from the sea to the stars: the forgotten journeys …...2 from the sea to the stars: the forgotten...

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FromtheSeatotheStars:TheForgottenJourneysofthePhilippines’AncientExplorers

by

TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

B.A.English,UniversityofthePhilippines,2001

SUBMITTEDTOTHEPROGRAMINCOMPARATIVEMEDIASTUDIES/WRITING

INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF

MASTEROFSCIENCEINSCIENCEWRITING

ATTHE

MASSACHUSETTSINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY

SEPTEMBER2018

©TimothyJamesM.Dimacali.Allrightsreserved.

TheauthorherebygrantsMITpermissiontoreproduceandtodistributepubliclypaper

andelectroniccopiesofthisthesisdocumentinwholeorinpartinanymediumnow

knownorhereaftercreated.

SignatureofAuthor:_________________________________________________________________________________

DepartmentofComparativeMediaStudies/Writing

May25,2018

Certifiedby:___________________________________________________________________________________________

MarciaBartusiak

ProfessorofthePracticeofScienceWriting

ThesisSupervisor

Acceptedby:__________________________________________________________________________________________

SethMnookin

ProfessorofScienceWriting

Director,GraduatePrograminScienceWriting

2

FromtheSeatotheStars:TheForgottenJourneysofthePhilippines’AncientExplorers

by

TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

SubmittedtothePrograminComparativeMediaStudies/WritingonMay25,2018

inPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeof

MasterofScienceinScienceWriting

ABSTRACT

Linguistic,genetic,andarchaeologicalevidenceindicatethatthePhilippineshasbeen

inhabitedbyhumansformanythousandsofyears.Bywhatmeanstheearliestsettlers

arrivedinthearchipelagoisstillamystery,butagrowingbodyofevidencepointstothe

likelihoodthattheypossessedseafaringtechnology.Ifso,thenmodernFilipinos—whoare

evennowmakingtheirfirsttentativestepsintospace—areheirstoarichheritageof

exploration,thestoryofwhichhasyettobefullytold.

ThesisSupervisor:MarciaBartusiak

Title:ProfessorofthePracticeofScienceWriting

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Tomyfamily,classmates,professors,andfriends:

Letusgoamongthestars.

Ely,akalakobagagawinmoanglahatpatiangthesisko?

Pinansinkonamanangbagongt-shirtmo.

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AsitmadeitswayabovethetipofAfricaonanAprileveningin2016,theInternational

SpaceStationdeployedasmallbutveryspecialpayloadoutintothenight:ashinysilver

andgoldcube,nobiggerthanakitchenstove.

Themicrosatellitehurtledsilentlyintoorbit,ahumbleaffairwithlittlemorethanabasic

telemetrysystem,threeonboardcameras,andasolararrayforpower.Allitcoulddo—allit

wasbuilttodo—wassendasteadystreamofphotosofEarthandalogofitslocationback

toitsmakers,untilgravityinevitablywonoverandpulleditoutoftheskyinafewshort

years.

Itborenomarkings,nohintofitsorigins,noindicationofthemanythousandsofman-

hoursoflaborspentinitscarefulcrafting.Theonlysignofitsprovenancewasinitsname,

loggedneatlyintothespacestation’smanifest:Diwata1.

TakenfromancientPhilippinefolklore,diwataisoftentranslatedintoEnglishas“fairy”or

“nymph”anddescribedinmuchthesameway:asanephemeralentity,athingoftheair.

ButthistinycreatureofmythwasmuchmorepowerfulthanitsimpishWestern

counterparts—itwasalsoreveredasaprotectorspiritthatbestowedblessingsonthose

whorespecteditshomeandcultivateditsfavor.

Andherewasamodern-daydiwata,flittingacrossthefirmament,joiningthecelestial

pantheonofspacefaringnations,whoseprogramslikewisedrewinspirationfromtheir

respectivemythologies:Apollo.Bhaskara.Garuda.Itwasanaptnameindeedforthefirst

fullyPhilippinemadeandownedsatellite,thecountry’sfirsttentativestepintospace.

ButitwasalsosomethingmuchmoreforastronomerRogelMariSese,thesquare-jawed

yetsoft-spokenheadofthenewlymintedPhilippineSpaceAgency.Hefirmlyseesthe

auspiciouslynamedDiwata1asatimelyopportunitytorevisitthecountry’sforgotten

scientifictraditions—toponderwhatmighthavebeenandtoappreciatewhatlayahead,a

wayofshowingthatastronomyandscienceweren’tnewtoFilipinosociety.“It’ssomething

we’vebeendoingandusingsinceancienttimes,”Sesesays.“Wealwaysthinkofastronomy

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asawesternconstruct.WealwaysseeitthroughthelensofancientGreekcivilization.Asa

result,wedon’tthinkthatourancestorshadtheirownwayofnamingstarsand

constellationsbasedontheirdailyrealities.”

Asayoungstudentgrowingupinoneofthecountry’smainrice-growingregions,Sese

knewthatFilipinoshavebeenfarmersandseafarersforaslongasthepeople’scollective

consciousnesscanremember.Historicalrecordsshowthat,foroverathousandyears,

traderoutesandsettlementpatternsacrossAsiaconnectedislandsinthePhilippinesto

theirneighbors,particularlythosewithgoodharborsandasteadysupplyoflocalproducts.

ButfewotherswholookedupattheskyandcheeredthatfineAprilnightrealizedthatthe

launchingoftheDiwata1wasjustthelatestlegofajourneythatFilipinos’ancestorsbegan

manymillenniaago.

Gazingintothatdistantpastisnotmuchdifferentfromlookingatthefarthermostreaches

ofthesky:westrainandpeeratthehopelesslyinaccessiblewithourmeagertools,trying

tounderstandwhatcamebeforeusandwhatledtousbeingwherewearetoday.With

somepersistence,youmightfindsomespeckshereandtherethathintatalargerpicture.

Figure1:TheDiwata1microsatellite,photographedasitlefttheInternationalSpaceStationonApril27,2016.

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Andthen,veryrarely,andonlyifyou’reluckyenough,youmightfindsomethingthat

changeseverythingyouthoughtyouknewabouttheworld.

OnesuchstellardiscoverywasunearthedlessthantwoyearsafterDiwata’slaunch,inan

idyllicparadiselockedawayinthenortherntipofLuzon,thePhilippines’largestisland.

AboatridetoEden

Halfaday’sdriveawayfromthePhilippinecapital,inKalingaProvince,isaquietdalethat

wasoncethemuddybankofarivermanythousandsofyearsago.InMay2018,

anthropologistThomasIngiccoandhisteamfoundthebutcheredremainsofanextinct

rhinocerosburiedinthehardenedmud:itsbonesshowedcutmarkswherethefleshhad

beenstrippedawayandwhereitslegshadbeenhammeredopentogetattheprecious

marrow.Nearbywerestoneflaketools,likelyleftbehindbythepeoplewhohadtaken

downthegiantcreaturesome700,000yearsago.Itistheoldestevidencetodatethat

homininsinthePhilippinesusedtoolslongbeforethearrivalofmodernhumans.

WemayneverknowwhotheKalingatoolmakerswere—buttheywerenotthelasttosettle

inNorthernLuzon.

JustafewmilesnorthoftheKalingasite,tuckedawayinthewesternfoothillsoftheSierra

Madremountains,istheCallaoCavecomplex.Comprisedofsevenchambers,thecaves

musthavebeenawelcomerelieftoancienthunter-gatherersseekingshelterfrom

torrentialrainsandgustsofwind.Eventoday,thecalmserenityofthecomplexcontinues

todrawpeopleintoitsembrace:itsmainchamber,litbyaholeinthehundred-foot-high

ceiling,nowservesasachapelfortouristsandlocalsalike.

Theserenealcoveisalsoatreasuretroveofhumanartifactsandremainsspanningtensof

thousandsofyears.Everythingfrombonesandhearthstoglassbeadsandearthenwarehas

beenfoundinitsinnerreaches.Amongtheseriches,UniversityofthePhilippines

archaeologistArmandMijarescameuponaremarkablefind:a67,000-year-oldhumanfoot

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bone,justtwoandahalfincheslongandbarelythewidthofapencil—possiblytheoldest

Homosapiensremainsyetfoundinthecountry.

Still,themoststrikingthingabouttheKalingaandCallaofossilsisn’ttheiragebutthatthey

werefoundonanislandcutofffromtherestoftheworldbyforebodingseas.Both

discoveriesweremadeinanareanestledbetweenthecountry’stallestmountainranges,

beyondwhichlietheWestPhilippineSeaandthePacificOcean.Tothenortharethedark

anddeepwatersoftheLuzonStrait,whereeventodayonlyseasonedfishermenorthe

foolhardydarego.

Thiswasproof,Mijarestoldthemediain2010,that“theseearlyhumansalreadypossessed

knowledgeofseacraft-makinginthisearlyperiod.”

FelipeJocanoJr.,ananthropologistandprofessorofScience,Technology,andSocietyatthe

UniversityofthePhilippines,saysthatancientFilipinosmayhavebeenmoreadvanced

thanpreviouslythought.“Iftheyhadboatstravelingthen,thentheleveloftechnologywas

certainlymoresophisticatedthanwehadassumed.Andthatraisesallsortsofinteresting

questionsabouttherateatwhichtechnologicaladvancementoccurs,”hesays.“Ifthere

wereboattechnologiesthen,whatwouldtheyhavelookedlike?Howfaralonghadthey

advanced?Whatwasthenavigationalmethodused?It’dbeveryexcitingtoreconstruct.”

ButweknownothingabouthowthesepeoplemadetheirwaytoLuzon.Whotheywere

andwhatkindofboatstheyused—or,forthatmatter,whateverothertechnologiesthey

mayhavehadotherthanstonetools—haveyettobefound.

TheexodustoPolynesiaandbeyond

BetweenthatbriefglimpseofthebeginningsofPhilippineprehistoryinNorthernLuzon

andmodernhumans’journeyacrosstheislandsliesaspanofmanythousandsofyears

overwhichtheveiloftimehasyettobelifted.Perhapssomeday,wemightuncovermore

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cluesabouttheseFirstFilipinosandtheboatsandtechnologiestheyusedtogetthere.But,

fornowatleast,thehistoricalrecordissilent.

Whatisknown,however,isthatsome7,000yearsagoanothergroupofintrepidexplorers

beganagrandexodusthelikesofwhichhasneverbeenseenbeforeorsince.

ModernhumansintheStoneAgesetoutfromChinathroughTaiwanandbravedthedeep

seasintoNorthernLuzon.SomeofthemmightevenhavesettledinCallaoCaveand

Kalinga.Buttheydidn’tstopthere.Theyeventuallypushedonthroughthearchipelago’s

over7,000islandsandcontinuedoutwardstosomeofthemostremoteplacesintheworld.

Whoeverthesepeoplewere,thePhilippinesservedasajump-offpointtothefarthest

reachesofSoutheastAsia,Australia,andbeyond—toPolynesia,Hawaii,andEasterIsland

inthemiddleofthePacificOcean.

Theycouldnothaveknownhowfartheywouldgo,whatdangerswereahead,norwhat

newworldawaitedthem.Nobodyevenknowsforcertainwhatdrovethemtomakethe

journeyinthefirstplace.Andyet,equippedwithnothingmorethanstone-agetoolsand

Figure2:AmapoutliningthemigratorypathsofAustronesianspeakingpopulations,includingestimateddates.

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technology,thesepeoplesucceededinestablishingthemselvesthousandsofmilesfromthe

nearestcontinent.

ThisGreatAustronesianExpansion,asitiscalled,isundoubtedlyoneofhumanity’smost

monumentalundertakings.Butthejourneyoftheseancient,unknownexplorersstartedin

Asia—andthePhilippineswasavitalstaginggroundfortheirvoyage.“Whoevertheywere,

theywereherefirst,”saysFilipinoarchaeologistVitoHernandez,whopointedoutthat

linguisticevidenceshowsthatthesestone-ageexplorerspassedthroughandpopulatedthe

PhilippinesbeforemovingoutintothePacific.

ExpertsagreethatthePhilippines’almost200languagesareAustronesianinorigin.By

lookingatcommonalitiesbetweenthelanguagesthatexisttodayinSoutheastAsiaand

Polynesia—suchassimilar-soundingwordswithsimilarmeanings—wegetanideaofthe

sharedancestryofthevarioustonguesandanindicationofhowtheirspeakersspreadand

settledacrosstheland.Whatwehaveisapictureofapeoplewhocamethroughthe

PhilippinesbeforeventuringoutacrossSoutheastAsiaandthePacific.

Thereareechoesofthissharedbutforgottenpast,hiddeninfolktalesandtraditions.

Filipino-AmericansociologistandauthorLaneWilckenpointstoacommonthreadof

folkloreamongPhilippineculturesthatconnectsthemtoPolynesianseafaringpeoples,

suggestingthatmodernFilipinosaredescendantsofthegreatStoneAgenavigatorswho

settledthePacificislandsthousandsofyearsago.“Ultimately,manyofourtraditions

poeticallyrelatethatourancestorsdwellinthewest—theunderworld—justasinthe

Polynesians'traditions.Thisimpliesthatour[common]ancestralhomelandwas

somewherewestofthePhilippines,”henotes.

PolynesiantraditionsseemtopointbacktothePhilippines:Hawaii’scentralfolkhero,

Maui,bearsastrikingsimilaritytotheFilipinohero-godLumauig,whosenamecanmean

either“fishhook”—incidentally,Maui’ssignatureimplement—or“voyage.”“Someofthe

traditionsofMauisuggestthatMaui—thatis,thePolynesians—knewofthePhilippinesasa

placewherehisancestorsoncelivedandthatheevenmadevoyagesthere,sinceheis

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creditedwith‘fishingup’ourislands,”Wilckenexplains.Allthese,hesays,areanindication

thatthePhilippinesandPolynesiahaveasharedhistoryofmigration.

“ItisnotunlikelythatancientPolynesianpeoplesknewthelocationofthePhilippinesand

howtotravelthere.Itiscertainlytruethattheircanoetechnologyandnavigational

knowledgewasmorethansufficienttoenablethemtomakethejourney,”Wilckensays.

AndthenthereisthetantalizingpossibilitythatancientFilipinosmayevenhavehada

handinbuildingthegiantmo’aistatuesonEasterIsland.Theseimposingstonefigures,

eachastallasasix-storybuilding,werecarvedfromlocalrockandfacestoicallyinwardas

ifguardingtheisland’sinhabitants.

Forsuchasmallanddistantplace,thepresenceoftheseimpressivestatuesindicatesthe

existenceofahighlyorganizedandtechnologicallyadvancedpeople.Theyneededtoknow

enoughaboutstonecuttingandbasicmechanicsinordertoshape,transport,anderectthe

statuesintheircurrentlocations.Theymustalsohavehadawell-developedsocietyto

coordinatesuchmassiveundertakings.

Itmayverywellbe,Wilckenbelieves,thattoday’sFilipinosareblissfullyunawarethatthey

aredescendedfromthesamepeoplethatpopulatedRapaNui—thePolynesiannamefor

EasterIsland—andwhohadthescientificandtechnologicalcapabilitytobuildthelarge

stonemonumentsthattheisleisfamousfor.

“Voyagingcanoesmakemorethanjustone-waytripslikemigrationtheoriessometimes

allude.It’smorelikelythatthePhilippineswasoneofthefirstareastobecolonizedbythe

mutualancestorsofFilipinosandPolynesians,”hesays.“Soit’stotallypossiblethatthe

RapaNuipeopleareofFilipinodescentoratleasthavecontributingancestorsfromthe

Philippines.”

Centurieslater,explorerFerdinandMagellan’schronicler,AntonioPigafetta,madespecial

noteinhisjournalofPhilippinelaborersbeingshippedenmasseoverseastoother

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kingdoms.AccordingtohistorianArnoldAzurin,“RajaHumabonboastedtoMagellanthat

someboatloadsofslaveshadjustleftCebuforCambodiaandChampa—likelyinneedof

warmbodiesfortheirwarsofsuccession,orfornewstonecuttersfortheirmegalithic

shrines.”

In1917,aflooduncoveredasolidgoldstatuetteonthemuddybankoftheAgusanRiverin

MindananointhesouthernPhilippines.Datedtothethirteenthcentury,itisthoughtto

representthegoddessVajralasya—proofthatancientFilipinoswereincontactwiththeir

Buddhistneighbors.

CouldFilipinocraftsmen,descendedfromthesamepeoplewhobuiltthemonumentsof

EasterIsland,havealsobuiltgrandAsianBuddhistmonumentslikeAngkorWatin

CambodiaandBorobudurinIndonesia?“That'sapossibleconjecture,consideringthat

archeologistslikeRobertFox,H.OtleyBeyerandothershavepointedoutthatsomeislands

insouthernPhilippineshadcommunitieslinkedto[theseplaces],”Azurinsays.

Figure3:TheAgusanGoldVajralasyastatueattheFieldMuseuminChicago,IL.

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Thesecluesspeaktousacrosstheages,whisperingofamuchgranderepicthathasyetto

betold.

GeneticechoesoftheGreatMigration

Tracesofthisgranddiasporacanstillbefoundinthebloodofthedescendantsofthose

ancientpioneers—notallofwhomwerehuman.In2011,scientistsfromAustraliaNational

UniversitydiscoveredageneticlinktyingthepeopleofPolynesiatothePhilippinesina

veryunlikelyplace:themitochondrialDNAofchickens.

Bystudyingthecommongenetictraitsoftheanimalsthatpeoplehaddomesticatedand

broughtwiththem—whetherforfoodorcompanionship,likechickens,cows,anddogs—

VickiThomsonandherteamofresearchershopedtoshedmorelightonthemigration

patternsofancientPolynesians.Chickenbonesdugupfromarchaeologicalsiteswere

foundtocontainageneticsignaturethat’suniquetoPolynesiaandSoutheastAsia.Most

surprising,however,isthatthissignaturecanstillbefoundinmodernchickensin

CamiguinandManilainthePhilippines,suggestingthatPolynesianchickensaredescended

fromPhilippinestock.

ThespreadofPhilippinechickensacrossthePacificmaysimplyhavebeenthroughbarter

betweenearlyFilipinosandearlyPolynesians,whosailedbackandforthacrosstheopen

seasonnowlong-forgottentraderoutes.PerhapsaPolynesianfishermanfoundhimselfin

thePhilippinesand,findingthelocalfowlparticularlydelectable,decidedtotakeafew

withhimbackhome.Butit’smorelikelythatearlyFilipinosbroughtthechickenswith

themwhentheymigratedoutofthearchipelago,andtheirdescendantslaterbecamethe

Polynesians.

“Allwecansay[rightnow]isthatifthisisthesamegroupofpeoplemovingfromTaiwan

southtothePhilippines,theyonlypickedupthechickenfromthePhilippines,”Thomson

says.Shethinksthatfurtherresearchintorats,becauseofhowtheseunwantedstowaways

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followhumanswherevertheygo,canprovideabetterpictureofAustronesianmigration

patterns.

Andthenthere’sthegeneticevidencefromthedescendantsoftheexplorersthemselves.

Lookingatlinguisticevidencealonetotracemigrationpatternscanbetricky,saysthe

PhilippineGenomicsCenter’sFrederickDelfin,becauselanguagecanspreadindependently

ofpopulations.Youdon’tneedtobebornintoaculturetolearnitslanguage,afterall.

Forseveralyearsnow,hehasbeenpushingforacomprehensivesurveyofthegenetic

characteristicsofthePhilippines’over100ethnolinguisticgroups—theelusiveFilipino

Genome.StudiessofarhavebarelyscratchedthesurfaceofmodernFilipinos’genetic

makeup,hesays,buttheyprovidethemostpalpablepictureyetofthepeoplingofthe

Philippines.

Between1997and2005,teamsofinternationalresearcherscollectedoverathousandDNA

samplesfromsixregionalcentersandnineteenethnolinguisticgroupsacrossthecountry.

Thesesampleswerethencomparedwiththegenesofotherethnicpeoplesfromacross

AsiaandthePacific,aswellaswithDenisovans,anextinctcousinofmodern-dayhumans.

Delfinandhiscolleaguesdiscoveredthattoday’sFilipinosbearaclosegeneticaffinitywith

otherAsia-PacificgroupsthatlikelypredatestheAustronesianexpansion.

JustlikeWilcken,Delfinbelievesthatthere’smoretothestoryofthePhilippinesthanjust

successiveoutwardwavesofmigration.Hethinksthattherewasacomingandgoingof

peopleintheAsia-Pacificoverthousandsofyears.“OurFilipinoancestorsdidnotjustcome

intothearchipelagoandbecomeisolatedintheirnichesaftertheinitialpeopling.They

couldhavepossiblymovedaround…hadcontactwithothergroups,”Delfinsays.“Thenthe

AustronesianscameandsharedtheirlanguageandDNAwiththeearlyFilipinosalreadyin

thearchipelago.”

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PerhapsthefirstAustronesianstosetfootinthePhilippinesencounteredthedescendants

oftheKalingatoolmakersandofCallaoMan.Ifso,thenthePhilippineswaslikelyamajor

maritimehubformillenniabeforerecordedhistory—afertilegroundforthedevelopment

ofindigenousscienceandtechnology,particularlyinthewayofseafaring,mathematics,

andastronomy.

Thevoyagesofthebalangays

BythetimeSpanishconquerorsarrivedinthePhilippinesinthesixteenthcentury,they

cameuponalreadyhighly-developedmaritimesocietieswithseafaringtechnologycapable

ofmakingroutinevoyagesacrossthevastopenseas.Historicalrecordsfromasearlyasthe

tenthcenturyshowthatFilipinos’ancestorsregularlytraveledthroughoutSoutheastAsia

ontraderoutesthatwerebythenalreadywell-established—voyagesthatreachedasfaras

theeasterncoastofVietnamandallthewaynorthtoChina.Theseroutespredatebyat

leasthundredsofyearsMagellan'scircumnavigationoftheglobeaswellashisarrival,and

death,inthePhilippinesin1521.TheyareevenolderthantheChineseexplorerZhengHe's

expeditionacrossAsiain1400.

Figure4:TheSultanSinSulu,amodern-dayreplicabalangay.

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Therearestoriesofhand-carvedwoodenboatssolargethattheycouldcarryentire

extendedfamilies,yetwerelightenoughthattheycouldbeliftedontheshouldersofafew

dozenmenanddeployedatamoment’snotice.Nomeredugoutcanoes,theseflexibleboats

couldsailbothdeepoceanwatersandshallowislandreefs—aversatilitythatleftthe

Spaniards,withtheirgrossandheavyships,inawe.

Inhisjournal,Pigafettabrieflymentionedjustsuchanadvancedtypeofseacraftthatis

uniquetothePhilippines,whichhecalledabalanghai.AccordingtohistorianWilliam

HenryScott,theseboatsrepresentedaleveloftechnologyfaradvancedfromthatofthe

stone-agepeoplewhocolonizedEasterIsland,becauseofthewaytheplankswerejoined

togetherwithwoodenpegs.“Stonetoolsareprobablyinadequatefordrillingdeepholesin

thethinedgesofboards,”hewrote.“Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatedge-peggingdoes

notappearinthosedistantPacificIslandswhoseinhabitantspresumablymigratedthere

withoutmetal.”

Thistypeofboatwaslikelyincommonusethroughoutthearchipelagobecausevariations

ofthenameappearacrossallmajorPhilippinelanguages—oftenasbalangayor

barangay—allwiththesamemeaning:alarge,crescent-shapedvesselthatwasa

fundamentalpartofthecommunallivesofancientFilipinos.

OveracenturyafterPigafetta,in1668,aJesuitmissionarybythenameofFranciscoIgnacio

AlcinawroteanoverviewoflifeinthePhilippineIslandsfortheSpanishCrownand

includedinhisaccountaverydetaileddescriptionofthebalangay.Notasinglenailwas

usedinitsconstruction,heremarked.Itslongplankswerepainstakinglycarvedfrom

hardwoodtreetrunks,whichwerethenfittededge-to-edgewithwoodenpegsandcaulked

withfibersandresin.Eachplankhadcarvedintoitaseriesofraisedrectangularlugs—a

distinctivefeaturecalledatambuko—positionedatregularintervals,throughwhichholes

weredrilledandthreadedwithrattanstripsorcordsfromthecabonegropalmsoasto

formitstrademarkflexiblebulkhead.LikeanOrientalwindowblindorSpanishhandfan,

thisplank-built,edge-pegged,rope-lasheddesignallowedthelenticularcrafttoremain

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supplewhilestillretainingitsshapeasitwasthrownagainsttheharshoceanwavesand

shallowcoralreefs.

Attheheightoftheirgoldenage,balangayswereevensaidtohavebeencommissionedby

SpanishauthoritiestofendoffIslamicinvaders.Buttheirdominanceoftheseaswould

eventuallycometoanend.ThoughitisnotknownexactlywhenorwhynativeFilipinos

stoppedusingbalangays,thefabledcraftallbutdisappeared,fadingintostoryandlegend.

Allthatchangedin1976,whentreasurehuntersdiggingnotfarfromwheretheVajralasya

statuewasfoundunearthedasetofsoggywoodenplanksinamarshyplaininButuan,

Mindanao.Theseboards,asitturnedout,belongedtoasetofseacraftthatexactlymatched

Alcina’sdescription.Thesite,althoughnowinland,onceopenedouttothesea:allthe

balangayswere"drydocked"onwhatusedtobetheButuanseashore.Thatthevessels

weresowellpreservedislargelybecausetheywereburiedintact,andthesubmergenceof

theareaoversucceedingcenturieskeptthewoodfromdecaying.

ExactlyhowtheButuanbalangayscametorestthereisanenduringmystery.Perhapsthey

wereintentionallyburied,anofferingormemorialofsomekind.Perhapstheywereleft

behindafterasuddencataclysm,likeatsunamioralandslide.Ormaybetheyweresimply

abandonedandforgotten—butifso,why?Didtheirmakersmigrateelsewhere,orwere

theycapturedandsoldasslaves?Theanswerslikelylieburiedinthemarshlandsthatnow

blankettheancientshore.

Althoughlittlemorethanflattenedhardwoodstavesareallthatremainoftheseonce

majesticboats—mostoftheirfinertrappingshadlikelydecayedorhadbeenwashed

away—theirdesignstillspeaksoftheskilloftheirFilipinomakerswho,manygenerations

ago,painstakinglycarvedflotillasofbalangaysforroutinejourneysacrossAsia.

AftertheinitialfanfareovertheButuansitehaddieddown,littlechangedinthefour

decadessincethefirstbalangayswerediscovered.Themarshinwhichtheywerefoundis

nowprivatelandagooddistanceawayfromthemainroad.Itremainswaterlogged,

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surroundedbythicketsofcogongrass

andascatteringofcoconuttrees.

Occasionally,acarabaowaterbuffalo

crossesthemuddypathleadingtothe

site,butforthemostpartitreceives

fewvisitors.Mosttouristspreferto

visitthenearbymuseum,whereone

oftheoriginalbalangaysison

permanentdisplay.

In2009,atriadofreplicabalangay—

oneofwhichwasalsonamed

Diwata—successfullyundertooka17-

month-longsojournacrossSoutheast

Asia.Theirambitiousjourneyrivaled

ThorHeyerdahl’sfamous

demonstrationofoceanmigrationto

EasterIslandaboardthebalsa-wood

raftKon-Tikiin1947.Buteventhis

widelypublicizedfeatdidlittletospur

renewedinterestintheButuansite.

AmassivediscoveryinButuan

Excavationandpreservationeffortscontinuedatasnail’spaceovertheyearsuntil2012,

whenPhilippineNationalMuseumarchaeologistsstumbledontosomethingbigin

Butuan—literallyandfiguratively.Atfirst,thewoodenplanksthatpeekedoutofthedamp

earthseemedtothemlikejustyetanotherbalangay.Butastheexcavationworeon,they

realizedthattheyhadsomethingmuchlargerontheirhands.“Everythingaboutitwas

massive,”archaeologistMaryJaneLouiseBoluniarecallswhenshetalksaboutthe

discovery.Sheholdsupherhandandcurlsherfingersintoalargecircle.“That’sjustoneof

Figure5:ThecenterpieceoftheBalangayShrineMuseumin

Butuan,Mindanao.

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thetreenails.”Treenails,thetechnicaltermforthewoodenpegsusedtoputtheplanksofa

balangaytogether,areusuallyaboutasthickaroundasathumb.Thesenewfoundones

werethesizeofsodacans.

Theboardsoftheboatitselfwerewiderandlongerthananythingshehadseenbefore.

Twicethesizeofthoseusedonanyoftheothershipsatthesite,eachplankofwhatBolunia

wasnowfondlycallinga“motherboat”wasthebreadthofaman’schest—sobigthatthey

cannolongerbereplicatedtoday,becausetherearenomorelivingtreesinthecountry

thatarelargeenoughtomakethem.

Boluniatookoutapieceofonionskinpaperwithacarefullyinkedmapofthesite.Onthe

uppercornerwasaroughlypeapod-shapedboatwreck,about50feetlong,oneoftheeight

previously-discoveredbalangays.Butrightnexttoitweretheremainsofaninthbalangay

sowidethatitcouldeasilyfitthesmallercraftintoitselftwiceover—andthatwasjustthe

partthathadbeenuncovered.Althoughtheboathasyettobefullyexcavated,itis

estimatedtobeovereightyfeetlong,biggerthantwoschoolbuseslaidendtoend.

Thefindcausedquiteastiramongarchaeologistsbecauseitdirectlychallengedthenow

commonlyheldbeliefthatFilipinosembarkedoverseasonflotillasofsmallbalangays.The

discoveryofthismassivecraftsuggestedthatancientFilipinoscouldhaveorchestrated

theiroverseasvoyagesfromamainship,withthesmallervesselsperhapsservingas

supportshipsforprotectionaswellasforshuttlingpeopleandsuppliestoandfromthe

shore.Suchanarrangementhintsatacomplexmaritimesocialstructurethatwasmore

centralizedandorganizedthanpreviouslythought.

Thereisalsoanother,morechillingpossibility:thecraftmaybethefirstknownexampleof

aspecialtypeofbalangaythatterrorizedthePacificseaslongbeforetheEuropean

privateersandslaversoftheseventeenthcentury.Thisman-o-warwasspokenofin

hushedwhispersamongthepeopleofneighboringIndonesianislandsasakorakora.The

Spaniards,whoselumberingoceangoingcarrackswerenomatchforthevessel’sspeedand

agility,knewofitintheirtongueasacaracoa.LikeVikinglongships,thesebattle-ready

19

balangayswereasswiftastheywereterrifying,“intendedtocarrywarriorsathighspeeds

beforeseasonalwindsthroughdangerousreef-filledwaterswithtreacherouscurrentson

interislandraids,”accordingtoScott.

ThefearsomePhilippinekarakoafeaturedthesameversatileedge-peggedplank

constructionasitssmallerbrethren,butitwasnotdesignedforlongoverseasvoyages.It

borenoprovisions,storednotradegoods.Itwasoutfittedonlyforwar,witharaised

platformamidshipsmannedbywarriorsatthereadytoboardrivalboatsandtoswarm

enemyshores.Itwasalsodoubleended,withtripodsailsanddoubleoutriggersmannedby

dozensofpaddlerswhocouldchangeitsdirectioninaninstant.Theentireshipwasbuilt

withthesingularpurposeoflaunchingswiftsurpriseattacksonhaplessnearbytargets—

theblitzkriegtrooptransportofitsday.

ButapositiveidentificationofBolunia’sbeloved“MotherBoat”—beitamothershipora

warship—hastowait.Asof2018,overhalfadecadeafterthegiantbalangaywas

discovered,itremainssubmergedandwaterloggedonthesitewiththerestofitsbrethren.

Thisisthebesttheycandofornowtopreserveit.TheNationalMuseumisstillnegotiating

withtheownersofthelandtoacquiretheplotandhopefullyconvertitintoanoutdoor

museum.

Adifferentviewofnumbers,space,andtime

Theexistenceofthebalangayspointstowardacivilizationthatwassophisticatedenough,

intermsofsocialstructureandscientificskill,todrivethedevelopmentofsuchadvanced

maritimetechnology.

“Whenyouhaveaboatlikethat,itmeansacomplexorganizationisinplacealready,”

Jocanosays.“Whymakeabalangay?Youcan’tdoitallbyyourself.Boatbuildingconnotes

[theexistenceof]trade,warfare,migration,andfolklore.Andifyouhadexchangesof

goods,thenyoualreadyhadspecializationofproduction.”

20

OneofthehintswehaveofthepossiblescientificmindsetofancientFilipinosisaseriesof

scratchescarvedintoachalkywhitehillsideintheprovinceofAngono,Rizal,insouthern

Luzon.TheyaresaidtodatetothelateNeolithicperiod,about5,000yearsago—around

thesametimethatFilipinos’andPolynesians’ancestorswereventuringoutfromSoutheast

AsiaintothePacific.

Mostofthefiguresareofpeopleoranimals,withroundheadsandeitherrectangularorV-

shapedbodies.Buttherearealsoabstractfiguresaswell:triangles,rectangles,andcircles.

Themeaningsofthecarvingshavelongbeenforgotten,butthismuchiscertain:theywere

puttherebyafirmhand,etchedwithdecisivepurpose.

TohistorianRicardoManapat,thesesimpleyetabstractfiguresthatmakeuptheso-called

AngonoPetroglyphsareinstarkcontrasttothemorerealisticexecutionofEuropeanlithic

art.

HearguedthattheAngonofiguresareanindicationthatthePhilippines’stoneartistshad

anintuitiveeyeforthemathematicalandaestheticalconceptsofsymmetry,proportion,

Figure6:Aclose-upofsomeoftheAngonoPetroglyphs.

21

andscale.Thistendencytowardsgeometricabstractioncanstillbefoundtodayin

indigenousPhilippinecultures,fromthePicasso-likeangularhumanformsofthebulul

statuesoftheIfugao—whosevastriceterracesintheCordilleramountainsareatechnical

marvelinthemselves—tothecolorfullycomplexsymmetriesofthewovenclothsofthe

Kankana-eyandotherethnicgroups.

AncientFilipinos,likeothercultures,understoodtheworldontheirownterms.They

developedtheirownmeansofmakingsenseofwhatwasaroundthemand,ultimately,

madeuseofthatunderstandingfortheirownsurvival.Sometimes,basicscientificand

technologicalknowledgeoverlapped—theindependentinventionbyvarioussocietiesof

thewheelandthebowandarrowarejustacoupleofexamples—buttherewerealsoareas

inwhichancientdevelopmentsdifferedmarkedlyinwaysuniquetoeachculture.

Takesomethingassimpleandasubiquitousascounting.Itseemsnaturaltoustocountin

multiplesoften—because,afterall,that’showmanyfingersandtoeswehave.Itmakes

sensethatancienthumanswouldhaveusedtheirbodiesasgeneralunitsofmeasure,

becauseourunderstandingoftheworldbeginswithourselves.

ButFilipinoshadabasetennumbersystemwithitsownculturalpeculiaritiesanda

complexitythatamazedthecolonizingSpaniards,accordingtoManapat.

TheTagalogpeopleofLuzon,forexample,hadwordsforthecardinalnumbersonetonine

aswellasspecificrootwordsforthenumbers10;100;1,000;100,000;1,000,000;

10,000,000;andmultiplesthereof.Countinguptotheserootnumberswasn’tas

straightforwardassimplyaddingupinincrements.OldTagaloggrammarwascomplex,

andinsteaddescribedanumberintermsofhowcloseitwastothenearesthigherroot

number.Sounderthissystem,thenumber21isnotdescribedasoneinexcessoftwenty—

“twenty-one,”aswewouldputit—butasmaykatlongisa:“oneclosertothirty.”

Spanishobserversfoundthismethodnovelandorderly.FraySebastiandeTotanes,in

1745,calledit“arigorousmethod”constructedwith“ingeniousartifice.”It’sapractical

22

wayofthinkingstillinusetoday:it’snotuncommonforstreetvendorstogivechangeby

firstrecitingthepriceoftheirwaresthencountingupthemoneyastheyhanditout,until

theyreachtheamountgiventothembythecustomer.

AncientFilipinosalsothoughtoftimedifferently.Theygenerallyvieweditintermsof

subjectivemomentsratherthaninstrictlymeasuredobjectiveincrements.“The

conceptionoftimehereinthePhilippinesbeforetheEuropeansarrivedwasnot

Newtonian,”saysphysicistPecierDecierdo,whostudiedPolynesiannavigationtechniques.

“TherewasnotthisthingcalledTime,withacapitalT,athingseparatetotheeventsofthe

world.Thecyclesofnatureweretimeitself[tothem].”

FilipinoscholarPedroSerranoLaktawsaiditwas“exceptionallyoriginalandinteresting”

howancientFilipinos“managedtimethroughwhattheyobservedinthestars,inwhatthey

sawintheplantsandanimals,andwhattheynotedintheirnaturalmovements.”

NativewordsstillinusetodayhintatthissenseoftimeamongprecolonialFilipinosthatis

markedlydifferent,philosophicallyandconceptually,fromthewesternnotionsoftimethat

we’reusedto.Forexample,theTagalogwordforyear,taon,isalsotherootofotherwords

suchasopportunity(pagkakataon),coincidence(nagkataon),andevenweather(panahon).

Ontopofthis,thetaonwascloselytiedtoastronomicalevents—specificallythelunar

cyclesandtheperiodicappearanceofcertainconstellationssuchasOrionandthePleiades,

whichweresurroundedbytheirownmythologiesandbeliefs.

Lifeamongthestars

TothoseancientFilipinoswholivedinthearchipelagogenerationsaftertheGreat

Migration,theneedforsophisticatednavigationtechniquesmaynolongerhavebeen

necessary.Withbountifulsoilandaccessiblenearbywaters,theremayhavebeennoneed

topreservenavigationalknowledge.Butinitsplacearosetheneedtopredictthecoming

andgoingoftheseasons—specificallythenourishingmonsoonsthatarrivetowardsthe

23

endofeveryyear.Forthat,theyneededtolookupattheheavens,inwhichtheysawnot

justthefuturebutabitofthemselvesaswell.

PioneerPhilippineethnoastronomerDante

Ambrosiobelievedthattheconstellationsthat

ancientFilipinossawinthenightskywere

reflectionsoftheirsouls—theirculture,their

humanity,andtheirmortality.“Whentheancient

Filipinoslookeduptotheheavens,theydidn’tjust

seethesky.Theyalsosawtheirowncivilization,

especiallywherestarsareconcerned,”hewrote.

“Likeothercultures,theymappedontothesky

theirownuniqueness.Theyclaimedtheheavensas

theirown.”Hespentmuchofhislifeextensively

documentingfolknamesforthestarsand

traditionalbeliefsabouttheheavensamongnative

peoples.HepointedoutthatthePhilippines’many

ethnolinguisticgroupssharedcommonnamesfor

thestarsdespitehavinghundredsoflanguages—a

clearindicationoftheirsharedAustronesianroots.

TheearliestknownwrittendocumentationofancientFilipinos’astronomicalknowledgeis

fromthefourteenthcentury,byaFranciscanfriarnamedJuandePlasencia,whocameto

theislandsin1577ononeofthefirstmissionaryexpeditionsfromSpain.“Someofthem…

adoredthestars,althoughtheydidnotknowthembytheirnames,astheSpaniardsand

othernationsknowtheplanets—withtheoneexceptionofthemorningstar,whichthey

calledTala,”Plasenciawrote.Talaisstillincommonuseeventoday,asasynonymfor

“star.”HealsowrotethatFilipinostrackedotherconstellationsinthesky—theancients

calledthemtalampad—butnoneascloselyastwoformationsknownasBalatikand

Moroporo.

Figure7:AncientFilipinossawOrionasa

boartrap,calleda“balatik,”seenhereonthe

coverofDanteAmbrosio’sbookofthesame

name.

24

Balatic,asPlasenciacalledit,iswhatWesterncivilizationsknowasOrion.Centraltothe

figureisthetriadofstars:Zeta,Epsilon,andDeltaOrionis.ButwhereastheancientGreeks

sawthesethreeasthecinctureonahuntsman’srobe,theancientFilipinossawasharp

arrowpoisedtostrike.Theotherstarsofthehuntsman’sbody—Betelgeuse,Bellatrix,

Saiph,andRigel—wereseenasabow,withhisswordasitsbowstring.TheFilipinossawin

Orionnotaperson,butathing:akindofballista,anarmedboartrapcalledabalatik.Itis

bythisnamethatFilipinosacrossthearchipelagoknewthisconstellation,withonlyslight

differencesamongthemanylanguages:balatiktotheBagobosandTagalogs,bayatiktothe

Mandaya,andbelatiktotheManobos.

TheotherclusterofstarsthatPlasencianoted,whichhecalledMapolon,iswhatweknow

todayasthePleiades.AncientFilipinosknewitbysimilarnames,includingMoroporoand

Mulupulu,anditsundulatingshapewasdescribedas“boilinglights”or,perhapsmore

poetically,as“aflightofbirds.”

BothconstellationscometodominatetheskyaroundOctoberofeachyear,justatthestart

oftherainyseasonintimeforplanting.Theyappearlaterandlaterintheskyuntil,by

JanuaryorFebruary,theconstellationsrisesolatethattheybarelyriseabovetheeastern

horizon.Thishappensjustasthedaysgetlongertowardsthedryseason,aperfecttimefor

harvesting.

AllthisknowledgepasseddownthroughoraltraditionacrossgenerationsofFilipinos

mighthaveseemedverycrudetoSpanishcolonizers,whoweremoreusedtothe

immutableprecisionofnauticalchartsandastrolabesandsextants.It’seasytobelievethat

ancientFilipinoswereprimitive,becausetheydidn’tdevelopsuchtools.

Butperhaps,afteragesofmigrationandtravel,Filipinoshadnoneedtodosoatall.“They

wereoftenfamiliarwiththecurrentpatterns,thewindpatterns.Theyknewthetimeof

year.Theywouldknowtheseasons.SotheyknewthesethingsthattheEuropeanswere

unfamiliarwith,”Decierdosays.“Atoolliketheastrolabewasreallynotnecessaryinthe

contextofthewaythatindigenousFilipinosusedthestars.”

25

Decierdo’sownexperienceteachingastronomyatalocalsciencemuseummadehim

appreciatethevalueofethnoastronomyinpromotingpublicinterestinmodernscience

andtechnology.“WhatI’vecometorealizeisthatwhenyouinjectcultureandhistoryand

heritageinthepopularizationofastronomy,peopleseemtocareaboutastronomymore.

Becauseitceasestobeabstractand‘outthere’andunreachable,”hesays.

Anunfinishedtapestryforfutureexplorers

WhilefinishinghisastrophysicsdegreeinJapan,thePhilippineSpaceAgency’sSeseread

uponthenavigationalandastronomicaltraditionsofotherculturesandwonderedatthe

Philippines’ownbeliefsandpractices.HeeventuallyencounteredtheworkofAmbrosio

andwassurprisedatwhysucharichtraditionwasnolongerwidelypracticedandisnow

indangerofbeinglost.“It’sbarelytaughtinschools!AskanyFilipinoonthestreetwhat’s

theFilipinotermforconstellationandIwouldgive1,000pesostoanyonewhocananswer

itcorrectly,”helamented.

SesehadhopedtovisitAmbrosiouponhisreturntothePhilippines.Buttheirmeetingwas

notinthestars:thecountry’sonlyethnoastronomerpassedawayin2011fromalingering

illness.HisdeathwasprecededbyManapat’sin2008,andScott’sin1993.Betweenthem,

theirtentativeinquiriesintothetapestryofindigenousPhilippinescienceandtechnology

haveyettobepickedupbyanewgenerationofresearchers.

Andthentherearethephysicalthreadsofthestorythathaveyettobeunearthedin

Kalinga,Callao,Butuan,andelsewhereinthePhilippines.Eventheas-yetunsequenced

FilipinoGenomemayhaveitsownsurprisingsecretstotell.

Perhapsitisfitting,then,toreturntoallofthisjustastheFilipinopeopleareatthecuspof

anewjourneyofexplorationbeyondthefamiliarseasofourchildhood,tothestars.For

Sese,spaceexplorationandhistoricalappreciationaretwosidesofthesamecoin.“Allthis

interestinnewtechnologiescanmakeonewonderwhatwedidinthepast.It’sawayof

26

counteringthenaysayers:throughastronomy,wecanlearnaboutourowncultureand

identityasFilipinos,”hesays.Hiswordscalltomindacommonlocaladage:

—Ifyoudon’tlookbackatwhereyoucamefrom,youwon’tgettowhereyou’regoing.

Andwhoknowswherethisjourneywilllead?Archaeologistsinsomefar-distantfuture

mayfindnotadiminutiveFilipinosatellitebutsomethingmore—aspacefaringvessel,

perhaps,aninterstellarbalangay.

27

PHOTOCREDITS:

Figure1:NASA[PublicDomain]

Figure2:Bentonetal.AdaptedfromBellwoodetal.,(2011).doi:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035026.g001[CCBY4.0

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)]

Figure3:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

Figure4:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

Figure5:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

Figure6:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

Figure7:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali

28

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