fundamental object-control skills of childhood · 1/13/2011  · fundamental skill ~ object-control...

Fundamental Object-

Control Skills of

Childhood

Chapter 13

When the child is able to

ambulate freely, the hands

are free to use in a new

fundamental skill ~ object-

control

Overarm Throwing

• One of the most complex fundamental

movements

• Can be divided into 3 phases

– Preparatory phase

• All movements directed away from the intended

line of projection

– Execution phase

• All movements performed in the direction of the

throw

– Follow-through

• All movements following the release of the

projectile

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Langendorfer (1980)

In Step 2, note how the ball is brought up beside the head with upward humerus flexion and exaggerated elbow flexion

Notice the lack of a preparatory backswing in Step 1

Developmental Stages of Throwing

Option 1 is a circular overhead preparatory Movement with elbow extended

Option 2 is a preparatory phase using a lateral swing backward

Step 3

Developmental Stages of Throwing

By the 2nd grade, boys use Step 4

Option 3 uses a simple vertical lift of the throwing arm

Step 3

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Throwing motion is posterior-anterior in direction

• Feet do not move

• Little trunk rotation

• Force for projecting the ball comes from hip flexion,

shoulder protraction, and elbow extension

Stage 1

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• More rotation of the body

• Performer may step forward (ipsilateral or contralateral

pattern)

• Arm brought forward in transverse plane

• Form resembles a sling

Stage 2

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Note the ipsilateral arm-leg action

• Ball is placed into throwing position above the shoulder by a vertical and posterior motion of the arm at the time that the ipsilateral leg is moving forward

• Little or no rotation of the spine and hips

• Follow-through includes flexion at the hips and some trunk rotation

Stage 3

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Movement is contralateral

• Little or no rotation of the hips and spine during wind-up

– Motion of trunk and arms resembles stages 1 and 3

• Stride forward with contralateral leg provides a wide base

of support and stability

Stage 4

Developmental Stages of Throwing

• Mature movement pattern

Stage 5

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

Factors that Influence Overarm

Throwing Performance

• Instruction

• Does instruction facilitate development or

is improvement due to the year-to-year

improvement of the fundamental skill?

– Instruction significantly affects changes in

throwing technique, but not greater horizontal

ball velocities

• Velocity should not be used as the sole

index in the evaluation of the over-arm

throw

Factors that Influence Overarm

Throwing Performance

• Knowledge

– Awkward throwers possess significantly less declarative knowledge than more talented throwers

– Awkward throwers lack knowledge in

• Ball size

• Stepping forward with the opposite foot

• Throwing low

• Ability to recognize correct form from a side view

• Knowledge of throwing influences performance

Factors that Influence Overarm

Throwing Performance

• Instructional cues – Identification of critical cues facilitates

throwing performance

• Critical cues – “Take a long step toward the target with the

opposite foot of your throwing arm”

– “Take your arm straight down, then stretch it way back to make an „L‟ with the arm”

– “Watch the target and release the ball when you see your fingers”

Factors that Influence Overarm

Throwing Performance

• Ball size – When ball diameter is scaled up, a

transitional point is reached where the performer resorts to a less mature throwing pattern in the backswing and forearm components

– As diameter increases, there is a transition from one-handed grasping to two-handed grasping

– Ball size and hand width are important in throwing performance

Factors that Influence Overarm

Throwing Performance

• Angle of ball release – In those using an “arm-dominated” throwing

pattern, the ball is released too early resulting in an upward trajectory (49o)

• May be linked to poor grasp, ball weight, and ball size

– A more mature throwing pattern observed at a 15o angle of release

– Older children release the ball at an angle between 25-28o

Accounting for Gender Differences in

Overarm Throwing

• The greatest gender differences for all

fundamental skills is found with throwing

• Success in distance throwing of boys is

associated with

– Heredity

• Arm muscle mass

– Sociocultural factors

• Male adult in the home

Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm

Throwing

• By age 9, girls throw only 49% as far as

boys due to differences in

– Grip strength

– Height

– Upper-body strength

Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm

Throwing

• The best predictors of throwing development in

girls are

– Participation in sport

– Presence of an older brother in the household

• TV watching is negatively correlated with

throwing performance

• The best predictors of throwing development in

boys are

– Father’s sport involvement

– Father-son skill play

Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm

Throwing

• Can gender differences in throwing be accounted for by factors involving human evolution?

• Perhaps

• Throwing behaviors were more prevalent among men in our early history – Defense

– Hunting

Developmental Aspects:

Two-handed Catching

2-year-old 5-year-old 15-year-old

•Focuses on the

tosser, not the ball

•Maintains a static

position

•Reacts too late

•Can anticipate some of

the ball’s changing flight

pattern

•Can focus on thrower,

ball, and own hands

• Movements are correct,

but are carried out in

slow motion

•Can predict the ball’s

flight

•Carries out preparatory

sequences to catch the

ball

•Movements are

smooth

(Kay, 1970)

Developmental Aspects:

Two-handed Catching

• This 6-year old child

is showing fear in

reaction to a thrown

ball

• Seefeldt speculates

that fear of a

projectile is learned

from earlier failures

Developmental Sequences for

Two-Handed Catching

• Arms are directly in front with elbows extended;

palms facing upward and inward

• Arms and hands attempt to secure the ball by

holding it against the chest

Stage 1

Developmental Sequences for

Two-Handed Catching

• Elbows are slightly flexed

• Arms encircle the ball against the chest

• Arm action initiated before ball contact

Stage 2

Developmental Sequences for

Two-Handed Catching

• Child prepares to receive ball with arms flexed and

extended

• Substage 1: child uses chest as first contact point

• Substage 2: child attempts to catch ball with hands

Stage 3

Developmental Sequences for

Two-Handed Catching

• Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the

elbows and presenting the arms ahead of the

frontal plane

• Ball is caught with the hands alone Stage 4

Developmental Sequences for

Two-Handed Catching

• Many children encounter difficulty when they are required

to move toward the object

• Mature catcher “gives” with the catch

Stage 5

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

Factors That Influence

Catching Performance

• Ball size

• Ball and background color

• Ball velocity

• Trajectory angel

• Vision and viewing time

• Instruction

• Knowledge and experience

• Catching on the run

• Catching with a glove

Striking

• A fundamental movement in which a

designated body part or some implement

is used to project an object

– Bare hand against volleyball

– Baseball ball

– Tennis racquet

Developmental Aspects of

One-and Two-handed Striking

• Inexperienced striker

– No steps taken or step

taken with homolateral

leg

– Up-down striking motion

– Little backswing

– No rotation of trunk or

hip

– Rigid arm; little wrist

snap

• Experienced striker – Forward step with

opposite foot taken

– Full backswing

– Swings implement horizontally

– Trunk and hip rotation

– Coordinated wrist snap

Developmental Aspects of

One-and Two-handed Striking

• Motion is posterior-anterior in direction

• Elbows are fully flexed

• Feet remain stationary

Stage 1

Developmental Aspects of

One-and Two-handed Striking

• Feet are stationary or right or left foot may

receive the weight

• Unitary rotation of hip and trunk

• Bat moves in transverse plane

Stage 2

Developmental Aspects of

One-and Two-handed Striking

• Shift of weight to the front-supporting foot in an

ipsilateral pattern

• Trunk rotation-derotation is decreased

• Bat is swung in an oblique-vertical plane

Stage 3

Developmental Aspects of

One-and Two-handed Striking

• Mature striking pattern Stage 4

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

Stationary Ball Bouncing

• The inexperienced dribbler slaps at the ball

Stationary Ball Bouncing

• The mature dribbler fully extends the arm

• Retracts the arm when contact is made

• Hand maintains contact with the ball

• Ball is pushed, not slapped

Kicking

• Performer is usually near the ball

• Thigh of kicking leg moves forward

• Knee extension occurs after contact

Stage 1

Kicking

• Hyperextension at hip and flexion at knee

• Kicking leg moves forward with knee flexed

• Arm-leg opposition occurs during kick

• Force of kick usually not sufficient to move the body forward

Stage 2

Kicking

• One or more steps taken on approach

• Kicking foot stays nears surface as it

approaches ball

• Knee begins to extend prior to contact

• Arm-leg opposition

Stage 3

Kicking

• Mature kicking pattern

• Running start

• Last step taken involves a leap step onto the support foot

Stage 4

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

Punting

• Ball may be held in both hands as the punting foot lifts

forward and upward to push the ball

• Ball may be tossed up; ball may be bounced

• Flexion at the hip and knee from stationary start

Stage 1

Punting

• Stationary start

• Ball held in both hands and dropped or tossed forward

• Nonsupport leg is flexed

• Kicking force is more upward

Stage 2

Punting

• Forward motion

• Ball released forward and downward direction

• Knee flexed at 90 0

• Follow-through will carry punter forward

Stage 3

Punting

• Rapid approach with culminating leap

• Ball contacted at or below knee height

• Momentum of swinging leg carries the punter off the

ground

Stage 4