genetics and heredity genetics the study of heredity, how traits are passed from parent to offspring...

Genetics and Heredity

Genetics The study of heredity, how traits are passed

from parent to offspring

x =

or

or

The study of heredity started with the work of Gregor Mendel and his

pea plant garden

Mendel was an Austrian Monk that lived in the mid 1800’s

Inheritance Theory Prior to Mendel

1. Traits “blended”

• Trait: characteristics to be passed from parent to offspring

• “bloodlines”: thought traits passed through the blood

2. Problem with blending: cannot account for unexpected traits

Mendel noted that the size of pea plants varied. He cross-bred these pea plants to find some surprising results.

Steps of Mendel's

Experiment

Mendel’s cross between tall pea plants yielded all tall pea plants. His cross between small pea plants yielded all small pea plants.

Mendels’ cross between tall pea plants and small pea plants yielded all tall pea plants.

X =

x =

X =

Here we crossed two peas which contained both tall and short information.

T

T

t

t

Tt

Tt

TT

tt

When Mendel crossed these second generation tall pea plants he ended up with 1 out 4 being small.

x =

A cross in which only one trait is studied is called monohybrid cross .

5.  Mendel named every generation: Starting generation – P (parent) generation.

The following offspring generation was called

F1 - first generation (daughter generation),

F2 - second filial generation, and so on.

P F1 F2

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND•Seed coat color - white or GRAY

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND•Seed coat color - white or GRAY •Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND•Seed coat color - white or GRAY •Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH•Pod color - yellow or GREEN

Mendelian GeneticsMendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants including:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND•Seed coat color - white or GRAY •Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH•Pod color - yellow or GREEN•Flower position - terminal or AXIAL

Mendelian GeneticsWe will work with the following three:

•Height - short or TALL•Seed color - green or YELLOW•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND•Seed coat color - white or GRAY •Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH•Pod color - yellow or GREEN•Flower position - terminal or AXIAL

Mendel’s work led him to the understanding that traits such as plant height are carried in pairs of information not by single sets of information.

-Carrying the information are chromosomes. -Chromosomes are made up of sections called genes. -Genes are made up of DNA

DNA

D.N.A. - Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Molecule made of:

1. Deoxy Sugar

2. Combination of four nitrogen bases

Either: a. Guanine

b. Cytocine

c. Thymine

d. Adenine

The sum total of combinations that these four bases are capable of creating are greater than all the stars visible in the night time sky

DNA

• Nitrogen bases pair up– Cytosine & Guanine– Thymine & Adenine

• Pairing creates a ladder shape

• Angle of bonds creates a twist

Ladder and Twist produces the famous

“Double Helix”

DNA

• DNA resides in all cells– Inside the nucleus

• Each strand forms a chromosome

Cell Nucleus

DNA

DNA

DNA is found in all living cells– It controls all functions

inside a cell– It stores all the genetic

information for an entire living organism

– Single cell like an amoeba

– Multi cell like a human

Genetics

Small sections of DNA are responsible for a “trait”. These small sections are called “Genes”.– Gene - A segment of DNA that codes for a

specific trait– Trait - A characteristic an organism

can pass on to it’s offspring through DNA

Gene

Phenotype

• Phenotype – Physical characteristics

Genotype

• Phenotype – Physical characteristics

• Genotype – Genes we inherit from our parents

Phenotype

– Facial structure

Notice the similarities:

Phenotype

– Facial structure– Eyes

Notice the similarities:

Phenotype

– Facial structure– Eyes– Smile

Notice the similarities:

Phenotype

– Facial structure– Eyes– Smile– Ears

Notice the similarities:

Phenotype

– Facial structure– Eyes– Smile– Ears– Nose

Notice the similarities:

Phenotype

– Facial structure– Eyes– Smile– Ears– Nose– Neck

Notice the similarities:

Genetics

There are three basic kinds of genes:– Dominant - A gene that is always expressed

and hides others– Recessive - A gene that is only expressed

when a dominant gene isn’t present– Codominant - Genes that work together to

produce a third trait

Predicting Inheritance

To determine the chances of inheriting a given trait, scientists use Punnett squares and symbols to represent the genes.

UPPERCASE letters are used to represent dominant genes.

lowercase letters are used to represent recessive genes.

Predicting Inheritance

For example:T = represents the gene for TALL in pea plantst = represents the gene for short in pea plants

So:TT & Tt both result in a TALL plant, because T is dominant over t. t is recessive. tt will result in a short plant.

Remember there are two genes for every trait! One from each parent.

Predicting Inheritance

For example:T = represents the gene for TALL in pea plantst = represents the gene for short in pea plants

So:TT & Tt both result in a TALL plant, because T is dominant over t. t is recessive. tt will result in a short plant.

Remember there are two genes for every trait!

Mendels’ Principle of Dominance

Some genes (alleles) are dominant and others are recessive. The phenotype (trait) of a dominant gene will be seen when it is paired with a recessive gene.

Predicting Inheritance

Let’s cross a totally dominant tall plant (TT) with a short plant (tt).Each plant will give only one of its’ two genes to the offspring or F1 generation.

TT x tt

T T t t

Predicting Inheritance

Let’s cross a totally dominant tall plant (TT) with a short plant (tt).Each plant will give only one of its’ two genes to the offspring or F1 generation.

TT x tt

T T t t

Mendels’ “Law” of Segregation

Each gene (allele) separates from the other so that the offspring get only one gene from each parent for a given trait.

Punnett Squares

Tt Tt

Tt Tt

The genes from one parent go here.

The genes from the other parent go here.

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

Punnett Squares

T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

F1 generation

Interpreting the Results

The genotype for all the offspring is Tt.The genotype ratio is:

Tt - 4/4

The phenotype for all the offspring is tall.The phenotype ratio is:

tall - 4/4

So Let’s Apply What We Know

Genetics

Dominant and Recessive Genes• A dominant gene will always

mask a recessive gene.

• A “widows peak” is dominant, not having a widows peak is recessive.

• If one parent contributes a gene for a widows peak, and the other parent doesn’t, the off- spring will have a widows peak.

Widows Peak

GeneticsWe can use a “Punnet Square” to determine

what pairs of genes Lilly has

Ww ww

Ww www

w

W w

Assume Lilly is heterozygous Ww

Assume Herman is homoozygous recessive ww

• A Punnet Square begins with a box 2 x 2

• One gene is called an “allele”

• One parents pair is split into alleles on top, the other along the side

• Each allele is crossed with the other allele to predict the traits of the offspring

GeneticsNotice that when Lilly is crossed with Herman,

we would predict that half the offspring would be “Ww”, the other half would be “ww”

Half “Ww”, Heterozygous, and will have a widows peak

Half “ww”, Homozygous, and will not have a widows peak

Ww ww

Ww www

w

W w

Genetics

Punnet Square - A tool we use for predicting the traits of an offspring– Letters are used as symbols to designate genes– Capital letters are used for dominant genes– Lower case letters are used for

recessive genes– Genes always exist in pairs

Genetics

A Widows Peak, dominant, would be symbolized with a capital “W”, while no widows peak, recessive, would be symbolized with a

lower case “w”.

Father - No Widows Peak - w

Mother - Has a Widows Peak - W

Genetics

All organisms have two copies of each gene, one contributed by the father, the other contributed by the mother.

Homozygous - Two copies of the same gene

Heterozygous - Two different genes

Genetics

For the widows peak:

WW - has a widows peak Homozygous dominant

Ww - has a widows peak Heterozygous

ww - no widows peak Homozygous recessive

Genetics

Since Herman has no widows peak, he must be “ww”, since Lilly has a widows peak she could be either “WW” or “Ww”

Definitely ww Homozygous

recessive

Either Ww Heterozygous

or WW Homozygous dominant

GeneticsAnother possibility is that Lilly might be

“WW”, homozygous dominant.

Ww

Www

w

W W

Assume Lilly is homozygous dominant WW

Assume Herman is homoozygous ww

Ww

Ww

Notice that all the offspring are heterozygous and will have a widows peak

Genetics

So which is true? Is Lilly homozygous dominant (WW) or is she heterozygous (Ww)?

Ww

Www

w

W W

Ww

Ww

Ww ww

Ww www

w

W w

Genetics

Ww

Www

w

W W

Ww

Ww

Ww ww

Ww www

w

W w

If Lilly were heterozygous, then 1/2 of their offspring should have a widows peak, 1/2 shouldn’t

If Lilly were homozygous, all of their children will have a widows peak

Genetics

Recall that Herman and Lilly had another offspring, Marylin. She had no widows peak, therefore, Lilly must be heterozygous.

Genetics

So, back to the original question. What color hair will the offspring of Prince Charming and Snow White have?

Genetics

Hair color is different from widows peak, no color is truly dominant. – Brown and blond are the two, true traits– Homozygous conditions produce either brown

or blond hair– Heterozygous conditions produce red hair

Genetics

For Snow White to have brown hair she must be homozygous dominant, “BB”, a blond Prince Charmin must be homozygous recessive, “bb”.

Bb

Bbb

b

B B

Bb

Bb

Genetics

Hair color is a perfect example of a trait

Prince Charming is blond

Snow White has dark hair

What color hair should their children have?

Genetics

All the offspring from Prince Charming and Snow White will therefore be heterozygous, “Bb”, and since hair color is codominant….. all their children will have red hair.

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Cell Division (Meiosis)

1. A process of cell division where the number of chromasomes is cut in half

2. Occurs in gonads (testes, ovaries, stamens, etc)

3. Makes gametes (sperm, ova, pollen, etc)