history of irrigation 1. ancient irrigation at least 6 major irrigation based civilizations arose...

History of Irrigation 1History of Irrigation 1

Ancient irrigation

At least 6 major irrigation based civilizations arosebetween 2000 and

6000 years ago:In Mesopotamia:Sumerians, Babylonians and AssyriansThe Egyptians formed the longest lasting irrigation societyThe Indus Valley inpresent day PakistanThe Yellow River Basin

in China

At least 6 major irrigation based civilizations arosebetween 2000 and

6000 years ago:In Mesopotamia:Sumerians, Babylonians and AssyriansThe Egyptians formed the longest lasting irrigation societyThe Indus Valley inpresent day PakistanThe Yellow River Basin

in China

Harappan Civilization Harappan Civilization

The Indus Valley

Length: 3.200 kmOriginating in the Tibetan Plateau

Civilizations:Harappan c. 3300–1300 BCIndo-Aryans c.1700 - 600 BC

The Shaduf

The people of Indus prospered on the foundations of an agriculture based system of irrigation and fertility, maintained by silt-bearing floods

Indus valleyIndus valley

Ancient irrigation history using a network of inundation canals aligned with natural drainage canals

Based on maintaining fertility by silt bearing floods

The canals flowed for 4-5 months during the monsoon – then as drainage canals

They did not cause water logging

Ancient irrigation history using a network of inundation canals aligned with natural drainage canals

Based on maintaining fertility by silt bearing floods

The canals flowed for 4-5 months during the monsoon – then as drainage canals

They did not cause water logging

Later irrigation based cultures arose in the western hemisphere, central Mexico, Peru and the US Southwest

All reflected a common threat of vulnerability and environmental deterioration.

Hohokam A.D. 300-900 build the first large-scale irrigation in the US

Later irrigation based cultures arose in the western hemisphere, central Mexico, Peru and the US Southwest

All reflected a common threat of vulnerability and environmental deterioration.

Hohokam A.D. 300-900 build the first large-scale irrigation in the US

Hohokam - Arizona

Hohokam - ArizonaHohokam - Arizona

Advanced canal network along the Gila River dug out over centuries

The biggest canal 30 feet wide, 7 feet deep and 8 mile long enough to irrigate 8.000 acres

Could tap the entire spring run-off, channeling it to their fields high above the riverbed

As in Mesopotamia this resulted in increased salinity and finally to abandonment of the area

Advanced canal network along the Gila River dug out over centuries

The biggest canal 30 feet wide, 7 feet deep and 8 mile long enough to irrigate 8.000 acres

Could tap the entire spring run-off, channeling it to their fields high above the riverbed

As in Mesopotamia this resulted in increased salinity and finally to abandonment of the area

The Indus Valley: Indus River

The Nile

China: Yellow River

Yangtze River United States: Colorado River Columbia River Groundwater: Ogallala Aquifer

Edwards Aquifer

Irrigation’s modern era

Major irrigation sources

Colonization - technologyColonization - technology

Colonial powers wanted increase in production and export to mother country

Change to European technology allowed bigger dams and longer and bigger canals

Technology implemented in a different environment, causing problems

In England big and straight canals not a problem, but in Pakistan and India problems with siltation and erosion of canals a major issue

Colonial powers wanted increase in production and export to mother country

Change to European technology allowed bigger dams and longer and bigger canals

Technology implemented in a different environment, causing problems

In England big and straight canals not a problem, but in Pakistan and India problems with siltation and erosion of canals a major issue

Colonization - technologyColonization - technology The new irrigation technology disrupted

many local small-scale irrigation systems which had functioned for centuries:

Haveli system: Rainwater during the wet season was held in

fields by earth embankments 2 to 12 hectares.

At beginning of dry season they drain the fields and plant the crop – water enough in soil profile to grow the crop

Tank (dugout) system Store rainwater and run-off from wet

seasons 2 million tanks in India irrigate 3.5 mil. ha

The new irrigation technology disrupted many local small-scale irrigation systems which had functioned for centuries:

Haveli system: Rainwater during the wet season was held in

fields by earth embankments 2 to 12 hectares.

At beginning of dry season they drain the fields and plant the crop – water enough in soil profile to grow the crop

Tank (dugout) system Store rainwater and run-off from wet

seasons 2 million tanks in India irrigate 3.5 mil. ha

The Indus - Pakistan

Located on the river Indus 50 miles northwest of Islamabad. Was completed in 1974. It is the world’s largest earth and rock-filled dam. Sedimentation has reduced its capacity by 30%

The Indus in PakistanThe Indus in Pakistan

With the Tabela Dam on the Indus and Mangla Dam on the Jhelum river and associated canal system the Indus Basin Irrigation system became the world largest contiguous irrigation network – 14 million hectares

Accounts for 6% of worlds irrigated area

With the Tabela Dam on the Indus and Mangla Dam on the Jhelum river and associated canal system the Indus Basin Irrigation system became the world largest contiguous irrigation network – 14 million hectares

Accounts for 6% of worlds irrigated area

The Nile

The Blue Nile

The White Nile

River Atbara

The NileThe Nile

Irrigation’s greatest challenge: Sustain tens of millions of people in a land that gets virtually no rain

A narrow strip of green and life in a sea of desert

This strip and the fertile delta has supported Egypt’s civilization for millennia

But the type of irrigation that sustain its people today is markedly different from its past – driven by population growth

Irrigation’s greatest challenge: Sustain tens of millions of people in a land that gets virtually no rain

A narrow strip of green and life in a sea of desert

This strip and the fertile delta has supported Egypt’s civilization for millennia

But the type of irrigation that sustain its people today is markedly different from its past – driven by population growth

The Nile:Length 6.700 km

Source:The White Nile: Lake Victoria, UgandaThe Blue Nile: Lake Tan, EthiopiaRiver Atbara

Major Dams:

Roseires DamSennar DamAswan High DamOwen Falls Dam

Owens Falls in Uganda

Uganda, as Ethiopia, is predominantly using their dams on the Nile for hydropower and not irrigation. However the potential is there – could cause conflict with Egypt

Sennar Dam in SudanBuild in 1920,45 m high and3 km longSupply irrigation water to 60% of Sudan’s agriculture

The NileThe Nile Prior to 1800, cultivated area and population

peaked about 100 A.D. at which time Egypt supplied the Roman empire with vast quantities of grain

Flood based irrigation only supported crop production 1/3 of the year - one winter crop

Build large flat-bottomed basins for growing crops along the river bank

They sluiced water into these basins when the river was in flood using simple gate structures

Water left on fields 40 to 60 days and then drained back into the river downstream

Plenty of water so salt never built up in the soil

Prior to 1800, cultivated area and population peaked about 100 A.D. at which time Egypt supplied the Roman empire with vast quantities of grain

Flood based irrigation only supported crop production 1/3 of the year - one winter crop

Build large flat-bottomed basins for growing crops along the river bank

They sluiced water into these basins when the river was in flood using simple gate structures

Water left on fields 40 to 60 days and then drained back into the river downstream

Plenty of water so salt never built up in the soil

The flow in the canals was strong enough to prevent siltation. Siltation in the basins beneficial as fertilizer

Ditches and canals were short and irrigation systems very local

Early 19th century the population exploded and crop production started to fall short of needs

In 1861 a series of diversion dams build across the Nile north of Cairo followed by a number of other dams. Aswan Dam completed by British engineers in 1902, expanded twice by 1934

This allowed two to three crops a year and fundamentally changed irrigation in Egypt

The flow in the canals was strong enough to prevent siltation. Siltation in the basins beneficial as fertilizer

Ditches and canals were short and irrigation systems very local

Early 19th century the population exploded and crop production started to fall short of needs

In 1861 a series of diversion dams build across the Nile north of Cairo followed by a number of other dams. Aswan Dam completed by British engineers in 1902, expanded twice by 1934

This allowed two to three crops a year and fundamentally changed irrigation in Egypt

The NileThe Nile

The NileThe Nile

The River did not flood anymore – irrigation depends on perennial canal irrigation only

Soil constantly moist all year round Even with low salinity content this change has

caused a build up of salt as water evaporates In 1928 water scholars warned about the threat

of salinization of the land and that the big dams would hold bag the silt that had replenished the fertility of the floodplain for millennia

Trend in cotton yields already suggested decline in soil fertility

The River did not flood anymore – irrigation depends on perennial canal irrigation only

Soil constantly moist all year round Even with low salinity content this change has

caused a build up of salt as water evaporates In 1928 water scholars warned about the threat

of salinization of the land and that the big dams would hold bag the silt that had replenished the fertility of the floodplain for millennia

Trend in cotton yields already suggested decline in soil fertility

The Blue Nile flowing down from theEthiopian Plateau rainy season April to October

Resolution from the International Space Station

The Aswan High Damtransformed Egypt’s irrigated agriculture from a seasonal system to a perennial one

The Nile Delta

The Delta is sinking:Northeast corner by 5 mm a yearNorthwest corner by 3 mm a yearA former delta village is now 2 km out to sea

The Yellow River, ChinaThe Yellow River, China

Yellow River

Animaqing Peak

Animaqing Mountain

Bayabkala Mountain

Bayankala Mountain

Dari Yellow RiverHetao Irrigation Area

Hetao Plain

Heisan Gorge

The FloodHukou fall

Mountain Grassland

In 1949 irrigation was depressed after the war

Still 19.5 mil ha under irrigation, about the same as India at the time

Millions of peasants set to work on repairing and expanding systems

Over next 35 years build more than 83,000 reservoirs, repaired or constructed 177,000 km of dikes, sunk 2.3 mil wells and brought 29 mil more hectares under irrigation

In 1949 irrigation was depressed after the war

Still 19.5 mil ha under irrigation, about the same as India at the time

Millions of peasants set to work on repairing and expanding systems

Over next 35 years build more than 83,000 reservoirs, repaired or constructed 177,000 km of dikes, sunk 2.3 mil wells and brought 29 mil more hectares under irrigation

Peoples Victory Irrigation district was completed in 1952

The first of more than 100 irrigation districts in Henan and Shnadong provinces over next decade

By 1990 4.4 mil hectares irrigated

Nearly a third as much as the Yangtze River

Peoples Victory Irrigation district was completed in 1952

The first of more than 100 irrigation districts in Henan and Shnadong provinces over next decade

By 1990 4.4 mil hectares irrigated

Nearly a third as much as the Yangtze River

Started in 1980 - the Great Man-Made river project is the largest engineering scheme currently being carried out in the world.The 4 meter diameter pipe is about 1600 Km long and transfers 6.5 million cubic meters of water/day

Great Man-Made River Project

Rapid development of coastalAreas and increased populationHave placed a severe strain on the coastal water supply.

Some now attributes the drying of the Ubari Lakes and various water holes to the side effect of the project

Colorado River Basin

Colorado River Basin

Competition for water severe – constant litigation over water

Without Colorado River water no Imperial Valley

Competition for water severe – constant litigation over water

Without Colorado River water no Imperial Valley

Flowed into gulf of Mexico, but not anymore

1922 Colorado River Compact - 7 states

1928–36 construction of Hoover Dam

First high span dam major accomplishment

Followed by many others

Parker Dam supply LA and San Diego

1963 US Supreme court made explicit allocations to each state and Indians

Prompted the Central Arizona project - mountain tunnel and aqueduct to supply Phoenix and Tucson

Flowed into gulf of Mexico, but not anymore

1922 Colorado River Compact - 7 states

1928–36 construction of Hoover Dam

First high span dam major accomplishment

Followed by many others

Parker Dam supply LA and San Diego

1963 US Supreme court made explicit allocations to each state and Indians

Prompted the Central Arizona project - mountain tunnel and aqueduct to supply Phoenix and Tucson

Columbia River Basin

Columbia River Basin

Unique hydrology and gradient

Second largest run-off in US

Given much of the wealth to the N.W. - Minerals and fertile soils

Half the hydroelectric energy in the US

Irrigate 7.8 mil. acres – arid part of Washington, Oregon and Idaho: wheat, corn, potatoes, peas, alfalfa etc

Unique hydrology and gradient

Second largest run-off in US

Given much of the wealth to the N.W. - Minerals and fertile soils

Half the hydroelectric energy in the US

Irrigate 7.8 mil. acres – arid part of Washington, Oregon and Idaho: wheat, corn, potatoes, peas, alfalfa etc

Columbia River basinColumbia River basin Columbia Basin Project turned the desert area of

central Washington into another US bread basked Irrigates 0.5 mil. acres and can expand to 1.1 mil The biggest hydroelectric power capacity in the US Individual irrigation authorities regulate timing and

volume of extraction locally But the cumulative impact is felt downstream Some areas more affected than others – The effect

on Snake River more severe than main stream Minidoka project – thousands of miles of canals

supply 1.1 mil. acres

Columbia Basin Project turned the desert area of central Washington into another US bread basked

Irrigates 0.5 mil. acres and can expand to 1.1 mil The biggest hydroelectric power capacity in the US Individual irrigation authorities regulate timing and

volume of extraction locally But the cumulative impact is felt downstream Some areas more affected than others – The effect

on Snake River more severe than main stream Minidoka project – thousands of miles of canals

supply 1.1 mil. acres

Groundwater recharge 1960 - 1990

Groundwater recharge 1960 - 1990

Only 2.5% of the water available is freshwater. Of that approximately 68.9% is locked in glaciers and permanent snow cover, and 30.8% is groundwater – many countries therefore rely on it. Only 0.3% is in rivers and lakes

GroundwaterGroundwater

An important resource 2 billion people depend on it for drinking 40% of the worlds food is produced by it But little attention was given to it until

recently – out of sight out of mind Pollution and depletion of rivers are obvious

and reported in media, while depletion and pollution of groundwater can be hidden for years

Also provide ‘base flow’ for many rivers

An important resource 2 billion people depend on it for drinking 40% of the worlds food is produced by it But little attention was given to it until

recently – out of sight out of mind Pollution and depletion of rivers are obvious

and reported in media, while depletion and pollution of groundwater can be hidden for years

Also provide ‘base flow’ for many rivers

Groundwater Aquifers:Groundwater Aquifers: North America: Ogallala Aquifer The Edwards Aquifer The High Plain Aquifer South America: Amazon Basin Aquifers Puelches Aquifer Africa: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer The Northwest Sahara Aquifer System Congo Basin Asia: Erdos Basin Aquifer Huang-Hai-Hai Plain Aquifer Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Arabien Shield: Mukalla Aquifer Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Australia: Great Artesian Basin Aquifer

North America: Ogallala Aquifer The Edwards Aquifer The High Plain Aquifer South America: Amazon Basin Aquifers Puelches Aquifer Africa: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer The Northwest Sahara Aquifer System Congo Basin Asia: Erdos Basin Aquifer Huang-Hai-Hai Plain Aquifer Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Arabien Shield: Mukalla Aquifer Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Australia: Great Artesian Basin Aquifer

Populations in mega-cities depending on groundwaterPopulations in mega-cities depending on groundwater

Typically groundwater would provide at least 25 % of the water supply to such a city.

Groundwater for townsGroundwater for towns

Even more widespread in smaller towns and rural communities

E.g. in the Huang-Huai-Hai aquifer system in China: 160 mil. people

1/3 of Asia’s drinking water In the US more than 95% of the

rural population

Even more widespread in smaller towns and rural communities

E.g. in the Huang-Huai-Hai aquifer system in China: 160 mil. people

1/3 of Asia’s drinking water In the US more than 95% of the

rural population

Extent of groundwater used for drinking water in Asia and

Latin America

Extent of groundwater used for drinking water in Asia and

Latin America