + - - + + + + - Escherichia coli
2 Milky, round, moist, raised +ve cocci + + + - + - + - - Staphylococcus aureus
3 Greenish, round, flat, dry -ve rod - + + + + - + - - Pseudomonas aeruginosa
4 Yellowish, round, raised, moist +ve rod - + + - + + - - - Bacillus sp.
5 Creamy, round, flat -ve rod - + + - + + + + - Klebsiella sp.
6 Orange, round, raised, moist -ve rod - + - - + - - - + Salmonella sp.
7 Milky, dry, flat, round +ve cocci - - - - + + + - - Streptococcus sp.
Keys: (-) = Negative, (+) = Positive, Coa= Coagulase, Cat= Catalase, Cit= Citrate, Oxi= Oxidase, Glu=Glucose, Suc= Sucrose, Gal= galactose, Gas= gas
production, H2S= H2S production
Table 3. Colony forming unit (CFU/ml) of the denominations of naira notes.
S/No Denomination Bacterial Colony Count CFU/ML
1 ₦5 27 2.7 x 105
2 ₦10 31 3.1 x 105
3 ₦20 18 1.8 x 105
4 ₦50 30 3.0 x 105
5 ₦100 30 3.0 x 105
6 ₦200 29 2.9 x 105
7 ₦500 26 2.6 x 105
8 ₦1000 18 1.8 x 105
Total 209
Table 4. Frequency of occurrence of bacterial isolates of each denomination of Naira notes.
S/No Denomination E. coli S. aureus P. aeruginosa Bacillus sp. Salmonella sp. Klebsiella sp. Streptococcus sp. Total
1 ₦5 5 10 4 3 1 1 3 27
2 ₦10 7 10 5 4 - 3 2 31
3 ₦20 3 6 2 3 - 2 2 18
4 ₦50 7 8 6 6 1 1 1 30
5 ₦100 4 9 7 2 3 2 3 30
6 ₦200 5 9 5 3 2 3 2 29
7 ₦500 5 9 4 3 1 2 2 26
8 ₦1000 4 5 1 3 1 2 2 18
Total 40 67 34 27 9 15 17 209
49 Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth et al.: Identification and Antibiogram of Bacteria from
Naira Notes Used in Wukari Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria
Table 5. Antimicrobial susceptibility test of bacterial isolates against selected antibiotics.
S/No. Bacterial Isolate Selected antibiotics
Ciprofloxacin Augmentin Gentamycin Streptomycin Chloramphenicol Ampiclox
1 Escherichia coli S R S S R R
2 Staphylococcus aureus S R R S S S
3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa S R R R R R
4 Bacillus sp. S R S S S S
5 Salmonella sp. S R S S R R
6 Klebsiella sp S R S S R R
7 Streptococcus sp. S R R S S S
Keys
R – Resistant
S- Susceptible
Table 6. Percentage occurrence of bacterial isolates.
S/no Bacterial Isolate Number of colonies (%) occurrence
1 Escherichia coli 40 19.1
2 Staphylococcus aureus 67 31.6
3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34 16.3
4 Bacillus sp. 27 12.9
5 Salmonella sp. 9 4.3
6 Klebsiella sp 15 7.7
7 Streptococcus sp. 17 8.1
TOTAL 209 100
Figure 1. Frequency of occurrence of bacteria isolates on ₦5, ₦10, ₦20 notes.
International Journal of Chemical and Biomedical Science 2018; 4(3): 46-53 50
Figure 2. Frequency of occurrence of bacteria isolates on ₦50, ₦100s, ₦200 notes.
Figure 3. Frequency of occurrence of bacteria isolates on ₦500, ₦1000 notes.
51 Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth et al.: Identification and Antibiogram of Bacteria from
Naira Notes Used in Wukari Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria
Figure 4. Percentage occurrence of bacterial isolates.
4. Discussion
Microorganisms are by their nature ubiquitous and can
therefore be found on different environments as long as their
basic metabolic requirements are met. This study was carried
out using eight (8) different naira notes denominations (N5,
N10, N20, N50, N100, N200, N500 and N1000) randomly
collected from categories of individuals; food vendors,
traders, provision stores, cobblers, meat vendors at strategic
places in the Wukari metropolis. The collected samples were
investigated for microbial associations using standard
microbiological techniques. The different isolated bacterial
species were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus species, Klebsiella
species, Salmonella species and Streptococcus species. The
different unhygienic ways in which people handle the naira
notes have inevitably increased the rate of contamination of
these notes with pathogenic bacteria [3]. From this study,
four (4) Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli,
Salmonella specie, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella
species) and three (3) Gram-positive bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus species and Bacillus
species) were isolated. The resultant bacteria isolated from
the investigated notes correlates with results of previous
study [8], [16] and [17]. The presence of bacteria could have
been due to contact of the notes with body and body fluids,
lack of good sanitation, proper handling and storage of the
notes. The presence of Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas
species, Salmonella species and Escherichia coli implies
fecal contamination of naira notes which also correlates with
previous study on the presences of fecal associated bacteria
on naira note [16]. This reveals the poor sanitary and
hygienic condition of the population; poor hand-washing
practices especially after using the toilet and defecating [8].
Placing the naira notes in dirty hands, pockets and dirty
surfaces can introduce the Bacillus species, a vast group of
hardy spore-forming species that are mostly found in the soil
[18]. The CFU/ml of the sampled naira notes ranged from 1.8
x 105 to 3.1 x 10
5. Denominations of one-thousand (1000)
naira and twenty (20) naira notes recorded the least numbers
of bacterial count while the ten (10) naira denominations
yielded the highest numbers of bacterial count. This is not in
agreement with the work of one previous researched carried
International Journal of Chemical and Biomedical Science 2018; 4(3): 46-53 52
out by in the ninety which shows that the 100-naira notes
have the least bacteria count (Yakubu et al., 2014). The ₦10
note have the highest level of bacterial contaminants (77.5%)
implies that smaller denominations of naira notes are more
exchanged and circulated while the higher are seldom used
especially among the traders, artisans, lower economy class
of Nigeria and this is in contract with the work on
preliminary investigation on the microbial contamination of
Nigerian currency [19]. Of all bacterial isolates,
Staphylococcus aureus had the highest percentage occurrence
(31.6%) while Salmonella species had the lowest percentage
occurrence (4.3%). This occurrence is fully supported by
similar researched work on microbiological evaluation of
naira notes handled by fish sellers in umuahia metropolis and
bacterial contamination of Nigerian currency notes and
associated risk factors [16]; [17]. The different bacterial
isolates showed different levels of sensitivity to different
antibiotics [20]. All the bacterial isolates were resistant to
augmentin but susceptible to ciprofloxacin. Streptococcus
species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus were all resistant to gentamycin while the others were
susceptible. While all other isolates were susceptible to
streptomycin, Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed resistant.
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus species and Bacillus
species were susceptible to chloramphenicol and ampiclox
while the Gram-negative bacteria isolates were resistant to
both. A similar result pattern was observed in other research
works [19].
5. Conclusion
Naira notes in circulation harbour and serve as vehicles for
the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms. These
pathogens get in contact with the naira notes via
human/anthropogenic factors either through poor sanitation
and hygiene or poor handling of naira notes. Contaminated
naira notes are potential risks to public health as they can
serve as agents for the dispersal of different infectious
pathogenic bacteria. From the study, most bacteria isolates
are resistant to most of the commercially marketed antibiotics,
thereby making their treatment, in cases of infection, more
difficult and complicated. To this end, it is advised to
maintain good proper hygiene and also naira notes should be
handle with care to avoid coming in contact with pathogenic
bacteria.
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