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GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR
FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION? :
A FEMINIST CRITICISM
OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS
THESIS
Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Sarjana Degree in English Department
Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University
Written by:
ROSALINA
C 0304046
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2010
2
GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR
FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION?:
A FEMINIST CRITICISM
OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS
By:
ROSALINA
C 0304046
Approved to be examined by the Board of Examiners,
Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts
Sebelas Maret University
Thesis Advisor
Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari M.Hum.,Ph.D
NIP. 196703231995122001
The Head of English Department
Dr. Djatmika, M.A.
NIP. 196707261993021001
3
GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR
FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION?:
A FEMINIST CRITICISM
OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS
By:
ROSALINA
C 0304046
Approved by the Board of Examiners
Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University
On March 2010
The Board of Examiners:
Chairman Yusuf Kurniawan, S.S. M.A. ( )
NIP. 197111301999031001
Secretary M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S. ( )
NIP. 197806272005011003
First Examiner Dra. S.K. Habsari, M. Hum., Ph. D ( )
NIP. 196703231995122001
Second Examiner Dra. Susilorini, M.A. ( )
NIP. 196506011992032002
Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts
Sebelas Maret University
Drs. Sudarno, M.A.
NIP. 195303141985061001
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PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Rosalina
Student Number : C 0304046
I declare that the thesis entitled “Girl Power Manifestation or
Feminine Values Degradation? : A Feminist Criticism of the Movie
‘Mean Girls’ by Mark Waters” is my own work. It is not a result of
plagiarism. The things related to other people‟s work are written in
quotation and included within the bibliography.
If it is, then, proved that I cheat, I am ready to take the
responsibility.
Surakarta, March 2010
ROSALINA
5
MOTTO
Surely Allah is with the patient.
(Al-Qur’an: 2: 153)
The ink of the scholar is more holly than the blood of the martyr.
(Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.)
Act kindly towards woman, for woman is created from a rib, and the
most crooked part of the rib is its top. If you attempt to straighten it,
you will break it, and if you leave it, its crookedness will remain there.
So act kindly towards women.
(Muslim: Book 8: Hadith 3468)
I have not failed. I’ve just found 10.000 ways that won’t work
(Thomas Alva Edison)
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D E D I C A T I O N
The thesis is dedicated to:
My Mama Dahlia and Papa Suhartono,
the best parents in the world
American Studies lovers
Myself
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I want to thank Allah SWT, my Guardian and Sustainer. Thank
you for always making me survive and showing me the right direction when I do
not know where to go. Thank you for blessing me so that I can finish the thesis.
In doing the thesis, I have worked with many people. It is a pleasure to
express my gratitude to them all in this acknowledgement.
I want to express my gratitude to Drs. Sudarno, M.A., Dean of Faculty of
Letters and Fine Arts, and Dr. Djatmika, M.A., Head of English Department, for
giving permission to write the thesis and all of English Department lecturers for
giving me a lot of knowledge and understanding of American Studies.
I am heartily thankful to the thesis advisor, Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M.
Hum., Ph. D., whose encouragement, help and support from the initial to the final
level enable me to get a further understanding of the subject. Thank you for being
a super-patient advisor. Thank you for all of the knowledge and advices have been
given. It is so precious.
I am grateful to the board of examiners of the thesis, Yusuf Kurniawan
S.S., M.A., M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S., Dra. Susilorini, M.A., and Dra. Sri
Kusumo Habsari M.Hum., Ph.D, for they share their precious time and give
contribution to the thesis.
Endless thanks go to my mama and papa. Thank you for always praying
and caring for this stubborn girl. Your support and love make me stronger more
than I can be. I would also thank my brothers and sisters, Leo, Kiky, Dian, and
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Nina. Thanks for taking care of me. But please see me now, I have grown up. I
love you all.
My special thanks go to Reny Fian Abrita. Thank you for being such a
great „companion in arms‟ from the early stage of the making of the thesis. Thank
you for the printer and all of the helps. Reny, we did it!
I gratefully thank my great buddies, Dhita, Tyas, Rizqy, Puji, Widy, Dewi,
Rosi, Mamad, and Dhika Cassandra. Thank you for always being there.
I am grateful to my beloved fabulous friends, The Tumpulz: Uswatun,
Yunindar, Fitra, Fikri, Yunus, Itok, Tantra, Thory, and Rudy. All of you motivate
me so much. Thank you for coloring my life in the last five years. Keep this
togetherness always.
Many thanks go to Rahayu „Ayonk‟ Widiati. Thanks for sharing the clever
ideas and the exhilarating moments. It is gorgeous. Big thanks go to „do-it-your-
self boy‟, Shantika „Dhika‟ Wijaya, for being so kind and patient in motivating
and raising me up. I would also like to thank Rizwan Muharram for waking me up
from my long „hibernation‟.
Thanks to the guys and the girls in American Studies Class of 2004, Afida,
Widya, Tutut, Ulil, Ika, Danang, Dony, etc. It is so fun working together with all
of you. Thanks to my friends from the class of 2004 of English Letters, Rina,
Natalia Dani, Pungki, Cindy, Lydia, Nina Tri, Chubby, Tatan, Susi, Dewi, Hilda,
Ria, Fika, Alfanie and the other great friends who I can not mention one by one. It
is so nice being a part of all of you.
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I am very grateful to my friends from the upper semester, Mas Tyok, Mas
Sanjaya, Mas Sapoet, and Mas Wenny (from the class of 2002). Thanks for being
kind brothers who guide me well. Thanks to Mbak Bella (from the class of 2002),
Mbak Betty, Mbak Aleea, Mbak Arum (from the class of 2003) for the help, the
books, and the patience. Thanks seniors!
Thanks a lot for my friends from the lower semester, Rizqy Adi, Fauzi,
Sony, Adwin, Hemy, US Dyah, Sari, Lambang, Dini, Astri, Alwi, Dila, Hendra,
Rizqy Arifudin, Ita, Dhea, Mega, Ika and Hanifan. Thank you for the kindness
and help.
A lot of thanks go to the big family of Solo Youth Heritage (SYH).
Thanks for sharing knowledge and experience.
Last but not least, I want to say million thanks to everyone who has given
contribution to the making of the thesis whose name cannot mention here one by
one. The thesis is impossible to accomplish without all of them. Thank you very
much.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE ......................................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL OF THE ADVISOR ............................................................................ ii
APPROVAL OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS ................................................ iii
PRONOUNCEMENT ............................................................................................... iv
MOTTO ...................................................................................................................... v
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................. ............. x
ABSTRACT ................................................................................ ............................... xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background ............................................................................. 1
B. Scope of Study ....................................................................................... 4
C. Problem Statements ................................................................................ 4
D. Objectives of the Study .......................................................................... 5
E. Benefits of the Study ............................................................................. . 5
F. Research Methodology ........................................................................... 6
G. Theoretical Approach ............................................................................. 7
H. Thesis Organization ................................................................................ 12
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Postfeminism in America ....................................................................... 14
B. Girl Power Movement in America ......................................................... 23
C. The Concept of Heroine in America since the Nineteenth Century until
the Present .............................................................................................. 27
D. Semiotic Film Theory ............................................................................. 35
E. The Basic Terminology of Cinematography .......................................... 39
CHAPTER III: ANALYSIS
A. The Signication Of The Title Mean Girls ............................................... 49
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B. How The Movie “Mean Girls” Constructs Its Teenage Heroines ......... 53
1. Cady Heron, the Girl Who Transforms ............................................ 56
2. Regina George, the Queen Bee ........................................................ 73
CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
A. Conclusion .............................................................................................. 87
B. Recommendation .................................................................................... 90
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 91
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ABSTRACT
Rosalina. C0304046. 2010. Girl Power Manifestation or Feminine Values
Degradation?: A Feminist Criticism of the Movie Mean Girls by Mark
Waters. Thesis. English Department of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts
Sebelas Maret University.
This research is purposed to explain how the movie Mean Girls constructs
its primary teenage heroines, whether the heroines are depicted challenging
feminine values in society or rather go along with the values. The research is
descriptive qualitative research of which the source of data is the movie Mean
Girls directed by Mark Waters. The main data of the research are the characters
and characterizations, costume, dialogue, body language, visual images, and other
cinematographic elements of the movie. The supporting data are taken from the
other sources such as the film script, books, and internet articles related to film
and the issues of women, specifically the issues of American women, which
supports in answering the research question.
The research is in the scope of American studies which is an
interdisciplinary study. Therefore, the research involves some disciplines which in
this case are applied in the form of theory and approach. In answering the research
question, the researcher uses feminist theory, semiotic film theory, socio-cultural
approach, and feminist approach.
After conducting the analysis, it is found that the primary teenage heroines
in Mean Girls are constructed challenging the values of femininity embraced by
mainstream society, which tends to be traditional, as they are depicted promoting
the contemporary values, the values of Girl Power. But instead of being
encouraged, Girl Power values in the movie are discouraged as in the last session
of the movie the filmmakers lead the heroines to go along with the values held by
mainstream society. Girl Power values and ideology promoted by the teenage
primary heroines of the movie is seen as negative since the values do not go along
with the mainstream society values. As the movie is a mass media product, it is
created with the mass society values.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
Today a new shape of femininity arises in American culture due to Girl
Power movement, a cultural phenomenon emerging in the mid-late 1990s to the
early 2000s. This movement has a great role in shaping American culture today,
especially American women culture. This issue emerges as a part of post-
feminism. Thanks to the media so that Girl Power is widely accepted by many
women and girls in the US as what is stated by Susan Hopkins in her book Girl
Heroes: The New Force in Popular Culture, “A new stereotype of ideal
femininity is emerging in magazines, music, films, and television” (1993, p. 1). In
2001, the Oxford English Dictionary defines (as cited in “Girl Power”, n.d.) the
phrase Girl Power as "a self-reliant attitude among girls and young women
manifested in ambition, assertiveness and individualism”. This means that the
femininity in Girl Power era no longer means vulnerable and submissive attitude,
but it means confident and tough behavior.
One of the media that makes Girl Power movement widely spread all over
the country is movie. The emergence of movie heroines who are cute, sexy,
independent and powerful is dominant in mainstream movie in the era of 1990s
until today. Hopkins has stated:
“The (televised) girl revolution is far from being happy, harmonious summer of love.
These new-generation power girls are not necessarily selfless, co-operative pacifist – they
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are competitive, combative and as capable of violence as any male character”. (1993, p.
6)
The movie heroines in the era is not the “caring, sharing good girl” but the
heroines are “often driven by revenge, anger, or a lust for material gain” (ibid).
Today, the image of vulnerable girl has been shifted by the image of mean girl.
Mean Girls (2004), a movie directed by Mark Waters, can be said as a
respond to the emergence of the phenomenon of Girl Power movement
popularized by media. Mean Girls is a comedic drama film distributed by
Paramount Pictures of which the screenwriter, Tina Fey, writes the script based on
the non-fiction book entitled Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter
Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence written
by Rosalind Wiseman (“Tina Fey”, n.d.).
Mark Stephen Waters or is usually just called Mark Waters, the director,
began his career in 1996 by filming House of Yes (1997), a dark comedy about
incest and obsession. Waters was born in South Bend, Indiana. He grew up in a
lower-middle class home. He later attended the University of Pennsylvania as a
pre-med, but then drifted into avant-garde theater midway. After graduating in
1986, he went to San Francisco to act and direct theater. He gradually drifted
away from acting to focus on directing. He joined off-Broadway productions, then
Super8 films. He later joined the directing program at the American Film Institute.
He graduated with his masters degree in 1994 (“Mark S. Waters Biography”,
1996).
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With Mean Girls, Waters got a hit as it grossed over $85 million (“Mark
Waters”, n.d.). It was nominated for 2004 Broadcast Film Critics Association for
Best Young Actress -Lindsay Lohan- and for 2004 Writers Guild of America for
Best Adapted Screenplay - Tina Fey - (“Girls Just Want to Be Mean”, n.d.) and it
won 2005 MTV Movie Award for Best Female Performance and 2005 MTV
Movie Award for Breakthrough Female (“Inside the World of Mean Girls”, n.d.).
Mean Girls tells about an innocent girl named Cady Heron (Lindsay
Lohan) who was shocked by all the rules in her new public high school as she had
been home schooled all her life. She met two students, Janis (Lizzy Caplan) and
Damian (Daniel Franzese), who decided to show her around the school and the
cliques and hierarchy of the school.
One of the groups was known as "the Plastics", a group of popular girls
consists of Karen Smith (Amanda Seyfried), Gretchen Wieners (Lacey Chabert),
and the “Queen Bee”, Regina George (Rachel McAdams) who were adored by
many people in the school despite their manipulative and mean behaviour. But
Janis hated Regina as Regina spread rumors that she was a dyke. Knowing Cady
was invited to sit with “The Plastics” at lunch in the cafeteria, Janis and Damian
convinced her to eat lunch with them in order to make her accepted in the group
so she could report back to them every horrible thing the Plastics said and did.
Nevertheless, for Cady, Regina was too nice to her and she could not help
accepting Regina‟s kindness until she found Regina kissed Aaron (Jonathan
Bennett), the man she had a crush on.
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Cady decided to leave the Plastics but Janis stopped her, convincing Cady
to keep hanging out with them so that they could get revenge. Since then, the
aggressions against the Plastics began until Cady finally could kick Regina out of
the Plastics and became the most popular girl in the school. She did not realize
that she herself had become such a clone of Regina.
The movie clearly represents the image of American girls in the present
day as well as their social and cultural condition. It completely shows the
audience both the image of girl which is considered „good‟ by society and that
who is considered evil. What makes the movie interesting and evoke curiosity is
that the movie emphasizes more in representing girls who are considered evil by
society. This is questionable and that is why it is interesting to analyze.
B. Scope of Study
This research focuses on the primary teenage heroines in Mean Girls
(2004), Cady Heron and Regina George. The minor characters and the social and
cultural condition in the movie will also be involved for providing information
and justification related to the analysis.
C. Problem Statements
The research is conducted to answer two questions:
1. How does the movie construct the primary teenage heroines?
2. How do the primary teenage heroines in the movie represent the idea
of Girl Power which emerges in American society in 1990s to 2000s?
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D. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
1. To explain how the movie constructs the primary teenage heroines
2. To explain how the primary teenage heroines in the movie represent
the idea of Girl Power which emerges in American society in 1990s to
2000s
E. Benefits of the Study
The research is aimed to describe the condition of American teenage girls
in postmodernist era and reveal the influence of the current women‟s movement,
Girl Power, to them as well. Furthermore, the research is hoped to give
contribution to American Studies, because instead of giving a shallow description,
the research provides a further analysis about how American teenage girls are
represented in the movie and how Girl Power values and mainstream society‟s
values take role in shaping them. Besides, the research expectedly can give benefit
to:
1. The students of English Department
To give information about one issue of postfeminist movement, Girl Power,
which is a part of feminist movements in the U.S. Therefore, students can get
further understanding about it.
2. Other researchers
To give contribution for other researchers who want to do a research on the
related field.
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F. Research Methodology
1. The Type of the Research
The research is in the form of descriptive qualitative research.
“Qualitative research is all about exploring issues, understanding phenomena,
and answering questions” (Ereaut, 2007). As the research is qualitative
research, the data collected are in the form of words and pictures, not statistics
or numbers as what are in quantitative research. The research seeks out to
answer the problems of the research by employing the question of „how‟ of
the topic, not just „what‟, „where‟ and „when‟.
2. Data and Source of Data
Data consist of main data and supporting data. The main data are taken
from the movie entitled Mean Girls (2004) directed by Mark Waters starring
Lindsay Lohan, distributed by Paramount Pictures. The main data consist of
dialogues, characters and characterization, and the cinematographic elements
such as camera angle, camera distance, lighting, etc. The supporting data are
collected from written materials like books, internet articles and journals
related to the study.
3. Technique of Analyzing the Data
Firstly, the data in the movie Mean Girls are selected based on the
problem statement of the research. Then, the selected data are analyzed
through its cinematographic elements and some other elements. The data are
discussed further by applying feminist theories, semiotic film theories, socio-
cultural approach, and feminist approach to build the idea to answer the
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research questions. After the research questions have been answered, finally,
the conclusion is drawn based on the research result.
G. Theoretical Approach
American studies emerged in 1950s as a study of all issues related to the
United States (Spiller, 1973, p. 611). Robert E. Spiller in his article Unity and
Diversity in the Study of American Culture: the American Studies Association in
Perspective has stated:
This was a time when the United States was emerging into the role of a world power and
the stirrings of cultural nationalism were beginning to be felt in the universities in
practically all of the academic disciplines except perhaps those in pure science; and even
there, American technology gave to scientific disciplines something of a nationalistic
flavor. (1973, p. 611)
It is quite obvious that the fact that the United States is a superpower nation
makes the country, its culture and all issues in it significant to study.
The culture of the country is somehow complex. American culture “has
been characteristically heterogeneous rather than homogenous” (Spiller, 1973, p.
613) as its people come from different ethnics, religion, social and cultural
background, etc. The culture certainly does not develop in a short time. It builds
its identity through out the history of the United States from the past until present.
That is why American culture can be understood as complex culture as it is
multifaceted and encompasses a vast range of time.
Because of its complexity of the culture, the study of the country needs
more than one discipline and approach. Neil Campbell and Alasdair Kean has
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stated in their book entitled American Cultural Studies: an Introduction to
American Culture:
American Sudies from the beginning has been concerned to explore the possibilities of
cooperation between practitioners from different disciplines and even to develop an
interdisciplinary methodology with its own distinctive working practices (1997, p. 2).
Hence, American Studies “encompasses a vast range of disciplines [which are
intermingled and interrelated], all of which, in one way or another, are trying to
describe the cultures of United States” (“What is American Studies”, n.d.). The
studies involves history, literature, art, economics, cultural studies, ethnic studies,
women studies, media studies, film studies, among other fields.
One issue which becomes central to the project of American studies in
present days is the study of popular culture. Popular culture has been termed as
everything from common culture, to folk culture to mass culture (“Pop Culture”,
n.d.). John Storey stresses that popular culture comes from the urbanization of the
industrial revolution (“Mass Culture” n.d.). Thus, it can be understood that
popular culture comes from low class society.
In the modern era, the social signification of popular culture can be
mapped based on how the culture is identified with mass culture. It can be said
that mass culture is popular culture which is produced through industrial
technique of mass production and marketed to mass consumers to get profits
(Strinati, 2003, p. 2). MacDonald has stated (as cited in Strinati, 2003, p. 11) that
mass culture is created by experts who are recruited by capitalists. These experts
adopt the dominant culture of society, mold it with certain techniques, then
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produce it in large quantity and finally bring the new culture to mass consumers.
The new culture is created in such a manner so it can be accepted by high and low
class society so it can collapse the gap between high and low culture.
Movie is a product of popular culture which has been processed to be mass
culture. John Belton in his book entitled Movies and Mass Culture has stated:
The movies are an integral part of mass culture and are embedded within it. One does
not produce the other; rather, each interacts with the other, and they mutually determine
one another. If films and filmmaker produce culture, they are also produced by it. Thus, it
is impossible to separate films and filmmakers from the society within which they exist.
(1996, p. 1)
It is quite obvious that movie is closely related to society. It usually conveys many
ideas and meaning and represents what happen in reality as well as beliefs and
values embraced by society.
In building and transferring its meaning, movie uses its particular way, in
this case using signs and codes which often have deeper meaning than what its
audience can figure out. To understand the meaning and idea of the movie
completely, these signs and codes have to be analyzed further. Therefore, semiotic
film theory is applied in the research.
Monaco has given a further explanation about semiotic film theory in his
book How to Read a Film:
Film is not a language, but is like language, and since it is like language, some of the
methods that we use to study language might profitably be applied to a study of film.
Yet, since film is not a language, narrowly linguistic concepts can be misleading.
Ever since the beginning of film history, theorists have been fond of comparing film with
verbal language (partly to justify the serious study of film), but it wasn‟t until a new,
larger category of thought developed in the fifties and early sixties–one that saw written
and spoken language as just two among many systems of communication–that the real
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study of film as a language could proceed. This inclusive category is known as semiotics,
the study of system of signs. (1995, p. 157)
Based on what is explained by Monaco, it can be understood that semiotic film
theory is applied in the research to analyze the system of signs in the movie
analyzed. In this analysis, what is applied is the theory of the prominent figure in
semiotics, Roland Barthes.
Roland Barthes based his theory on semiology of Ferdinand de Saussure
who is often claimed as a source thinker of contemporary semiotics beside
Charles Sanders Peirce, as they found this science in around the same time
without knowing of the researches of the other. It can be said that Barthes‟ theory
is the development of Saussure‟s theory.
Saussure defined „sign‟ as the union of the „signifier‟, a form which
signifies, and the „signified‟, an idea signified (Stam, 1992, p. 18). According to
Saussure, sign, the relation between signifier and signified, is arbitrary (Storey,
1996, p. 55). The relation between the signifier and the signified is not constructed
naturally but rather conventionally. A signifier opens many chances for various
signified or meaning.
Roland Barthes then developed Saussure‟s scheme that signifier +
signified = sign and added to it a second level of signification which he called
„two semiological systems‟ (Barthes, 1999, p. 115). In Barthes‟ system, there are
two stages of signification which are denotation stage and connotation stage. The
sign produced in the connotation stage is interpretative and depends upon one‟s
social and cultural experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46). In Accordance with this, to
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interpret the signs in the movie analyzed, socio-cultural approach is needed in the
study.
It has been stated that:
Socio-cultural approach is based on the idea that society and culture shape cognition.
Social customs, beliefs, values, and language are all part of what shapes a person's
identity and reality. According to this approach, what a person thinks is based on his or
her socio-cultural background. A socio-cultural approach takes into account more than
the individual in attempting to understand cognitive processes. (“Psychology Glossary”,
n.d.)
From the explanation, it is clear that the way people behave, think, and
interpreting something is influenced by their social and cultural background.
Thus, to understand the meaning of the movie completely, socio-cultural approach
is applied. Besides, the movie analyzed deals with social and cultural condition,
thoughts and behaviors of American girls in the contemporary society. It means
that the movie represents social and cultural phenomenon which exists in reality.
That is why socio-cultural approach is significant in the study.
As the research focuses on the analysis of how the movie constructs its
primary characters that are girls, the research certainly has to do with women‟s
issues. Thus, feminist approach is needed as the framework of the research. In this
case, the movie has to be analyzed in the range of feminism.
Feminism has long journey to struggle for equality between men and
women. Feminism rejects the idea that women are inferior to men. Feminism
claims that patriarchy, the rule of the fathers, is the basic cause of women‟s
oppression (Murphy, 1995, p. 1). Contemporary feminism struggles for correcting
laws and practices that discourage women to achieve equality with men in all
24
aspects of life, both domestic and public life. The struggle further is meant for
preventing attitudes that support such biased practices (ibid, p. 16). Feminism
becomes central issues today as it has taken important role in shaping women
today.
Feminist approach in the research is applied to view what are represented
by the girls in the movie in the range of feminism. Thus, the research also needs
feminist theories. Feminist theories and approach is crucial to build a complete
idea used to answer the research questions.
H. Thesis Organization
This thesis is divided into four chapters and each chapter is divided into
some subchapters. Those chapters are Chapter I Introduction, Chapter II
Literature Review, Chapter III Analysis, and Chapter IV Conclusion and
Recommendation.
The first chapter, Introduction is divided into eight subchapters. These are
Research Background, Scope of Study, Problem Statements, Objectives of the
Study, Benefits of the Study, Research Methodology, Theoretical Approach, and
Thesis Organization.
The next chapter, Literature Review, explains about postfeminism in
America, Girl Power movement in America which is under the umbrella of
postfeminism, the concept of heroine in America since the nineteenth century
until the present, semiotic film theory, and the basic terminology of
cinematography.
25
The third chapter, Analysis, consists of two subchapters. The first
subchapter tells about the signification of the title of the movie, Mean Girls, while
the second subchapter discusses about how the movie construct the primary
teenage heroines. The second subchapter contains two points: Cady Heron, the
Girl Who Transforms; and Regina George, the Queen Bee. The answer of the
research questions are provided in this chapter.
The last chapter, Conclusion and Recommendation, provides explanation
about the result and recommendation of the research.
26
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Postfeminism in America
American feminism, which is actualized by its movement, has a very long
history. American women has a long hard struggle to achieve the equality
between men and women. It can be said that the Enlightenment or the age of
reason is the foundation of American women‟s movement.
One of the important figures in the Enlightenment is John Locke. Locke‟s
doctrine of Natural Rights claims that “all human beings, in their natural state,
were equal and free to pursue life, health, liberty, and possessions; and that these
were inalienable rights” (“John Locke”, n.d.). This doctrine also claims that both
women and men are born with the same potency of rationality. It means that
women and men are equal, and there are no groups which are more inferior to the
other. This doctrine however leads to the ideology of individualism (Murphy,
1995, p. 10). This ideology has shaped women‟s ways of thinking about
themselves and the world. It leads women to think that a woman as a person has
independence to seek self-realization, becoming a fully individual, not just as the
opposite of male. To be a woman must be as important as to be a man.
The ideology that a woman is an independent entity, not just „the other‟ or
„the opposite of male‟ leads women to pursuit their personal identities. This leads
American women to hold women‟s movements which are historically noted until
now containing three waves; first-wave feminism, second-wave feminism, and the
27
most current movement, postfeminism or generally considered third-wave
feminism.
First-wave feminism in the U.S. began in 1848 and lasted until 1960s. It
was usually considered beginning with the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848
which was purposed to end discrimination based on sex. The convention was held
in response to the prohibition of women's participation in the 1840 World's Anti-
Slavery convention in London (Rynder, 1999).
First-wave feminism insisted that sexual identity was inessential or
secondary to our humanity. It claimed that biological characteristics were not the
reason for the limitation of women‟s participations in society. First-wave
feminism mainly concerned about equality, rights, liberation and emancipation
(Colebrook, 2003). The ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United
States Constitution in August 18, 1920 was considered the main victory of the
movement as with this each of the states and the federal government was
prohibited from denying any citizen the right to vote because of that citizen‟s sex.
Second-wave feminism began in the 1960s and continued until the late of
1980s or the beginning of 1990s. The main issues in this movement were
sexuality and reproductive rights, and most struggles done in the movement were
for passing the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution of the U.S.
guaranteeing social equality regardless of sex. The central focus of the second
wave was on gender equality so women must had the same social, political, legal,
and economic rights that men had (Head, n.d.).
28
The movement was often claimed dating from the appearance of Betty
Friedan's The Feminine Mystique in 1963, which was very significant for its
challenge to the ideology of domesticity. This best-seller book caught readers
among middle- and upper-class women as male supremacy required them to be
submissive women who were capable in domestic concerns as well as „good‟
mothers and wives who did not have chance to determine what they wanted to
achieve. In the era of this movement, there were also the actions going against the
Miss America pageant in Atlantic City in 1968 and 1969. One of the protests
came from the radical feminist New York group calling themselves Redstockings.
They held a counter pageant by parodying the beauty pageant but what was
crowned as Miss America was a sheep. This was done in order for women were
not considered merely object of male gaze. Redstockings also did the action by
throwing feminine artifacts which they considered oppressing women such as
bras, girdles, high-heels, makeup and false eyelashes into the trashcan (Rampton,
n.d.).
In the era of second-wave feminism, there were other social movements
like Black Power and the effort to end the war in Vietnam. Second-wave feminists
realized that their voice would be easily marginalized and viewed less important
than the other social movements at that time. Second-wave feminists responded
this by establishing women organizations (Rampton, n.d.). The most prominent
women organizations at this time, the National Organization for Women (NOW),
founded in 1966, concerned about discrimination in matters such as property
rights, employment, and pay.
29
Second wave feminists also struggled for the rights to seek freedom to
define their sexuality and practice it without discrimination. They also concerned
about reproductive freedom for women and struggle for the legalization of
abortion as they thought that women could have control over their own body.
However, in 1982 the Equal Rights Amendment was defeated because of three
states short of ratification (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).
Second wave feminists were dominated by upper middle class white
women who claimed that patriarchal and imperial oppressions were universal
oppressions experienced by women in the world. Whereas, in reality women did
not only consist of upper middle class white women only but they also came from
different social classes, races, ethnicity, religions, subculture, sexual community,
etc. Certainly, they experienced different social and cultural experiences.
However, second wave feminism over-emphasized the experience of upper
middle class white women. In this case, this movement was often claimed
excluding women out of the group. Due to the fact, the movement was often
called “hegemonic feminism” (Ibrahim, 2004, p. xiv).
As it was claimed that it could not represent American women entirely,
many women had become more antifeminist during the 1980s to 1990s. Vaid, as
cited by Hall and Rodriguez, has stated:
“Minority women feel their needs and values have been largely ignored by the organized
women‟s movement, which grew out of white, middle-class women‟s discontent, and
racial-minority women feel they cannot participate in the feminist movement because of
white women‟s racism.”(2003, p. 882)
30
The groups claiming themselves antifeminist somehow include young women
who never deal with second wave feminism and racial-minority and traditional
women who oppose women‟s movement in 1970s (ibid).
Negative representations of women in popular media as unattractive, man-
hater, unfeminine, even lesbian make many girls and women refuse to claim
themselves feminists as this supposedly can distance themselves from men. Even
though many girls and women agree with what women‟s movement strives for,
equity in many aspects of life, they do not want to be called feminist (Hall &
Rodriguez , 2003, pp. 883-84). It is as if „feminist‟ is a dirty word.
Media is somehow male dominated field. It is closely related to capitalism
in which patriarchal values fully applied. Patriarchal values require women to be
feminine, passive, and submissive. Women are the object and cannot be the
subject. Their duties are child bearing, nurturing, doing household, and their place
is at home. Women who oppose this rule are viewed negative and considered
threat of male supremacy.
After the era of second wave feminism, negative stereotype toward
feminist women increased the number of antifeminists in the U.S. Feminists were
often labeled “women‟s lib, man hater, bra burner, lesbians and/or sexually
deviant, feminazi (ugly, unable to catch a man, dyke), and whining victims” (Hall
& Rodriguez, 2003, p. 880). Women‟s movement was as if dead. Many women
thought that equality had been achieved, thus women‟s movement was not needed
anymore.
31
Subsequently, America begins to enter postfeminist era. It is the era when
the term “feminism” is considered no longer relevant as the goals of feminism has
been achieved. Popular media claims that 1990s is the starting point of
postfeminist era in the U.S. (Hall & Rodriguez, 2003, p. 878). Nevertheless,
popular authors and scholars state that this era starts in 1980s (Ibrahim, 2004, p.
xii). However, the term “post-feminism” was firstly used in Susan Bolotin‟s
article “Voices of the Post-feminist Generation” published in 1982 in New York
Times magazine (Nedeau, 2008). Some opinions claim that this movement arises
in the U.S. as a response of the weakness and the failure of second wave
feminism. It is said that this movement happens as a continuity of second wave
feminism and therefore it is often claimed as third-wave feminism. On the other
hand, this movement is also considered a backlash of second-wave feminism;
even it is claimed as an antifeminist movement (Ibrahim xiii, 2004).
Media clearly have important role in shaping negative view about
postfeminism. The popular assumption about postfeminism propagandized by
media that postfeminism is a backlash against second-wave feminism is done to
create antagonism toward second-wave feminism (Brooks, 2008, p. 4). Susan
Faludi, in her book entitled Backlash, has claimed that media declare that
feminism is the taste of 1970s and that postfeminism is a new story completed
with younger generation supposedly taking part in criticizing women‟s movement
(Faludi as cited in Brooks, 2008, p. 4). While, Ann Brooks argues that this
movement is not an antifeminist movement. It only opposes hegemonic
assumption held by second wave feminists who are dominated by upper middle
32
class white women who claim that patriarchal and imperial oppressions are
universal oppressions experienced by women in the world (Brooks, 2008, p. 6). It
can be considered that postfeminism is a critique on second wave feminism
[which precedes it]“ (Adriaens, 2009).
Actually, Postfeminism and second wave feminism have different
perspectives in some ways. Second-wave feminism provides the idea that
feminism and femininity are oppositional so that feminism and femininity cannot
go along together. It prompts what is called „body politics‟ transmitting the
rejection of practices that will show differences between male and female bodies
such as shaving the legs and underarms, putting on cosmetics and wearing
revealing and form-fitting clothing as they are created by patriarchy. Second wave
feminism also sees sexuality pessimistically as it concentrates on its negative side
such as “sexual transmittable diseases, sexual abuse and sexual objectification of
women in media discourse” (Adriaens, 2009). It seems that the values provided by
second-wave feminism have been fixed and the women violating the values are
considered victims of patriarchy. Postfeminism however offers women and girls
the new alternatives. It creates a bridge between femininity and feminism so that
girls and women can be both feminine and feminist at the same time, without
feeling anxious of being considered a passive victim of patriarchy. Postfeminism
considers femininity and women‟s body as women‟s distinct things which
distinguish women from men and see them as women‟s source of identity (ibid).
Therefore, postfeminism rejects „body politics‟ of second-wave feminism (Gill as
cited in Adriaens, 2009). Postfeminism also criticizes second-wave feminism‟s
33
rigid vision on sexuality. It rather promotes women‟s right on sexual pleasure,
choice and freedom than what women may encounter as the sexual victim
(Adriaens, 2009). Postfeminism sees sexuality of women in different perspective.
It seems that the values of postfeminism create ambivalence. It goes along
with patriarchy as it prompts patriarchal things such as revealing and form-fitting
clothing and cosmetics (which leads to consumerism which is also patriarchal as
well), but refuses to be considered as the victim or the object of patriarchy. If
feminists see woman wearing revealing clothes as an object of male gaze,
postfeminists rather see her as a woman with personal freedom as she wears the
clothes based on her own willingness. At this point, postfeminism changes the
idea of sexual objectification into sexual subjectification, a focus on a “powerful
male gaze” into a “self-regulating narcissistic individualistic gaze” (Adriaens,
2009). However, what is proposed by postfeminism is actually “a movement
beyond feminism, to a more comfortable zone where women are now free to
choose for themselves” (Beck as cited in McRobbie, 2004, p. 259).
Postfeminism focuses more on the individual empowerment of women and
less on activism. It encourages women to build their identities in the
postmodernism era (Gladen, 2007). Women can choose what they want to be; as a
housewife, author, athlete, supermodel, singer, astronaut, teacher, etc, and they do
not oblige to leave their femininity to reach their goal. Therefore, postfeminism is
often considered highly individualistic as it too over-emphasizes values of
personal empowerment over activism. Because of this, the movement is often
criticized not political enough. Critics argue that postfeminism is ill equipped to
34
contribute the progress of feminism, and it is often claimed discouraging women
from becoming feminist activists (ibid). Despite criticisms go to it, postfeminism
has appeared as a warning that women‟s movement is not dead. Women‟s
movement is still needed as long as women is still considered second class and
placed in the background. That is why it is often called third-wave feminism.
The term third-wave feminism itself is coined by a young, Southern,
African-American, Jewish, and bisexual feminist author named Rebecca Walker
in 1993 "to describe a new generation of young feminists working to create a
more inclusive and comprehensive movement” (Head, n.d.). The era of third-wave
feminism is often thought initiated by the Anita Hill – Clarence Thomas hearings
in 1991. At the time when President George H.W. Bush nominated Clarence
Thomas to the Supreme Court, during the Senate Judiciary Committee hearings,
Anita Hill, an African-American professor from Oklahoma, reported that she had
been sexually harassed by Thomas almost a decade earlier. In response to the
Thomas hearings, Rebecca Walker published an article entitled “Becoming the
Third Wave” in an issue of Ms in 1992 (Darko, n.d.). Thenceforth, the term is
often used to label the current women‟s movement as another alternative beside
the term „postfeminism‟.
As the current women‟s movement, Postfeminism are embraced mostly by
them who are part of the Generation X demographic (born roughly between 1966
– 1976) or are from Generation Y (born roughly between 1977-1997). Some
postfeminists are the children of Baby Boomers (born roughly between 1940s-
1950s) who have participated in the second-wave feminism beginning in the
35
1960s. As Generation X and Generation Y live in the postmodern era in which
media and technology have been commonly used, it can be understood that
postfeminists express themselves through popular culture which is transferred to
daily life in the help of media. They look for women figure in popular media who
represent their own struggles and can help them in “their personal journeys to
search and define identity” (Gladen, 2007).
There are some women‟s movements under the umbrella of postfeminism
which promote the concept that women are different from men and that is why
women do not need to live in male standard if they want to be considered equal
with men as acting like men is considered devaluing women‟s value. Women are
supposed to show their distinct characteristics as their power. The movements
promoting the values are such as Girl Power, which takes its great influence
through media as well as pop culture, and Riot Grrrl, a women movement which
was born from female youth subculture of punk-rock in America borrowing the
do-it-yourself ethos of 1970s punk (Hopkins, 1993, p. 30). Girl Power movement
will be explained further in the next subchapter as it is closely related to the
research.
B. Girl Power Movement in America
Girl Power ideology and movement or usually just called Girl Power
arises in America in 1990s until today. This movement is a part of postfeminist
movement or third wave feminism. This phenomenon gives a big influence to
many girls and women in the U.S. even around the world. It gives a big change
36
for girls and women in the way they behave, think, and do so many things. Girl
Power has taken important role in shaping society today, particularly for girls and
women. It appears in society as a challenge to traditional feminine values such as
submission, passivity, and vulnerability of women required by patriarchal system.
Women have been trapped in these traditional feminine values for many
centuries. They are required to be „good girl‟ who are tender, submissive, pacify,
passive, and weak as if all of these are their original natures. Opposing these
values is considered wrong and rude. For unmarried girls, it is thought distancing
them from men who will marry them. While for married women, it will lead them
to be unwanted wives. Marriage is everything for women with traditional values.
Perfect marriage is their main goal and desire. To actualize this, being „good‟ is
really required.
Girl Power emerges in society and gives new values for girls and women.
Ideal women are no longer passive, submissive, and vulnerable women but those
who are confident, tough and have power to achieve success. To be cool women
does not need to be pacify, lovely, and tender. Aggressive, manipulative, and even
mean women can also be considered cool and adored as long as they have power.
What is meant by power here is not physical strength but rather such achievement
as success, status, and fame. It can be said that today marriage no longer becomes
every girls and women‟s main goal in their life because success, status, and fame
have replaced it (Hopkins, 1993, p. 4). It does not mean that they consider
marriage unimportant. Girl Power ideology and movement make girls and women
37
realize that they need self-actualization and self-determination, and marriage is no
longer the one and the only choice they can choose.
Unlike the first and second wave feminism of which the movements are
actualized through convention, protest, and other actions that are sounds political,
Girl Power movement is actualized by personal empowerment shown by each
individual. Media has a great role in this movement because many girls and
women imitate the images of Girl Power which are shown by media. About this,
Susan Hopkins in her book entitled Girl Heroes: the New Force in Popular
Culture has stated:
This is not just a matter of virtual role models replacing real ones, but entails the
recycling of media images and illusions into lived realities. Increasingly, reality is folded
into media productions and the media is folded into real life (1993, p. 1).
It is clear that what are shown by media really infiltrate into reality. No wonder if
the heroes of Girl Power movement are not feminist activists like in the previous
waves because whom many women and girls adore in this era are female
celebrities. Female celebrities‟ fame and success make many girls and women
admire them and make them their role models. They embody their desire upon
fame and success by imitating the images of Girl Power in media shown by
female idols.
Madonna, the queen of pop, is often claimed as the pioneer of Girl Power
movement in America. Through media, she has inspired many women and girls to
be tougher, more confident, even more aggressive in the way of thinking,
behaving, and achieving their goal. The traditional femininity created by
38
patriarchy is considered obsolete and many American women and girls have left it
behind.
Since her first appearance in 1983, Madonna had attracted many people.
With her white skin, slim body, blond hair, beautiful voice, good ability to dance,
hard works and ambition, Madonna had fulfilled what were needed to be accepted
in mainstream media at that time. During her career, she had had transformations,
from „slut‟ to „saviour‟ and from „object‟ to „subject‟, as if she wanted to say that
„it‟s never too late to reinvent oneself‟. Madonna is aware of her sexual power,
but she does not let herself become merely an object of male gaze. She
successfully takes advantage from that sexual exploitation (Hopkins, 1993, pp.
40-6). She uses patriarchy as much as patriarchy uses her. Madonna uses her
sexual power as a way to self-determination and self-actualization.
After Madonna era, many Madonna wannabes colors the world. The
female groups like Spice Girls, TLC, All Saints, Atomic Kitten, Girl Thing,
Destiny‟s Child, etc, reinforces the fact that the era of vulnerable women has
ended. Success and popularity have replaced marriage as the destination of many
women because success and popularity are proves that they have power.
Spice Girls, a women group from U.K., is often claimed as the most
prominent among the other groups. Their slogans, „Hold tight, get ready, Girl
Power is coming at you‟ and „Silence is golden but shouting is fun‟ which
represent Girl Power inspire many girls and young women around the world that
they can do and reach what they want. Spice Girls‟ Girl Power is based on the
mixture of influences of Madonna‟s naked ambition, punk‟s irreverence and
39
energy, and the vocabulary of women‟s liberation. As a result, Spice Girls create
their images as feminine, rebellious, independent, active girls who can do,
become, and reach what they want and always want to have fun in the hard
process of reaching their goal (Hopkins, 1993, pp. 11-6)
The influence of Girl Power does not only infiltrate into music industry
but also TV shows and movies. The traditional archetype of girl in TV shows and
films who always becomes victim has been left. Today, girl can also become the
savior. TV show like Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003) and movie like
Charlie’s Angels (2000) serve audiences with girl who can fight again her enemy
as the main character. They show the main character can kick, punch, and beat
down her enemy.
As more and more Girl Power figures emerge in the media, women and
girls have many options of role models. They begin to imitate the way the female
singers get dressed, the supermodels wear their hair and accessories, the actresses
behave in films or in their daily life, etc. This condition however gives profit to
many industries like clothes, accessories, make-up industries as many girls and
women spend more and more money to fulfill their desire in imitating the role
models as an expression of their self-actualization.
C. the Concept of Heroine in America
since the Nineteenth Century until the Present
Janice Hume in her article entitled Defining the Historic American
Heroine: Changing Characteristics of Heroic Women in Nineteenth-Century
40
Media has written that dictionaries of the nineteenth century define “heroine” as
“a female hero”, and they define hero as “illustrious, brave, courageous, noble,
valiant, magnanimous, fearless, and a great warrior”. They also define heroine as
“the chief female character in a work of fiction”. However, the definition of
heroine in the dictionaries can result to confusing understanding as what Hume
wrote, “What if moral standard for women and men were different?” (1997, p. 1).
In this case, of course we cannot define “heroine” as simply “a female
hero”. A woman can be considered a female hero if she can fulfill the moral
standard of becoming a hero of the era, in which, in the nineteenth century, a hero
must be brave, courageous, noble, valiant, fearless, a great warrior, and many
other characteristics which are considered the ideal moral standard of the era.
Whereas, a woman can be considered heroine if she “would have required her
own distinct characteristics representing the moral standards of women” (Hume,
1997, p. 1-2) of her era. Here, it can be concluded that “heroine” is different from
“female hero”.
Fishwick has stated, that a hero must “satisfy the emotional and
psychological needs of admirers” (as cited in Hume, 1997, p. 2). Wecter also has
stated that a hero is “he whom every American should wish to be” (as cited. in
Hume, 1997, p. 3). In the nineteenth century, a hero was supposed to be a man,
not a woman, as in the era, a woman who involved herself in public concerns was
considered “tainted” (Okker as cited in Hume, 1997, p. 2). In the era, the role and
the involvement of women in public concerns were limited by tradition which
required that women‟s place should be at home and they were supposed to deals
41
with domestic concerns only. Women were required to be a “perfect lady”
(Wecter as cited in Hume, 1997, p. 2). That is why during American history, a
female hero, a woman who are living by moral standard of male, cannot be called
heroine as she is considered “unladylike” (Hume, 1997, p. 2) and as she cannot
represent the moral standard of women of the nineteenth century which is
different from the moral standard of men in the era.
The concept of heroine of one era is certainly different from another era.
Then, what is the concept of American heroine or woman considered ideal, as she
fulfill the moral standard of women, in the nineteenth century? We can trace back
to the concept of American heroine in the nineteenth century through the most
popular magazine in the era, The Lady’s Book. This magazine contains fiction
stories representing the concept of American heroine in the era through their
female main character.
According to Hume, “The magazine‟s heroine, however, was not static; as
the hypotheses for this study predicted, characteristics of heroic women portrayed
in the magazine change right along with changing values for women” (Hume,
1997, p. 17). Here, the era examined are the era of ten years before (1837-1838)
and ten years after (1857-1858) the Seneca Falls Women‟s Rights Convention
(1848), the main historical event of the first-wave feminism, as there is significant
shift of heroine‟s concept between both these periods in reality which then are
followed by media, in this case magazine.
There were seven categories of heroines of 1837-1838. They were: the
genius, the victim, the heroine of faith, the self-sacrificial heroine, the sensible
42
heroine, the melancholy heroine, and ‟the mothedwife‟. In the era, ideal women
were supposed to fulfill these seven categories. If one category was missing, the
woman perhaps was punished with a “bitter life” or “unhappy marriage” (Smith;
Denhallow as cited in Hume, 1997, p. 4).
In the era, the genius heroine, or the woman who had high intelligence,
used her intelligence not for chasing admiration by others or popularity but to
make the world or everything around her better and happier instead. In other
words, the woman‟s genius was not for herself but for others. Moreover, the
genius heroine was hoped to not neglect domestic concerns although she had high
intelligence. It could be said that the heroine sacrificed herself for others, for her
parents, for her siblings, and even for other people outside her kinship. Self-
sacrificial heroine was included as one of the categories of heroine in the era.
Beside her intelligence, woman was expected to sacrifice her safety, comfort, and
health for others. Woman should get rid of all her selfishness in her mind because
by doing it, she would get reward from others. The other category was the victim.
By becoming self-sacrificial heroine, woman so often became victim, the victim
of her father, her brother, or their husband as well as the victim of the dangers of
nature. Becoming victim, heroine in the era was depicted a weak, powerless being
who really needed help from man. The man could be her father, her brother or her
husband who was considered stronger than her as man was stereotyped as tough
and strong being. In the era, brave woman who was physically strong was always
connected to supernatural power and considered not ideal. The weak one was
which was favored. Melancholy heroine appeared as one of the categories of
43
heroine in the era. Melancholy heroine was described as a woman who trembled
even collapsed when hearing or finding out something miserable or terrifying,
having a pale face, and usually wearing modest outfit with few ornaments.
Melancholic expression was always on her face, and it was because she always
thought melancholically. Woman who had red cheek, cheerful and wore latest-
fashioned outfit was not the heroine of the era. Such woman was claimed to be
less generous and selfish and was not considered ideal (Hume, 1997, pp. 4-7).
Being pious was also required for being respected woman in the era.
Woman should be virtuous and becoming a model for her younger siblings. Her
piety was not for admiration from other people but for getting reward from family.
Sensible heroine was the other category. Woman was demanded to be wise and
good person mainly toward her family. This is closely related to the main role of
woman, nurturing. In most of stories in Lady‟s Book, women were depicted as
young women who were married or became wives during the course of the story
as well as became mother. Women were depicted always nurturing others, their
children, their siblings, even their parents. Nurturing was considered the role of
women as women were called by nature to bear, so it was also considered the
nature of women. Being wife and being mother as if considered the best role
woman should be (Hume, 1997, pp. 4-7).
However, the characteristics of heroine in 1837-1838 described above
changed gradually after the Seneca Falls Women‟s Rights Convention in 1848. In
the period of 1857-1858, ten years after the convention, the characteristics of
heroines in The Lady‟s Book which consisted of seven categories showed
44
significant changes although the changes were not drastic changes. The genius
women who devoted their intellect for others were “tempered by practicality and
common sense” (Hume, 1997, p. 10). The self-sacrificial heroine occasionally got
reward from others, not merely became miserable victim who got nothing. The
victim who got adversity all her life depicted overcoming the obstacles due to her
bravery. In the era, bravery was no longer considered supernatural and it became a
new value of women instead. Because of this, melancholy heroine was no longer
favored in the era. Cheerful woman with smile always in her face even in hard
moment was the portrait of ideal woman of the era. The woman had more spirit in
overcoming adversity but her outfit was still modest, with few ornaments. The
men in the era preferred the women who were more cheerful, brave, and had more
spirit than the melancholy women with pale face, sad expression, which was
fatalist. Pious woman was still well-liked but now the pious was not only as a
model but also a person teaching other as well. In the era, practicality was more
favored. Sensible heroine was eventually trusted to be money manager of family.
By combining the characteristic of genius and sensible, woman could be a money
manager which was competent. Finally, the role of woman to become mother and
wife was added by the role of becoming sister and daughter. The role as a sister or
daughter was not only nurturing but sometimes carrying hard duties of family
(Hume, 1997, pp. 10-7).
The concept of American heroine in the nineteenth century however did
not get any significant change until 1920s when America entered the era of so-
called Roaring Twenties, the following era after World War I. In the era, younger
45
women seemed to turn their back on what had been achieved by the former
generation who fought in the first wave feminism. The younger women had bored
to politics. The setting arose a new generation of young women which was totally
different from the previous generation which was explained by Sarah M. Evans in
her book, Born for Liberty, as follows:
Newspaper, magazines, movies, and novels all told Americans that womanhood had
changed again. Young, hedonistic, sexual, the flapper soon became a symbol of the age
with her bobbed hair, powdered nose, rouged cheeks, and shorter skirts. Lively and
energetic, she wanted experience for its own sake. She sought out popular amusements in
cabarets, dance hall, and movie theaters that no respectable, middle class woman would
have frequented a generation before. She danced, smoked, and flaunted her sexuality to the horror of her elders (1989, p. 175).
The changing lifestyle created a new heroine with a new concept called the
Flapper. Thomas Gladysz stated in her article the Jazz Age: Flapper Culture &
Style, the typical Flapper was a young woman with “short hair and a short skirt,
with turned-down hose and powdered knees”, who generally offended the older
generation because she resisted conventions of acceptable feminine behavior. The
flapper must have seemed to her mother like a rebel because she no longer
confined to home and tradition (Gladysz, 2001).
The flapper represented what acceptable feminine value rejected at the
time. Tradition feminine value at the time required women's hair long but the
flapper‟s was short, or bobbed. She wore make-up which even she might apply in
public area whereas according to traditional feminine value her attitude might be
considered temptress. The dresses she wore were baggy dresses which often
exposed her arms and her legs from the knees down. The flappers also often spent
46
their nights in nightclubs while traditional feminine values required woman stay at
home at night. This new generation of the era totally violated the values.
The silent film star Louise Brooks was very much part of the era. Her
personality and her role in film represented heroine in the flapper era, the era of
the worship of youth. Her social circle included the prominent figures that helped
define the era - such as the composer George Gershwin and the writers F. Scott
Fitzgerald (Gladysz, 2001).
In 1930s, everything changed for America evidenced Great Depression
which began in 1929 and ended until the mid of 1940s. People became penniless
and hedonic lifestyle seemed no longer fit in the era. Despite the fact, values of
the Flappers did not die out. The values enlarged the concept of the American
heroine instead. This somehow gave influence to the concept of heroine in films
in the following era.
In a study of the films from the 1930s and 1970s, historians had
categorized four major categories of roles that women played. The first one was
the role of woman as the “Pillar of Virtues”. This kind of role featured roles of
mothers and mammies such as Hattie McDaniel‟s character in Gone with the Wind
(1939). The second category was the “Glamour Girl”. This category featured the
sex goddesses like Marilyn Monroe in Bus Stop (1956) and the femme fatales
such as Marlene Dietrich in Blonde Venus (1932). The third category, the
“Emotive Woman” featured the roles such as sexually frustrated Rosalind Russell
in Picnic (1955) and the seductive Elizabeth Taylor in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
(1958). The last category, the “Independent” woman, featured roles such as the
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role of Barbara Streisand in Funny Girl (1968) or Jane Fonda in Klute (1971), the
liberated woman (Stupor, n.d.).
However, throughout film history, “women have been depicted as
manipulative, sexually repressed, or sexually overt” (Stupor, n.d.). In the 1950s,
especially, America entered the era of “reaffirming male dominance and female
subservience; movies showed women as breasts and buttocks, again idealizing
women who were „pretty, amusing, and childish” (Butler as cited. in Stupor, n.d.).
Much of this negative representation somehow has endured and remained in
present films, although it may not be as obvious as those in the previous decades.
“Nowadays, we see more sensationalized sexual roles for women as the trend
began in the 70s” (Stupor, n.d.). Whatever the trend and the era, until now,
women are still taking less leading roles in films as patriarchal values still
dominate mainstream society.
D. Semiotic Film Theory
Semiotic film theory is a theory under the umbrella of film theory which is
used to analyze film since film contains many signs which have deeper meaning
behind delivered by its filmmakers. Semiotic film theory enables spectators of
movies to think what has previously been unthinkable.
Before treading on the range of film, the science of contemporary
semiology or semiotics broke fresh ground in the scope of language and it was
initiated by the Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure.
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Saussure has stated that semiology or semiotic is “a science that studies
the life of signs within society” (Stam, 1992, p. 4). This science is used to show
“what constitutes sign and what laws govern them” (ibid). Saussure has defined
„sign‟ as the union of the „signifier‟, a form which signifies, and the „signified‟, an
idea signified (ibid, p. 8). According to Saussure, sign, the relation between
signifier and signified, is arbitrary (as cited in Storey, 1996, p. 55). For example,
the word „clock‟ can produce different kind of sign in every person‟s mind.
Everyone has her/his own image of clock in her mind because everyone has
her/his own mindset about clock. However, what is imagined by the person who
hears the word „clock‟ remains the image of clock, not the image of door, table,
chair, or other things. It is because there is a convention in the society of which
the people speak English that the word „clock‟ refers to a device used by people to
indicate time, whatever the shape, as long as it is not to be used in wrist as English
has the word „watch‟ to call it.
In his book, Piliang has stated that the relation between the signifier and
the signified is not constructed naturally (2003, p. 261). It is constructed based on
convention (ibid). Therefore, basically the signifier opens many chances for
various signified or meaning (ibid). This is what is meant „arbitrary‟ by Saussure.
In the development of modern semiotics, Roland Barthes continued the
science and he based his theory on Saussure‟s semiology. Roland Barthes
developed Saussure‟s scheme that signifier + signified = sign and added to it a
second level of signification. Barthes called it two semiological systems (Barthes,
49
1999, p. 115). In this scheme, there are two stages of signification which are
denotation stage and connotation stage.
The first stage, denotation stage, indicates the relation between the
signifier and the signified of which the signified is an explicit meaning or the
meaning which can be drawn directly from the signifier itself. Therefore, the sign,
which is the total entity between image and concept, is also explicit or literal. For
example, the picture of table means the table itself. There is not implicit meaning
behind it. The structure of the first stage can be represented diagrammatically like
this:
1. Signifier 2. Signified
SIGN
In this first stage, the signification is just in the level of language or
linguistic system. Barthes claims (as cited in Storey, 1996, p. 88) that in this
second stage, connotation stage, what he calls „myth‟ is produced. Barthes defines
„myth‟ here as “ideology understood as a body of ideas and practices which
defend and actively promote the values and interests of the dominant groups in
society” (ibid). In the second stage, the sign of the first stage becomes the new
signifier in this stage. And the new signifier has the new signified and the relation
between the new signifier and the new signified produces the new sign. The sign
produced in this stage is interpretative and depends upon the user‟s cultural
experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46). For example, number 13 in western society is a
50
sign of bad luck; in China, it is considered a sign of luck. Overall, Barthes‟ two
semiological systems can be diagrammatically illustrated like this:
1. Signifier 2. Signified
3. Sign
I SIGNIFIER
II SIGNIFIED
III SIGN
The development of semiotics continued in 1960s when Christian Metz
attributed the science to film. In understanding film, Metz has his own point of
view. He has stated:
“We understand a film not because we have a knowledge of its system; rather, we achieve
an understanding of its system because we understand the film… it is not because the
cinema is language that it can tell such fine stories, but rather it has become language
because it has told such fine stories.” (as cited in Monaco, 2000, p. 157)
Film represents something which has meaning which can be understood by its
audience. Film does not just consist of language which can be used to tell a story
rather it consists of many elements which become unity which then build a
„language‟ that enables audience to understand and get pleasure in watching it.
Metz also argues that film is not a language system “because it lacks the
equivalent of the arbitrary linguistic sign” (Stam, 1992, p. 35). The sign in film is
interpreted almost the same by each audience because the filmmakers lead them
into one interpretation, which is the meaning the filmmakers try to deliver. Film is
Language
Myth
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not the same as language system. Signs in language systems can be interpreted
arbitrarily, signs in film can not be. About this, Monaco has stated:
“We can‟t modify the signs of cinema the way we can modify the words of language
systems. In cinema, an image of a rose is an image of a rose – nothing more, nothing less.
In English, a rose can be a rose, simply, but it can also be modified or confused with
similar words: rose, rosy, rosier, rosiest, rise, risen, rows (ruse), arose, roselike, and so
forth.” (2000, p. 158)
In language system, the word “rose” can be interpreted differently for each
individual and it is based on each individual‟s mind in visualizing the image of
rose. The sign of rose is different for each individual because each individual has
different culture, social background, experience, etc. In film, the image of rose can
be a sign created by the filmmakers leading to one interpretation for each
audience. To do this, the filmmakers have to set the rose in a certain set which can
lead audience to have the same interpretation.
Sign is usually given by filmmakers through cinematographic elements.
To deepen the reader‟s understanding about sign in film, as a closing part of this
chapter, the basic terminology in cinematography is explained in the next
subchapter.
E. The Basic Terminology of Cinematography
The explanation of the terms related to cinematography is really needed to
understand a film analysis as the analysis uses many of those terms which are
likely uncommonly used. The explanation is as follows:
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a. Basic elements
Title / Opening Credits
The opening credits sequence is usually used to set the mood of the film. It
sometimes lacks any credits except the film's title which often exists as
static letters on a solid background (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making
Glossary”, n.d., p. 14).
Plot / Story / Narrative
Plot refers to a sequence of dramatic events or actions that build a
narrative in film (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p.
14).
Characterization
Characterization is the means filmmakers use to describe or develop a
character for audience (eHow Contributing Writer, n.d.)
Point of View (POV)
Point of view is the perspective used by the filmmakers from which the
film story is told. It also means a shot that depicts the outlook or position
of a character (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 14).
b. Mise–en–scene
Mise-en-scene is a French term for "staging," or "putting into the scene or
shot". In film theory, it refers to “the arrangement of all the visual elements of
a theatrical production within a given playing area – the stage” (Giannetti,
1987, p. 34). Those elements are setting and sets, acting style, costumes, and
lighting.
53
Setting
Setting is the time and place in which the film's narrative takes place,
including climate and season, people, customs, moral values, and norms of
behavior (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 16).
Costumes
Costumes are refers to what are worn by actor or actress in a film
(“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 6). Costumes
consist of outfits, hairstyle, and all things which support actor or actress‟
appearance. Costumes can be contrast between characters and can change
along the film‟s narrative.
Lighting
Lighting refers to “the illumination of a scene and the manipulation of
light and shadows by the cinematographer” (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-
Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 11). The following are some lights usually used
in film.
o Key Light
Key light is the main light of film lighting. It highlights the form,
dimension and surface detail of the subject in film (“The Key Light”,
2009).
o Fill Light
Fill light is a supporting light which soften the shadows and illuminate
the parts of the subject which are not illuminated by the key light
(Monaco, 2000, p. 197). It is used to reduce the contrast of a scene.
54
o Highlighting
Highlight is used to illuminate selected part of a subject, for example
an actress' eyes (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p.
10).
o Backlight
Backlight is the light illuminating from behind the subject. It will
cause the edges of the subject to glow (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-
Making Glossary ”, n.d., p. 2).
c. Shot Composition
Shot composition involves:
Tone
Tone is the mood or atmosphere of a film scene which can be serious,
humorous, satiric, amusing, among others. It influences the way the
director directed a film (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”,
n.d., p. 19).
Film Speed
Filmmakers have their particular intention in making a scene in fast or
slow motion. Fast motion is produced by a technique which entails a
camera capturing an image at rate slower than normal speed (slower than
24 frames per second). It is generally used for creating comic effect. Slow
motion is produced by employing a process which requires a camera
capturing an image at a rate faster than it will be projected. It is usually
used to completely capture a “moment in time” or to make a dramatic or
55
romantic effect (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 9;
p. 17).
Camera Angle
Camera angle is the perspective employed from which to shoot a subject.
The various kinds of camera angle are as follows:
o Eye-level Angle
Eye-level angle is a camera angle used to photograph a subject in eye
level.
o High Angle
High angle is a camera angle employed by filming the subject from
above (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary” 10). High angle
gives an effect of reducing the importance of the subject photographed,
for example, a person seems harmless or insignificant photographed
from above (Giannetti, 1987, p. 12).
o Low Angle
Low angle is a camera angle used by filming the subject from below
(“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary ”, n.d., p. 12). Low
angle gives an effect of raising the importance of the subject so that it
will create fear and respect to audience (Giannetti, 1987, p. 13).
Shot Distance
o Long Shot (LS)
Long shot is a shot taken from “the distance between the audience and
the stage in the live theater” (Giannetti, 1987, p. 8). Full shot is within
56
this category in which the figure of human body is photographed from
head to toes (ibid).
o Extreme Long Shot (ELS / XLS)
Extreme long shot is a shot taken from a great distance. Generally, it is
used to photograph a place or a landscape (Giannetti , 1987, p. 7).
o Medium Shot (MS)
Medium shot is a shot used to photograph a figure from the knees or
waist up (Giannetti, 1987, p. 8).
o Close-Up (CU)
Close-up is a shot magnifying the size of a filmed subject which is
relatively small, for example, human face. Its use is to elevate the
importance the subject (Gianeti, 1987, p. 8).
o Medium Close-Up (MCU)
This shot is within the category of Close-Up but the subject
photographed is not magnified as large as close-up, A medium close-
up emphasizes the principal subject but includes other objects that are
nearby (“Bussiness Definition”, 2000).
o Extreme Close-Up (XCU)
It is the other variation of close-up. This shot might show a certain
point of a subject which is rather very small, for example, a person‟s
eyes (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 9).
57
Frame:
A frame is a single smallest unit of a film. A series of frame constructs a
motion picture. Frame also refers to the rectangular area which we see
within the screen (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p.
10).
d. Montage
Montage is a French word literally meaning "editing", "putting together" or
"assembling shots". It refers to a filming technique, editing style, or form of
movie collage consisting of a series of short shots or images that are rapidly
put together into a coherent sequence to create a composite picture, or to
suggest meaning or a larger idea (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making
Glossary”, n.d., p. 13). Montage involves:
Shot
Shot refers to a single take made by a camera without interruption or
editing (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”,n.d., p. 17).
Cut
Cut is a sudden change between shots in film‟s structure. It can be a
transition from one scene to another or from one sound to another
(“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 7).
Freeze Frame
Freeze is a technique in film which is generally applied at the end of a film
to give an “iconic lasting image” (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making
Glossary”, n.d., p. 10).
58
Scene
Scene refers to a shot or a series of shot which construct(s) a complete
dramatic event or action in a narrative of film. The beginning of the
following scene is indicated by a change in time, location, or action. Fade,
wipe, and lap-dissolve technique are usually employed to connect one
scene to another scene (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”,
n.d., p. 15).
o Fade
Fade is a transitional technique used by changing the intensity of an
image or sound gradually, from normal bright to darkness (fade out/
fade to black) or from darkness to completely normal bright scene
(fade in) and from silence to sound or from sound to silence. Fade in is
used to indicate the beginning of a scene while fade out is generally
used to indicate the end of a scene (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-
Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 9).
o Wipe
Wipe is a transitional technique in which one shot is replaced by
another shot as if the first shot is pushed off by the second shot. This
technique is often used in 1930s (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making
Glossary”, n.d., p. 20).
o Lap-dissolve or Dissolve
Lap dissolve which is a shorthand for „overlap dissolve‟ is a
transitional technique between two shots in which the first shot is
59
replaced by the second shot gradually and both of them seems
blendind for a moment (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”,
n.d., p. 7).
Sequences
Sequence is a scene or a series of related scenes that are united and edited
together to build a story in a film‟s narrative (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-
Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 16).
e. Sound
Sound is the audio portion of a film. It includes the following:
Dialogues
Dialogues are lines uttered by an actor/actress in a film (“Cinematic
Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 7).
Sound Effects
Sound effects are all sounds created in film but dialogue and music
(“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 17).
Score
Score is the background music in a film that commonly composed for the
film (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 16).
Sound Bridge
Sound bridge is a sound which can be dialogue, music or sound effect in
one scene that continues until another scene. It is used to connects the two
shots or scenes (“Cinematic Terms: A Film-Making Glossary”, n.d., p. 2).
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Synchronous (or Simultaneous) Sound
It refers to sound of which the source within the frame (Monaco, 2000, p.
214).
Non-Synchronous (or Non-Simultaneous) Sound
It is the sound comes from outside the frame (Monaco, 2000, p. 214).
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CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS
This chapter contains the analysis of the movie and the point is to solve the
research questions stated in the first chapter. Before solving the research
questions, the reader is let to understand first the signification or the implication
of the title of the movie so that the reader gets a good understanding.
A. THE SIGNIFICATION OF THE TITLE MEAN GIRLS
Figure 1. The title of Mean Girls
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
The first analysis will be an understanding of the signification of the title
of the movie. The title of the movie is Mean Girls. It is an effective title as it can
covers the meaning of the movie.
Grammatically, the word „mean‟ in the title can be both an adjective and a
noun. „Mean‟ as adjective means “a: penurious, stingy b: characterized by petty
selfishness or malice c: causing trouble or bother : vexatious” (“Mean”, n.d.).
„Mean‟ as noun means “condition, quality, course of action, etc. that is halfway
between two extremes” (Hornby, Cowie & Gimson, 1986, p. 526). The word
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„girls‟ following the word „mean‟ is grammatically a noun. „Girl‟ means “female
child from birth to adulthood”; “daughter”; “a young unmarried woman” (“Girl”,
2009). As the word written in its plural form, it refers to more than one person.
With this consideration, the title Mean Girls does not only contain a single
meaning. First, I will analyze the title Mean Girls in which the word „mean‟
considered adjective, and later I continue to analyze the title in which the word
„mean‟ considered noun.
At the first stage of Barthes‟ two semiological systems, the title Mean
Girls has function merely as the title, without implication in it. But at the second
stage of Barthes‟ two semiological systems, Mean Girls can have a deeper
meaning which can be drawn from the signs contained in it. In the beginning of
the movie, the audience can see the title Mean Girls (see figure 1) written in black
background, using two types of font in which the word „Mean‟ is written in white
with bold large font while „Girls‟ is written in pink with smaller font. The pink
color of the word „Girls‟ deepens its meaning however. Pink color is a sign of
femininity. “In some cultures, such as the US, pink is the color of girls. It
represents sugar and spice and everything nice” (Bear, n.d.). And it can be simply
understood that the moviemakers make the word „Mean‟ bold as they want the
audience to focus more on the word „Mean‟. It is as if they want to tell the
audience that this word is more emphasized. The question is “why is the word
more emphasized?”
As we know, according to traditional values which are created by
patriarchy, girls are supposed to be innocent, sweet, obedient, and control anger.
63
American society, despite its modernity, however still holds traditional value and
this value still become the standard of ideal femininity in the country. But in the
title, the word which precedes the word „Girls‟ is not the word „Innocent‟,
„Sweet‟, or „Obedient‟, rather the word „Mean‟. The meaning of the word „Mean‟
as adjective does not support ideal femininity value in America. Thus, Mean Girls
can be understood as the girls who challenge the traditional norms and ideal
femininity values of the society. Thus, it can also be considered the girls who
challenge patriarchy. The different fonts can be understood to raise a gap between
the word „Mean‟ and the word „Girl‟. The word „Mean‟ and the word „Girl‟ are
purposed as two different words with two different ideas and they stand in stark
contrast position. In this case, the moviemakers want to disconnect the two ideas.
Both the words are not commonly paired in case that girl is usually identified with
a weak, passive, innocent being.
„Mean‟ as noun can result to a deeper meaning. It has been stated that it
means “condition, quality, course of action, etc. that is halfway between two
extremes” (Hornby, Cowie, & Gimson, 1986, p. 526). If „mean‟ here is something
between two extremes, the question is „what are those two extremes?‟ As the
word following the word „mean‟ is the word „girls‟, it can be defined literally as
„girls who have position between two extremes‟. So, what are two extremes which
border on girls?
However, the two extremes can be understood as systems which border
and regulate girls as members of society. Until today, the two extreme systems
which are dominant in regulating girls in society are patriarchy and feminism.
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Patriarchy considers girls and women inferior than men. On the contrary,
feminism requires girls and women equal with men. So, what is between
patriarchy and feminism? The answer is postfeminism. In the previous chapter, it
has been said that postfeminism seems going along with patriarchal values but it
also challenges the system as it rejects the idea that girls and women are merely
object and inferior to men. Postfeminism can be considered as “condition, quality,
course of action, etc. that is halfway between” patriarchy and feminism. Thus, the
meaning of the title Mean Girls here can be interpreted as girls who have
condition, quality, and actions representing postfeminism, the movement which
provides values between two extreme systems.
However, the word „girls‟ in the title is actually complicated. Except the
meaning which has been stated previously, the word „girl‟ means “a female
servant or other employee: sometimes considered a patronizing term” and “a
sweetheart of a boy or man” (“Girl Definition”, 2009). If in dictionaries the word
„girl‟ is interpreted in patriarchal perspective, why does the word „girls‟ in the title
is paired with the word „mean‟ which has been analyzed before as a characteristic
challenging patriarchy? Actually the word „grrl‟ seems more suitable being
paired with the word „mean‟. The word „grrl‟ is a respelling of the word ‘girl’.
The word „grrl‟ connotes “aggression, strength, self-confidence, etc., and rejecting
the connotations of weakness, meekness, prissiness, etc.,” usually associated with
the word „girl‟ (“Definition of Grrl”, n.d.). However, this raises question. Does the
filmmakers have certain purpose by using the word „girl‟? Of course the answer
can be gained if we watch and analyze the movie further.
65
Anyway, the way the moviemakers write the title is purposed to raise the
audience‟s curiousity so that the questions like “why are the girls in the movie
considered mean?” and “What kind of girls are who are considered mean in the
movie?” will emerge in their mind and the questions can be answered if they
watch the movie. It can be said that the title Mean Girls is an efficient title.
B. HOW THE MOVIE “MEAN GIRLS” CONSTRUCTS
ITS TEENAGE HEROINES
When we watch the entire run of the movie Mean Girls and pay attention
to its teenage female characters, we can see easily that the teenage female
characters represent modern girls. Although this movie does not show explicitly
its set of time, we are able to conclude the setting of time from the fashion style of
the characters or from the topic the characters talk about. For example, in one
scene in the movie, Ashton Kutcher, the famous Hollywood actor, is mentioned
and claimed as an up-to-date topic at the time. The actor is popular since the end
of 1990s. From this, we can conclude that the movie takes set of time in the era
between the end of 1990s and 2004 (the year the movie is produced), so that the
teenage female characters of the movie also represent teenage girls living in the
era.
The setting of time of the movie refers to the era of postfeminism or
postfeminist era. It is the era when many women and girls no longer see that they
need feminism as it is considered old fashioned. Postfeminism offers new values
to women and girls which seem different from both the values of feminism and
66
the values of traditional femininity. Its focus is encouraging individual
empowerment. We can see clearly that the setting of time of the movie is in
postfeminst era through what are represented by the teenage heroines in the
movie.
The teenage heroines in the movie classify themselves into some different
cliques and the members of each clique certainly have different characteristics.
Nevertheless, in general, these girls‟ crowd is represented challenging traditional
femininity. Most girls are represented as girls who are not passive and obedient
but rather girls who want to actualize their self-obsession and self-expression
liberally. Some of them even do not mind breaking the school regulation like
skipping class or making out with their boyfriend in the school. Most of them
chase for self-existence as well as acceptance and attention from their peers. Thus,
they care too much about appearance and need both friendship and love
relationship to build their identity.
In socializing with opposite sex peers, they are varied. However, those
who are more aggressive in socializing with boys are considered socially
competent. The socially competent girls are considered more popular.
Most girls in the movie are also represented as girls who do not mind
expressing anger frankly so it can be said that they do not represent traditional
values. This is clearly shown in the scene when the junior girl students in the
movie fight against each other violently (see figure 2).
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Figure 2. Girl fights against girl violently in Mean Girls.
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
It is clear that most teenage heroines in the movie show the characteristics
of girls in modern era. Most of them represent the current values, Girl Power
values, which is a part of postfeminism. Although movie is sometimes an
exaggeration of reality, it can be understood that the movie represents the
condition of American girls today.
However, although America has encountered many movements which
contribute in shaping American life and institution today like what has been
contributed by postfeminism to American girls, the traditional values are still
maintained in the daily life including the values of traditional femininity which is
still embraced by them generally. In the last chapter, it has been explained that the
concepts of American heroine in fiction, either literature or film in the nineteenth
century and twentieth century, gradually change decade by decade. It has also
been said that although the trend in one decade is different from that in another
68
decade, women are still taking less leading roles in films as patriarchal values still
dominate mainstream society. As patriarchal values still dominate society, until
now, most popular American fictions and movies often show the heroines who
represent the ideal femininity required by patriarchal system which is the values
of traditional women.
The fact that America still holds traditional values of femininity despite its
modernity and some women‟s movement has emerged like postfeminism
somehow raises question. How are the teenage heroines in the movie Mean Girls
constructed? Are they constructed going along with Girl Power as they live in
postfeminist era or rather still maintaining traditional values instead? A full
analysis of all teenage heroines of the movie is beyond the scope of the thesis as
the thesis concentrates specifically on two primary teenage heroines who take
leading role in the movie, Cady Heron and Regina George.
1. Cady Heron, the Girl Who Transforms
By watching the movie from the beginning until the end, there has been a
transformation in the character of Cady Heron, the main character of the movie. In
the beginning of the movie she is depicted as an innocent girl who does not know
anything about high school world as she has been home schooled all her life. At
her first day she goes to high school, she wears modest outfits and simple
hairstyle. Her appearance does not show that she is a girl who always wears the
latest-fashion clothes (see figure 3).
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Figure 3. Cady‟s appearance in her first day in high school
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the frames, she wears modest T-shirt, jacket, and jeans and her hair style is
simple ponytail. It can be said that Cady‟s appearance is too ordinary to make her
the center of attention when she enters her new school, North Shore High School.
In this case, in North Shore High School, Cady is depicted as „powerless‟ new
comer. What is meant by „powerless‟ in this term is not physical strength but
rather appearance.
Her modest and ordinary appearance somehow influences the way people
treat her. When Cady greets and introduces herself to a girl she meets first in her
new class, later known Kristen Hadley, the girl says to Cady if Cady talks to her
again, she will kick her ass. Cady‟s appearance somehow shows that she is an
„unthreatening object‟ so people see her powerless. And indeed, Cady shows her
powerlessness as she responds Kristen‟s threat by being silent, not protesting.
Cady‟s powerlessness is also shown by her pose as well as gesture in the
following frames.
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Figure 4. Cady‟s polite gesture when and after talking to
somebody she meets first in her new high school Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
As we can see (see figure 4), Cady links together both her hands in front of her
body when and after talking to Kristen Hadley. Medium shot is used to make
audience see clearly the pose. The pose is somehow a sign of politeness. But if we
analyze it further, the politeness shown by Cady leads to inferiority instead. In the
school, she is new student. She does not know anyone there at all and therefore
she does not have social power. Thus, when she talks to somebody she meets first
she tries to be as polite as she can to avoid antagonism addressed to her. She
wants to show that she is nice but sadly it makes her treated unfriendly instead.
Cady‟s characters are revealed one by one as the story goes. First, Cady is
portrayed as an obedient student. At the scene when Janis and Damian, her first
friends in the school, ask her to skip class, we can see from Cady‟s facial
expression (see figure 5) that she worries about it as she thinks skipping class is
not good and should not be done. She also asks Janis and Damian “Won't we get
in some sort of trouble for this?”. Cady‟s question shows Cady‟s anxiety of
breaking the school regulation.
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Figure 5. Cady‟s anxious face expression when she is asked skipping class Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
Her facial expression and question somehow show that she is such a person who
always obeys regulation. However, finally Cady agrees to skip class as she is in
no position to pass up friends for Janis and Damian are the only friends she has at
the time.
The next scenes of the movie bring the nature of Cady as a self-sacrificed
girl. Janis asks Cady to spy on the Plastics, the most popular clique in the school,
as Cady is invited by the queen bee, Regina George, to sit together with them at
lunch in cafeteria for a week. Janis wants Cady to report to her all bad things the
Plastics say and do. Actually, at the time, Cady does not find anything wrong with
the clique and feels wonder why Janis hates them. However, due to her loyalty to
Janis as her friend, Cady agrees to do Janis‟ idea. In this case, she sacrifices
herself to do what her friend asks. She does not do it because of her own
willingness.
Beside her powerlessness, Cady is depicted as a smart girl. In the scene in
Math class, Cady could not concentrate as she is fascinated by Aaron Samuels, a
senior student in the same Math class who sits in front of her. At the moment that
she daydreams, suddenly, her teacher, Mrs. Norburry, interrupts by asking Cady
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what is the answer of the question written in the blackboard. Cady is indeed
confused but somehow she can answer the question because she is smart in Math.
Mrs. Norburry : Cady, what do you say?
Cady : He was...
So cute.
I mean, A-sub-N equals N plus one over
four.
Mrs. NOrburry : That's right. That's good. Very good.
Her cleverness in math is also shown in the dialogue which happens in cafeteria
between Cady and two of the members of the Plastics, Regina and Gretchen,
below.
Regina : A hundred and twenty calories and forty-eight
calories from fat. What percent is that?
Gretchen : Forty-eight into one twenty?
Regina : I'm only eating foods with less than thirty
percent calories from fat.
Cady : It's forty percent.
Well, forty eight over one hundred and twenty
equals X over one hundred and then you cross-
multiply and get the value of X.
Regina : Whatever. I'm getting cheese fries.
Despite her cleverness, Cady is so passive in winning the man she has a
crush on. In the movie, Cady has a crush on Aaron Samuels who is also the ex-
boyfriend of Regina, the queen bee of the Plastics. She always waits Aaron to talk
first as she does not dare to talk first. What she does are only looking at him and
keeping her feeling upon him. When Regina offers Cady a help to win Aaron,
Cady feels so thankful and glad. However, Regina finally betrays Cady by taking
Aaron back to her arms. Cady‟s passivity and powerlessness make her become a
victim of the queen bee.
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By analyzing Cady‟s character in the beginning of the movie, we can
conclude that Cady is a character representing the concept of „good‟ girl as she
brings the characteristics and values of traditional femininity. She is an obedient,
smart, self-sacrificed, and passive girl with modest appearance and often become
a victim due to her powerlessness. However, we have to make it clear what is the
meaning of „good‟ girl here. In Western culture, „good‟ girl has been around a
long time. It has been the foundation of the eighteenth-and-nineteenth-century
novel. It represents women who fulfill the standard values of femininity in the era.
The girl is typically poor but beautiful. The characteristics somehow different
from era to another era but the concept is still the same in which the girl
represents the mainstream society‟s values in the era. For instance, in her article,
Sandra Tsing Loh has described good girl in nineties as:
… (a) spunky; (b) virginal; (c) busy with purposeful activity. But not obsessively so. Her
hormones are in balance. Brave chin up, she works within society‟s rules … Good Girls
don‟t challenge the status quo. (288)
On all accounts, although the standard values of girl or woman required by
mainstream society are different from era to another era, it is undeniably always
driven by patriarchal system which remains until today. Patriarchal system indeed
requires women to be passive and submissive so that being „good‟ girl is more
favored. This also explains why I put single quote in the word GOOD. The term
„good‟ here does not refer to its real meaning rather its culturally constructed
meaning as „good‟ here is determined by the mainstream society driven by
patriarchal system.
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The development of the Cady‟s character somehow does not only come to
the „good‟-girl side of her because as the story goes, it develops to be more
complicated. As has been stated in the title of this subchapter, ‘Cady Heron, the
girl who transforms’, Cady indeed starts transforming right after the turning point
of the movie which is in the scene when she witnesses Regina kissing Aaron
Samuels (see figure 6) whereas Regina tells her before that she will help her in
winning Aaron. The first frame showing the scene Regina kissing Aaron uses over
shoulder shot which shows Cady‟s shoulder to make it clear to audience that Cady
witnesses it. The movie again shows the scene (the second frame) in medium
close-up, now with slow motion, to make it clearer and more dramatic so that the
audience can feel what Cady feels. This incident somehow makes Cady decide to
take revenge against Regina. Thenceforth, she begins to pull out of the values of
traditional heroine she has represented one by one and holds Girl Power values
instead.
Figure 6. The scene is the turning point of Cady‟s character development.
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
The first thing Cady does in breaking the concept of traditional heroine is
that she agrees to sabotage the Plastics based on her own willingness, not her
friend‟s. At this point, Cady has her own self-determination and this represents
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Girl Power values in which girls or women can do what they want based on her
own intention and personal choice. Cady does not want to be the victim and the
loser so she decides to fight back. With Janis and Damian, she tries to beat Regina
with many ways, even the ways considered mean, including making Regina gain
weight to make her fat and making Regina‟s loyal friends hate her. In this case,
Cady no longer appears as a powerless victim.
In sabotaging the Plastics, Cady infiltrates the Plastics by pretending to be
a „plastic‟ girl. However, joining the Plastics really makes Cady too proud. She
too enjoys her role as the member of the Plastics. She begins to change her modest
look into fashionable one, adapting the Plastics‟ chic style. She wears fashionable
outfits, accessories and hair-style, uses make-up, and behaves like the other
member of the Plastics including imitating Regina‟s gesture and body language
(see figure 7). She wants to beat Regina but she cannot help longing to be like
Regina.
76
.
Figure 7. Cady tries to imitate Regina
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the first frame, it is shown that Cady wears a necklace showing the initial of her
name alike with Regina‟s and the necklace however signifies her longing to be
like Regina. In the scene, the filmmakers put Cady sitting beside Regina in the
purpose the audience can see that Cady and Regina wears the necklace which are
alike. The second frame shows Cady imitating Regina‟s gesture which is always
done before Regina leaves her friend. Janis and Damian are in wonder when they
see Cady practices this gesture. In the movie, it is shown that Janis and Damian
gaze each other after Cady leaves. Although they do not speak, the audience can
see that they begin to realize that Cady has changed. The third frame clearly
shows that Cady is putting on make-up in her classroom. The three pictures shows
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Cady‟s efforts to be like Regina and the last one is the most explicit in
representing the image of girl with Girl Power values as a girl with traditional
values does not put on make-up in public area. Make-up, fashionable clothes and
chic hair-style Cady wears are the signs of girls‟ self-actualization and self-
expression which are the values of Girl Power.
Cady longs to be like Regina as in her view Regina is the queen bee, the
trendsetter, the top kick, and the center of attention. Cady admires Regina because
of the power Regina has and she wants the power. She is aware that popularity
means power. Since then, she wants to beat Regina not only because she wants to
take revenge against Regina or because she wants to win Aaron but also because
of her obsession to be more popular than Regina. Again, the value of traditional
girl, which considers romance is women‟s main goal, is left. Cady‟s efforts to beat
Regina are not just for winning Aaron but also for gaining Regina‟s throne.
Winning Aaron is not enough for her because she also wants power for her own
existence, a so called popularity. She considers Regina her role model but she
wants to be more than her.
When finally Cady can kick Regina out of the Plastics and get the status of
queen bee, she begins to aware of her power. The power she gets somehow makes
her more confident. This appears in the way she walks in the following frames
(see figure 8).
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Figure 8. The way Cady walks when she has become a queen bee
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
Long shot is used in both the frames to show the way Cady walks. In the frames,
it can be seen that Cady walks confidently followed by her new worker bees,
Karen and Gretchen. She unhesitatingly swings her hands freely. She gazes
straight ahead. It is totally in contrast to the way she walks when she has not been
popular which is shown in the frames below (see figure 9).
Figure 9. Cady‟s gesture and way of walking when she hangs out
with the Plastics before she becomes popular
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
Both the frames above show the scene in which Cady hangs out with the Plastics
before she becomes popular. In the first frame, while walking, Cady is bent over
and both her hands link together in front of her body. In the second frame, Cady
appears talking with the Plastics and her hands keep linking together in front of
her body. She does not swing her hands freely when she walks and this somehow
shows her modesty. The way she walks and her gesture do not indicate that she is
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a girl with Girl Power values. Cady‟s power due to popularity leads to a change
in her body language.
The power of popularity also changes Cady‟s fashion. In figure 8, it can be
seen that she wears polka-dot mini skirt and pink tank top. Cady who usually
wears modest clothes before she becomes popular now wears girly revealing
outfits exposing her physical appeal. At this point, Cady cannot be considered a
girl with traditional values as she does not wear modest clothes. She cannot also
be called a feminist girl as she wears feminine outfits and shows feminine gesture
whereas feminist claims that girl or woman cannot be feminist and feminine at the
same time as feminist considers these identities are oppositional. Moreover, Cady
wears revealing and form-fitting clothes which according to feminists are created
by patriarchy as such outfits make girl or woman become object of male gaze or
in other words victim of patriarchy. Here, the ambivalence of Girl Power values
brought by Cady emerges. Cady seems going along with patriarchy as she wears
revealing and form-fitting clothes but she also wants power for her self and does
not want to be considered a passive object or victim. In this case, it is very clear
that Cady represents Girl Power values as she does not consider herself a victim
for she can expresses her personal freedom by wearing revealing and form-fitting
clothes based on her personal choice not compulsion from other persons. By
wearing the clothes, she also expresses her sexual freedom because she fully
realizes that she can be the center of attention and she somehow finds pleasure of
being the center of attention because it gives her personal power. What she seeks
is actually not male gaze but rather her own “self-regulating narcissistic
80
individualistic gaze” (Adriaens). Therefore, Cady actually positions her self not as
an object but rather a subject since she can get benefit from her position as an
object as she holds social power due to male admiration which somehow leads to
female admiration toward her.
Anyway, the power Cady gets due to her popularity makes her think that
she can drive people around her. In the dialogue when Janis asks her to go to her
art show, Cady tells her that she cannot come as she has had a plan to go to
Madison with her parents. But when her parents ask her about their plan to go to
Madison, Cady tells them that she has had a plan to go to her friend‟s art show.
Cady learns to drive everybody around her, telling lies to her parents and friends
as she has had her own plan to hold a gathering with the rest members of the
Plastics, Aaron Samuels, and some persons she thinks cool and popular to
maintain her status as a queen bee. Cady‟s awareness of her popularity is shown
in the dialogue between Cady and Aaron in math class when Cady invites Aaron
in the gathering which will be held in her house.
Cady : Hey. I'm having a small get-together at my house
tomorrow night.
Aaron : Is Regina going?
Cady : No. Do you think I'm an idiot?
Cady : No, it's just gonna be a few cool people, and
you better be one of them, byotch.
Aaron : Fine, I'll go.
In the dialogue, Cady tells that only a few cool people who will be invited in the
get-together. It means that Cady considers herself a cool person, and she wants
Aaron to be one of them who come. Cady begins to limit her social relatedness as
she only associates with people she thinks cool.
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Thinking that she is popular, Cady as if feels having power in approaching
Aaron. Cady who some time ago has been passive becomes more confident even
aggressive. In the scene when Cady and Aaron are in Cady‟s room at the night she
holds get-together in her house, Cady talks to Aaron in aggressive manner. The
scene shows how Cady aggressively gets her face closer to Aaron‟s face.
Figure 10. Cady talks with Aaron in aggressive manner
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the first frame, we can see that Cady‟s hand hold Aaron‟s shoulder. In the
second frame, Cady‟s face gets closer to Aaron‟s face. This is impossible done by
Cady if she does not think she has power. As she thinks she has power, she thinks
she can get everything she wants including Aaron. Therefore, she dares to express
her feeling aggressively. At this point, again, Cady represents Girl Power values.
She is confident and knows that she has power to get what she wants. A girl with
Girl Power values like Cady does not wait until a man wooing her but rather
makes initiative to woo the man she has a crush on first.
At this point, Cady truly violates traditional feminine values which
demand girl to be passive and submissive. According to the traditional values, that
is man who ought to be aggressive, not girl or woman. That is man who is
demanded to take control over woman. A girl who is aggressive in her
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relationship with man considered temptress and claimed to be negative morally
and culturally.
With such manner, Cady certainly cannot also be considered a feminist.
Feminists somehow always see girls and women as object in their relationship
with men. Therefore, flirting aggressively on men for feminists are the same as
providing men chance to make women become object. In this matter, Cady will
be considered a victim of patriarchy. However, postfeminsts will rather see
Cady‟s sexually aggressive manner as girl‟s sexual freedom. Girls are encouraged
to have sexual freedom and express themselves in whatever ways they feel
comfortable. Therefore, Cady‟s sexually aggressive manner is seen as her power
and makes her a subject not an object.
However, in the movie it is depicted that the Cady‟s power creates
boomerang and it is beyond Cady‟s expectation. Aaron gets upset when Cady tells
him that he is Regina‟s property. Aaron thinks that Cady also thinks that he is
such a property, so he leaves her. It is shown in the dialogue below that Aaron
does not like the new image of Cady.
Cady : I just wanted a reason to talk to you.
Aaron : So why didn't you just talk to me?
Cady : Well, because I couldn't.
Because of Regina.
Because you were her property...
Aaron : Her property?
Cady : No. Shut up. Not her property...
Aaron : No, don't tell me to shut up.
Cady : I wasn't...
Aaron : God, you know what?
You are just like a clone of Regina.
Cady : Oh, no, no, listen to me.
You're not listening to me...
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Cady‟s popularity does not make her win Aaron‟s heart. Aaron considers Cady
like a clone of Regina which means that Cady is a girl with negative attitude as
Regina depicted as an evil character in the movie (Regina‟s character will be
explained at the next section). At this point, the character of Aaron is a sign of
patriarchal system as he delivers patriarchal values which require a girl being a
„good‟ girl who is passive and submissive to man. He rejects Cady as Cady does
violation to patriarchal values which is in this matter devaluing his man‟s pride.
Aaron‟s rejection toward Cady somehow is the sign signifying the resistance of
patriarchal system toward girl with Girl Power values who takes control over man
as such action is claimed to be overstepping the bounds.
Whatever popularity or high status in school brings to Cady, popularity is
still a significant factor for Cady‟s character. The climax of Cady‟s popularity is
at the time when she is awarded a Spring Fling Queen in her school and crowned
an imitation crown made of plastic. It is astonishing that Cady breaks her crown
into pieces. The plastic crown is the sign of Cady‟s popularity but Cady breaks it.
However, Cady thinks she has lost everything she has; her friends, her boyfriend,
and her parent‟s trust, due to her obsession in chasing the status of queen bee.
This is somehow the sign the filmmakers use to convey that popularity is
something priceless, fake, and insignificant so girls are not supposed to long or
compete for gaining it. The desire to chase popularity or status must be „broken‟,
like the crown broken by Cady. The power of popularity brought here refers to not
something positive as it may bring a person become mean. Indirectly, the
filmmakers transmit the idea that popularity or high social status, which often
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becomes the main goal of many postfeminist girls today, is not something good
for girls.
The idea the filmmakers convey to challenge Girl Power values gets
clearer as in the end of the story Cady is transformed to be a peace loving girl
with ordinary style who befriends everyone and no longer chases power for her
own existence. Cady becomes a „good‟ girl again. However, Cady‟s „good‟ girl
characteristic in the end of the movie is not the same as that in the beginning of
the movie. In the end of the movie, the character of Cady still has been influenced
by Girl Power values. She is a peace loving girl who does not chase for popularity
but at the same time her outward appearance and gesture remain representing Girl
Power values. In the frame below, Cady‟s outfits are likely not too fashionable but
they are not out of date. They are also not revealing clothes which can make her
an object of male gaze but the clothes somehow still make her look attractive.
Her hair is set fashionably, not simple ponytail, so that it also makes her look
fashionable. In the way she walks, Cady is depicted walking confidently and
swinging her hands freely like the way she walks when she has been a queen bee.
It can be said that in the end of the movie, Cady combines both the values of
traditional heroine and Girl Power values.
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Figure 11. Cady‟s appearance and gesture in the end of the movie
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
2. Regina George, the Queen Bee
Figure 12. Regina George, the queen bee who fulfills American beauty standard
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the movie, Regina George, the queen bee of the Plastics, is depicted as a
girl who fulfills the physical standard of ideal American beauty which is tall, slim,
blonde, and having white skin and blue eyes. In the film, the figure of Regina,
whose name means “queen” in Latin, is introduced to the audience through the
scene when Damian introduces the member of the Plastics one by one to Cady. In
the frame, Regina is framed by medium shot combined with slow motion. She is
86
lifted by the boys heading for the school yard. The frame uses medium shot in
order for the audience can see her figure clearly. Slow motion is used to dramatize
her first appearance, to show her charm, as Damian says that she is the queen bee
while the other members of the Plastics are just the worker bees. The next frame
shows Regina walking, approaching the other members of the Plastics, Gretchen
Wieners and Karen Smith. In the frame, the side view of Regina is shot in
medium shot to show her slim body which is considered ideal for women today.
Her tight sport outfits also support in showing Regina‟s slim body.
Beside her almost perfect physical appearance, Regina is also depicted
wealthy. In the movie, her wealth is shown with her silver Lexus car and beautiful
big house. In one scene, a girl student who adores Regina tells that Regina has
Fendi pursues. Lexus car, beautiful big house, and Fendi pursues is the signs
signify Regina‟s wealth as all of those things are surely expensive so that only
rich person who can own them.
Like the meaning of her name, Regina is adored by many people in North
Shore High School. Boys want to date her and girls want to befriend her. Physical
appearance and wealth are however pictured in this movie as key points for
popularity in high school. Popularity is one of the ways to have power, so Regina
uses her popularity to hold social authority in the school. She manipulates people
to be under her feet. Many girls in the school want to be like Regina or at least
become her friend. By being friend of Regina, they think they are important so
that their social status in the school will be higher. The following are the
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statements of North Shore High School students in the movie justifying Regina‟s
status in the school.
“Regina George is flawless.”
“She has two Fendi purses and a silver Lexus.”
“I hear her hair's insured for $.”
“I hear she does car commercials. In Japan.”
“Her favorite movie is Varsity blues.”
“One time, she met John Stamos on a plane. And he told her
she was pretty.”
“One time, she punched me in the face. It was awesome.”
In the movie, Regina, despite her high status in her school, is shown as
antagonist, an evil character who becomes Cady‟s adversary. She is considered
evil because she cannot fulfill the values of „good‟ girl embraced by mainstream
society. Regina is depicted challenging traditional values of femininity. She does
what a „good‟ girl is not supposed to do. What are the values of „good‟ girl
challenged by Regina in the movie actually?
There are so many things shown in the movie supporting the judgment that
Regina is depicted breaking the values of „good‟ girl. First, Regina often uses
rude words when she speaks and expresses anger frankly. In the movie, Regina
may wear feminine outfits, like skirt or pink jacket, but her manner in speaking
does not fulfill the values of traditional femininity. She dares to say swear words.
Everyone knows that it challenges the values of traditional femininity as „good‟
girl is demanded to be gentle in speaking. According to Lowe and Graham,
“There is little empirical evidence on female/male use of swear words. What there
is, is research to show the strong stereotype we have of men swearing more” (as
cited in Schollhammer, 2001, p. 25). As we see until today, if rude words are
88
uttered by man, it may not be liked, but it is still acceptable. But if rude words are
uttered by woman, it is unforgiven and considered a shame. In the case of Regina,
she often uses swear words or rude words in expressing her anger as she often
express her anger frankly. Regina as if wants to prove that girl can also do it. By
doing it, she shows her Girl Power values. The traditional femininity requires girls
to hide her anger and expressing it frankly is considered rude and impolite. Thus,
Regina does not fulfill the value. In the movie, the violation of the values shown
in the scene when Regina cries as Aaron leaves her after he finds out that Regina
cheats on him with Shane Oman. Sadly, Regina expresses her anger to Karen as
Karen fails to cheer her up. The dialogue is as follows:
Karen : Did he say why?
Regina : Somebody told him about Shane Oman.
Gretchen : Who?
Regina : He said some guy on the baseball team.
Karen : Baseball team?
Regina : I gave him everything. I was half a virgin when I
met him.
Karen : You wanna do something fun? You wanna go to Taco
Bell?
Regina : I can't go to Taco Bell, I'm on an all-carb diet.
God, Karen, you are so stupid!
In the dialogue, Karen asks Regina to go to Taco Bell, a place where certainly
people can consume food as Regina rejects Karen‟s idea by saying that she is in
all-carbohydrate diet. Karen‟s effort to cheer up Regina is failed as it makes
Regina get angrier and her anger somehow makes her speak rudely to Karen.
In the other scene, Regina expresses her anger when she finds out that the
Kalteen Bars Cady has given to her are not the chocolate to lose weight but rather
to gain weight. Regina expresses her anger by saying swear word „motherfucker‟
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although she just utters part of the word, so that she just say „motherf ‟, as her
saying stops as she throws the chocolate out of her mouth before she screams out
loud finally. Below are the frames showing Regina‟s angry facial expression in
the scene.
Figure 13. Regina‟s angry facial expression in the scene
when she finds out that she is tricked by Cady
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the frames, the angry Regina is shot in close-up to enable the audience to see
her angry facial expression clearly. If we analyze the frames by using Barthes
two-semiological system, the black background signifies darkness and the
darkness is the sign of hatred, grudge, disappointment and other negative feelings
in contrast to happiness or joy which is often signified by brightness. Indeed,
generally, darkness is used to suggest fear, evil, the unknown, while light to
suggest security, virtue, truth, joy (Giannetti, 1987, p. 16). In this case, the
darkness also signifies the dark character of Regina. The white jacket Regina uses
is to make Regina‟s figure clear as the color is contrast to the background. The
lighting used in the shots is low-key lighting so despite her bright colour jacket,
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Regina‟s figure looks dark as it is lack of light. Again, the dark image of Regina
here signifies her feeling of hatred and grudge which leads to show her dark or
evil character.
Regina‟s second violation to the values of traditional femininity is that she
is hypocrite. Regina can be considered a hypocritical person as she always pays a
compliment to other person‟s belonging but reproaches it when the person leaves.
This character is shown in the scene when Regina praises a girl‟s skirt in the
school.
Regina : Oh, my God!
I love your skirt.
Where did you get it?
The girl : It was my mom's in the 80's.
Regina : Vintage. So adorable.
The girl : Thanks.
Regina : That is the ugliest F-ing skirt
I've ever seen.
This is done by Regina to create a good image of her in front of everybody to
maintain her popularity. She wants everybody in the school give respect to her. In
relation to traditional values, hypocrisy is not a part of it. A „good‟ girl with
traditional values tends to be honest and sincere. She does not pretend being good
in front of other person while being evil in the back. She is not a devil in disguise.
In other words, what Regina does is opposed to the values.
The third violation is shown by Regina with her manipulative, cunning and
slanderous natures. Cady, the main character, somehow becomes the victim of
Regina‟s manipulation. Cady is a new student in the school and Regina is totally
aware that Cady, despite her unawareness of trend, is beautiful. Regina worries
91
that she can be a threat for her status in the school. To anticipate the worst
possibility may happen, Regina makes Cady under her wings, by inviting her
joining with the Plastics at lunch, so she can be easier in controlling her.
Knowing Cady has a crush on her ex-boyfriend, Regina feels more threatened and
challenged. However, as she is manipulative person, she makes Cady believe that
she will help Cady in winning Aaron. The scene in Halloween party shows the
manipulative way Regina uses to throw Cady down.
In the party, Regina approaches Aaron and begins to talk to him. In this
case, Cady supposes that Regina tries to help her winning Aaron. However, what
happen actually is that Regina tries to slander Cady in order for Aaron loses his
sympathy to Cady. The dialogue between Regina and Aaron in the scene is as
follows:
Regina : I need to talk to you. You know that girl
Cady?
Aaron : Yeah, she's cool. I invited her tonight.
Regina : Well, be careful because she has a huge crush
on you.
Aaron : Really? How do you know?
Regina : Because she told me. She tells everybody. It's
kind of cute, actually. She's like a little
girl. She, like, writes all over her notebook,
"Mrs. Aaron Samuels." And she made this T-
shirt that says "I heart Aaron" and she wears
it under all her clothes.
Aaron : Oh, come on.
Regina : Well, who can blame her? I mean, you're
gorgeous. And OK, look, I'm not saying she's a
stalker, but she saved this Kleenex you used
and she said she's gonna do some kind of
African voodoo with it to make you like her.
Aaron : What?
From the dialogue, it can be seen that Regina is so crafty to throw down a person
who may disturb or threat her existence. She also often makes negative
92
justification about people although she does not have anything to prove it and she
wants everybody to believe it. She is such a gossiper who enjoys adding color to
what she is speaking in order for making it more interesting. In the other dialogue,
the dialogue between Regina and Cady, right after Cady has just had a talk with
Janis about how to crack Regina, Regina‟s slanderous nature again revealed.
Cady : Hey.
Regina : Why were you talking to Janis Ian?
Cady : I don't know, I mean, she's so weird. She just,
you know, came up to me and started talking to me
about crack.
Regina : She's so pathetic. Let me tell you something
about Janis Ian. We were best friends in middle
school. I know, right? It's so embarrassing. I
don't even... Whatever. So then in eighth grade,
I started going out with my first boyfriend,
Kyle, who was totally gorgeous, but then he moved
to Indiana. And Janis was, like, weirdly jealous
of him. Like, if I would blow her off to hang out
with Kyle, she'd be like, "Why didn't you call me
back?" And I'd be like, "Why are you so obsessed
with me?" So then, for my birthday party, which
was an all-girls pool party, I was like, "Janis,
I can't invite you, because I think you're a
lesbian." I mean, I couldn't have a lesbian at my
party. There are gonna be girls there in their
bathing suits. I mean, right? She was a lesbian.
So then her mom called my mom and started yelling
at her. It was so retarded. And then she dropped
out of school because no one would talk to her.
When she came back in the fall for high school,
all of her hair was cut off and she was totally
weird, and now I guess she's on crack.
The most manipulative and slanderous action Regina does is likely to be what she
is done in the case of Burn Book, a book where the Plastics write mean things
about all the girls of junior grade in the school. After she is kicked out of the
Plastics and no longer a queen bee, with her last power, Regina takes revenge by
submitting Burn Book to the principal, Mr. Duvall, and cunningly telling, that
93
Cady, Karen, and Gretchen are the writers of Burn Book. She then spreads the
copies of Burn Book and it causes the girls in the school fights against each other
wildly because of distrusting each other or accusing each other for spreading their
disgrace. To convince the other people that she is not involved, she put her own
picture on the book then writes mean words for herself.
Figure 14. Rude words written by Regina in Burn Books
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
Before Regina gives Burn Book to Mr. Duvall, the audience is likely to suppose
that what Regina writes on the book the night before is addressed to Cady, not for
her own self, as in the scene when she writes it, she is feeling mad to Cady as
Cady has deceived her in the case of Kalteen Bar. In the scene, it is somehow not
shown that Regina put her own picture on the book. But actually, the filmmakers
have given a clue that Regina will do something cunning by showing Regina‟s
cunning facial expression (see Figure 15).
94
Figure 15. Regina‟s cunning facial expression
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
In the frame above, Regina is shot in big close-up to make the audience see
clearly her facial expression. Regina is shown smile although at the time she is
feeling mad. The audience may misinterpret her facial expression to be her
expression due to her satisfied feeling after expressing her anger to Cady by
writing on the book. Whatever the interpretation, in the frame, the dark side of
Regina is revealed. The low-key lighting used in the shot which makes Regina‟s
image and the circumstance dark bring the atmosphere of evil, in this case
Regina‟s evil nature.
Manipulative, cunning, and slanderous are considered evil nature and not
the values of traditional femininity. According to the values, a girl should be
virtuous. As has been explained in the last chapter, one of the categories of
traditional heroine is the heroine of faith and the heroine of faith is not cunning,
manipulative, and slanderous as she is required to be pious and always does good
deed.
The fourth violation Regina does to the values of traditional femininity is
that Regina is bossy and pushy. Toward everyone around her, mainly her parents
and the other members of the Plastics, Regina is too bossy and likes to dominate
95
them. She pushes her parents to give their room to her. She likes her worker bees
in the Plastics serving her and she will be angry if they do not do what she wants.
For example, in the winter talent show, before the Plastics perform their “Jingle
Bell Rock” dance, Regina pushes Gretchen to switch position with Cady as Cady
and Regina were the tallest so they must be in the middle. When Gretchen
complains the idea for it can mess the dance, Regina blinks the fact, getting angry
to Gretchen so Gretchen cannot help obeying her command. Regina fully realizes
that she has her power and she knows that she can drive everyone around her with
the power. When traditional heroine becomes a victim, Regina, on the contrary,
makes other person as her victim. When traditional heroine sacrifices herself for
other persons, Regina makes other persons sacrifice for her. What Regina does is
however in contrast to the values of traditional femininity which require girl to be
submissive and obedient and discourage girl to rule and push other people.
Regina‟s bossy and pushy natures can be in some way a sign of Girl Power
values. But instead of depicting Girl Power something positive, the movie
portrays them as evil as most people still holds the values that girls should be
submissive and do not take any control to her surrounding. Thus, the violation of
these values is considered something negative.
The fifth Regina‟s violation to traditional femininity is that she is sexually
aggressive. In the movie, it is told that Regina has affair both with Aaron Samuels
and Shane Oman. In the beginning, it is told that Regina dumped Aaron for Shane
Oman. Feeling threatened as she finds out that Cady has a crush on Aaron, Regina
wants Aaron back to her to show her supremacy to Cady. She uses Aaron as a
96
mean to achieve victory as well as to prohibit Cady spreads her wings to be a
popular person in the school. As a result, Regina plays the field, both with Aaron
and Shane. Regina‟s sexual aggressiveness is shown in the scene when she
persuades Aaron in the Halloween party to makes him back to her. She kisses
Aaron and says that he is so hot. This action somehow represents Girl Power
values as here Regina shows taking control over Aaron.
Other scene shows Regina has recovered from her sadness after Aaron
leaves her as he finds out that Regina cheats on him with Shane Oman. In the
scene, it is shown that Regina is making out with Shane Oman aggressively as if
she has forgotten Aaron.
Figure 16. Regina takes control over Shane Oman when they make out.
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
According to the values of traditional femininity, girl should be passive,
not aggressive, in her relationship with man. Man is considered the subject, while
girl plays a role as the object, and in this case the object of man, the object of male
gaze or the object of man‟s sexuality. However, Regina does not put herself in the
relationship as the object. She takes the role as the subject. She uses Aaron to
fulfill her desire to beat Cady, to maintain her popularity, as well as her sexual
97
desire. It also happens in her relationship with Shane Oman. Shane Oman is a jock
and in American high school, a jock is stereotypically considered as a popular
person. In Spring Fling, Shane Oman also wins Spring Fling King. So, it is clear
that Shane Oman is depicted a popular student in the school. Regina uses Shane
Oman to maintain her status as a queen bee as a queen bee only hangs out with
high-status man. Besides, she also uses Shane to fulfill her sexual desire. She
makes him the object of pleasure. In the frame above, Regina takes position on the
top. Regina‟s position signifies that she is the one who takes control over the man.
However, it can be concluded that Regina considers man as an object, a property,
a means she uses to fulfill her desire. At this point, Regina reverses what have
been culturally and socially embraced by mainstream society by representing Girl
Power action and values.
The filmmakers‟ idea in opposing the values Girl Power which are shown
by the character of Regina gets clearer in the end of the movie. It is told that
Regina loses her supremacy as the most popular girl in the school by means of
Cady, Janis and Damian‟s sabotage. Sadly, a bus strikes her and makes her get
spine injury. It is told then from Cady‟s monologue that Regina‟s physical
therapist taught her to channel all her rage into sports so that she joins lacrosse
club in her school. Regina‟s appearance changes as she no longer wears mini skirt
or whatever the member of the Plastics usually wears but wears long-sleeved
sweater and trousers instead. She also sets her hair in modest style. She is no
longer an ill-tempered girl as it is shown in the movie that she smiles kindly at
Cady and Karen when she passes them by. A glamour Regina changes into a
98
modest Regina. An ill-tempered Regina changes into a peaceful Regina. Although
she is not depicted becoming a girl with total traditional femininity values like
“good‟ girl in classic fiction, the modern values of femininity in Regina‟s
character which are considered evil are dumped thus finally she tends to be a
„good‟ girl of modern era.
Fig.17. Regina‟s appearance after joining sport club
Mean Girls (U.S.A., 2004), directed by Mark Waters. Paramount Pictures.
99
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
A. Conclusion
The movie Mean Girls has to do with Girl Power as a part of postfeminist
movement. From the analysis in the previous chapter, it can be seen that both the
primary characters in the movie, Cady Heron and Regina George, represent Girl
power values with their own ways. Cady Heron, who formerly is a „good‟ girl,
pulls out her traditional feminine values and transforms into a popular girl who
becomes a queen bee that has social power due to her popularity. Girl Power
values embraced by the character of Regina is also not less significant. She is
depicted as a girl who has power to control everybody around her. Both the girls
are depicted violates the traditional values of femininity embraced by mainstream
society as they do what „good‟ girl is not supposed to do.
However, although Cady Heron and Regina George are shown as the
characters that represent Girl Power, their actions representing the values are as if
discouraged by the filmmakers. By analyzing Cady‟s character, we can come to
know the stand the filmmakers take in viewing popularity as the goal of many
girls who holds Girl Power values today. First, the filmmakers want to say to the
audience that popularity may lead people to change and in this case into negative
one as in this movie Cady is shown becoming selfish, telling lies to her parents
and friends and betraying her friends which are the attitudes considered negative
by mainstream society. The power popularity brings here is portrayed not
100
something positive as it may bring a person to become mean. Second, the
filmmakers want to tell the audience that popularity does not mean a power
warranting a girl to get everything she wants as in the movie Aaron Samuels is
depicted rejecting Cady although she has become popular. The discouragement of
Girl Power is also done toward the character of Regina George. Despite her high
status in her school and people admiration toward her, Regina George is depicted
as evil in the movie. By positioning Regina as the antagonist character of the
movie, the filmmakers lead the audience to judge the actions done by Regina in
the movie as culturally and morally negative. It gets clearer in the last session of
the movie that the filmmakers view Girl Power as something that is not
appropriate for girls by depicting both primary characters transformed into peace
loving girl representing „good‟ girls of the era who go along with mainstream
society‟s values which are dominated by patriarchal system. It is as if the
filmmakers want to transmit the idea that if girl holds power in society, her power
will goes too far and everything will not work well and she will become a mean
girl.
The discouragement of Girl Power in the movie can be the reason why the
filmmakers use the word „girls‟ in the title of the movie instead of the word
„grrls‟. In the last chapter, it has been explained that the word „girl‟ tends to be
interpreted and defined in patriarchal perspective. It can be understood that the
filmmakers have given a clue about their standpoint which discourages Girl
Power and supports patriarchy in conveying the idea of the movie by using the
word „girls‟ in the title.
101
It has to be point out that the director of the movie, Mark Waters and the
producer, Lorne Michaels (“Mean Girls: Movie Credits”), are male. But it is naive
to say that the discouragement of Girl Power in the movie is only because that the
director and the producer are male although the fact can be a consideration. It also
cannot be denied that Tina Fey, the scriptwriter who is female, gives great
contribution in shaping Girl Power values in the movie. But as the movie is a
mass media product, the filmmakers create the movie going along with the values
embraced by mainstream society in this case patriarchal values.
Admittedly, we are often driven by media to label something as positive or
negative. As in the case in the movie, we are led to see girl who takes control over
everyone around her as negative. But it is important to see Girl Power actions and
values shown by Cady Heron and Regina George in different point of view. Many
positive things can be drawn from the values. With Girl Power, girls can have
self-determination. Girls can use their distinct characteristic as their source of
power instead of imitating men‟s behavior to prove that they are equal with men.
Girls will not also become miserable helpless victims who desperately wait man‟s
help. The values teach girls to be independent. The girl holding the values is likely
not always becoming a subject in her relationship with man but rather an object.
But when she becomes an object, she uses the position to get benefit from man
like power, control or money and that is why in the same time she also becomes a
subject. Hopefully, the number of movie promoting Girl Power as positive
ideology increases as Girl Power values raise woman‟s value as a person. “Hold
tight, get ready, Girl Power is coming at you” (Spice Girls).
102
B. Recommendation
The research analyzes a movie entitled Mean Girls promoting Girl Power
ideology and movement. The issue is a contemporary issue which is still
debatable until today. Some argue that Girl Power raises the value of girls and
women as what has become the standpoint of the research result. However some
others still claim that Girl Power is a movement devaluing women as it violates
traditional femininity in one hand and considered antifeminist movement as it
goes along with patriarchy as well on the other hand.
It is recommended that the other researchers who are interested in
conducting the research about Girl Power can conduct other research promoting
Girl Power as an ideology and movement which can raise women‟s value. Such
research can give contribution to American studies generally, and women studies
specifically. Hopefully the research may become reference for the next research.
By doing the research with the point of view which is different from mainstream
society‟s point of view, the research expectedly can give the broader knowledge to
the readers who are interested in American studies especially women study.
103
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