final report - canada
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Contents
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................4
2. Minerals in the National Economy of Canada .............................................................................5
3. Geology and Natural Resources of Canada .................................................................................6
4. THE MINERALS OF CANADA .......................................................................................................8
4.1 Iron ore....................................................................................................................................8
4.1.1 Occurrence ........................................................................................................................9
4.1.2 Iron ore mining companies ................................................................................................9
4.1.3 Iron ore production .........................................................................................................10
4.1.4 Value Addition.................................................................................................................11
4.1.5 Developments and Exports ..............................................................................................11
4.2 Diamond ................................................................................................................................12
4.2.1 Occurrence ......................................................................................................................12
4.2.2 Mining Companies and Mines..........................................................................................13
4.2.3 Diamond Production .......................................................................................................14
4.2.4 Value Addition.................................................................................................................15
4.2.5 Exports ............................................................................................................................15
4.3 Copper ...................................................................................................................................16
4.3.1 Copper mine in Canada ...................................................................................................16
4.3.2 Property of copper ..........................................................................................................17
4.3.3 Copper alloys...................................................................................................................18
4.3.4 Companies and Organizations linked to Copper Mining in Canada ...................................18
4.4 Silver......................................................................................................................................19
4.4.1 Silver mine in Canada ......................................................................................................19
4.4.2 Companies and Organisations linked to Silver Mining in Canada......................................21
4.5 Manganese ............................................................................................................................22
4.5.1 Companies and Organizations linked to Manganese Mining in Canada ............................24
4.6 Mica.......................................................................................................................................25
4.6.1 Other names of Mica .......................................................................................................26
4.6.2 Properties .......................................................................................................................27
4.7 Mineral sand..........................................................................................................................28
4.7.1 Quartz .............................................................................................................................29
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4.7.2 Chalcedony......................................................................................................................29
4.7.3 Sanidine ..........................................................................................................................29
4.7.4 Orthoclase and microcline ...............................................................................................30
4.7.5 Plagioclase ......................................................................................................................30
4.7.6 Estimated ilmenite production in thousands of tons for 2006 according to U.S. GeologicalSurvey......................................................................................................................................30
4.7.7 GYPSUM ..........................................................................................................................31
4.7.7.1 Companies and Organisations linked to GYPSUM Mining in Canada..............................33
4.8 Nickel.........................................................................................................................................33
4.8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................33
4.8.2 Occurrence......................................................................................................................33
4.9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................36
4.
9.
2 Occurrences....................................................................................................................
364.9.3 Consumption...................................................................................................................36
4.9.4 Lead Produce Company ...................................................................................................37
4.10 Antimony .............................................................................................................................37
4.10.1 Main Uses .....................................................................................................................37
4.10.2 Production And Trade....................................................................................................38
4.11 Tungsten ..............................................................................................................................38
4.11.1 Uses ..............................................................................................................................38
4.1
2 COAL....................................................................................................................................
39
4.12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................39
4.12.2 Occurrences in Canada ..................................................................................................40
4.12.3 Coal mining methods.....................................................................................................41
4.12.4 Environmental effects ...................................................................................................42
4.12.5 Recycling .......................................................................................................................43
4.12.6 Coal Mining Companies at Canada.................................................................................44
4.13 Gold .....................................................................................................................................44
4.13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................44
4.13.2 Occurrences of Gold ......................................................................................................44
4.13.3 Occurrences in Canada ..................................................................................................45
4.13.4 Gold Separation Method ...............................................................................................46
4.13.4 Value addition of Gold and their benefits ......................................................................47
4.13.5 Substitutes of Gold ........................................................................................................49
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4.14 Magnesium ..........................................................................................................................49
4.14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................49
4.14.2 Occurrences of Magnesium ...........................................................................................49
4.14.3 Worlds Magnesium Production .....................................................................................50
4.14.4 Magnesium Production by Canada ................................................................................50
4.14.5 Magnesium production in Canada .................................................................................50
4.14.6 Uses ..............................................................................................................................51
4.15 Platinum ..............................................................................................................................52
4.15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................52
4.15.2 Occurrences of Platinum ...............................................................................................52
4.15.3 Production Of Platinum Worldwide ...............................................................................53
4.15.4 Usage of Platinum .........................................................................................................53
4.15.5 Uses ..............................................................................................................................54
4.15.6 Industrial Applications ...................................................................................................55
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1. Introduction
Every sector of society in every country in the world uses minerals and mineral
resources every day. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and workin all contain minerals are best examples to show our huge usage in minerals merged with our
existences. We can found out when we look back to our past, the minerals have been used
since various eras of civilization. Most of the earths ancient civilization eras are named
according to the primary mineral that was used at that period like Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age. Researchers say that in most countries, an average person consumes or uses 40,000
pounds of minerals every year. Over the course of a lifetime, an individual will use more than
1,050 pounds of lead, 1,050 pounds of zinc, 1,750 pounds of copper, 4,550 pounds of
aluminum, 91,000 pounds of iron and steel, 360,500 pounds of coal, and one million pounds
of industrial minerals such as limestone, clay, and gravel. Above details will support in
realizing how important minerals are to us, to a country and finally to the world. For example
it is interesting to know that about 13 million tons of copper are currently produced and used
annually. Copper is used for electrical conductors, motors, appliances, piping and in metal
alloys. Also we would not be surfing the internet, given that in excess of 40 different minerals
are necessary in the manufacturing of computers.
Minerals do not occur uniformly everywhere in the world. We cannot find them
where we want and neither the available ones become resources unless they are explored.
Different countries have different levels of mineral abundances, productions and usages. A
countrys development is mainly depending on the rate of achievement in each above factors.
In this case Canada can be listed in the highest level in all of above factors. Canada is a
nation rich in mineral resources. In the case of Canada's history, Canadians have discovered
and brought into production a wide variety of minerals (metals, industrial minerals and
Energy resources), making Canada one of the world's leading mineral-producing countries. It
is one of the leading mining countries in the world and ranked among the top five globalproducers for several major minerals and metals. Canadas metals, industrial minerals, and
energy sectors contributed 5% of its GDP. The Canadian mineral industry encompassed
about 3,000 domestic and possibly 200 overseas companies. With thousands of mining
projects underway (which included exploration, mine development mining operations) since
Canada is one of the worlds most active mining countries.
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Fig.1: Diavik Diamond in Canada
2. Minerals in the National Economy of Canada
Minerals play a major role in the Canadas national economy since minerals areimportant requirements for a developed country. They improve the standard of living of its
people, encompassing an important force on the societal and monetary development of
Canada. Minerals are mined and processed in all 10 major Provinces of Canada. In 2009,
about 72.4% of the total value of solid minerals was contributed by the Provinces of Ontario
(19.7%), Quebec (19.3%), British Columbia (17.8%), and Saskatchewan (15.6%). Provincial
governments are responsible for the mining activity within their respective Province.
Fig.2: Map of Canada with mineral claims
Changes happen in the mineral industry in the last decade were most promising forthe Canadas economy. For example, the nickel ore output increased by 17.0%, and its value
increased by 56.8%; copper ore output increased by less than 0.1%, and its value increased to
56.2%; diamond output increased by 17.3%, and its value increased by 34.8%; potash (K2O
content) increased by almost 17%, and its value increased by 20%; and zinc ore output
decreased by 2.9%, and its value increased by 12.9%. This increase in the value of mineral
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manufacture makes the economy very prolific. Also especially only about 15% of Canada's
metal production is consumed internally, with the balance exported. They make much profit
to the country. In 2009 as a whole, Canadas mining and mineral processing industries
contributed $32 billion to Canadas GDP, directly employed about 300000 individuals and
exported minerals and metals value $66 billion. Minerals and metals accounted for almost
one-third of Canadas exports to China, which is the worlds fastest-growing and second-
largest economy. In 2009, Canada ranked among the top five countries in the world in the
production of major minerals and metals such as aluminum, diamonds, nickel, platinum
group metals, potash, uranium, and zinc. Canada's mineral industries are dependent not only
on a continuing supply of new ore discoveries, but also on the economic well-being of
Canada's trading partners in the world economy. Since the Canada is the worlds foremost
exporter of minerals and metals, Canada enjoyed economic benefits from its mineral industry
that included a significant contribution to its trade balance.
3. Geology and Natural Resources of Canada
It is better to know the countries geological conditions and explored natural resources
before going deep in to the produced minerals themselves in Canada. Canada is covered by
ten provinces among three territories. The country is located in the northern part of the
continent, where it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the
west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. The countries overall area is about 9.9 million. It
is the world's second-largest country by total area. The country has six major geological
regions, where different minerals are indigenous to each different region. Following details
briefly explain about the geological conditions and minerals associated in each region.
The first region is Canadian Shield which is an enormous area of Precambrian rock
cover about half the total area of Canada at the center. Most of the Canadian base metals,
gold, iron ore and uranium are obtainable in this region since it is a vast expanse of ancient
Precambrian igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and glacial overburden. Still now
many new minerals are discovered in these regions.
The next region is known as Interior Platform. It is between the Canadian Shield and
the Cordilleran mountain region of western Canada, and stretching from the US border to the
Arctic Ocean. This region is a significant source of coal, potash and salt, all contained in
thick sequences of gently inclined sedimentary rocks. West of the Interior Plains is the
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Fig.3: Extent of the geological regions
Canadian Cordillera, a hilly region with
plateaus and valleys that is underlain by
various igneous and sedimentary rocks.
This region covers most of British
Columbia, the Yukon and the western part
of the Northwest Territories. This area is a
widespread and diverse mineral resource
such as mainly sources for many kinds of
metals, coal and certain industrial
minerals. Southeast of the Shield, the Appalachian region of eastern Canada consists of a
broad band of mountains, hills and plains. It underlies all of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
and Prince Edward Island, western Newfoundland, and that part of Qubec lying south of the
St Lawrence River. This area is a huge reserve of minerals for significant deposits of Zinc
and Lead occur near Bathurst, New Brunswick. Also salt, potash and Gypsum are found in
these regions. Innuitian Region is the next region which lies mainly in the Arctic
Archipelago, a set of islands which are underlain by gently dipping sedimentary rocks that
contain petroleum resources, zinc, lead, oil sands, coal, salt and gypsum. These minerals are
identified in these regions but they are not exploited since the unfavorable mining conditions
present.
Canada has the world's second-largest continental margin - the vast submerged areathat is the geological continuation of Canada's landmass into the seas. It extends from the
coasts of Canada, underlain mainly by seaward-dipping sedimentary and, in places, volcanic
rocks. They include the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic continental shelves. Here mainly oil and
gas are present. By referring to the above particulars it can be acknowledged that Canada is
country rich in many mineral resources. Every bit of land has a reserve of any kind of
mineral. Some researches represent there are nearly 60 Mineral commodities: metals,
nonmetals, structural materials and mineral fuels. In the beginning mineral extraction in
Canada started with simple quarrying and mining surface metals and until now they have
explored vast amount of lands and enter into several attractive mining sectors such as gold
mining and diamond mining.
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4. THE MINERALS OF CANADA
Since there are many kinds of minerals can be found in the Canadian mineral
industry, briefly discussing about each of them will be most productive. Some are mined as
mineral and processed as it is. But some are mined in order to process only one compound or
a constituent. So in that case following mineral details which are related to Canada are given
under each compound, each constituent or under the mineral name.
4.1 Iron ore
Canada is one of the biggest iron ore producers in the world, after Australia and
Brazil and South Africa. It is one of Canada's single most important mineral products in
terms of both tonnage and value. Canadas production is of great importance as a supplier to
international markets. In the present days china has turned out to be the main consumer of
most Canadas iron.
Generally the iron is found in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3),
goethite, limonite, or siderite. Hematite is the frequently abundant form which also known as
natural ore. Ores containing a higher percentage of iron are more valuable in the iron ore
industry. If ore has more than 54% iron, it is classified as a high-grade ore and requires no
further beneficiation other than sizing. Ore grading less than 54% iron is considered low-
grade and requires further processing. Lump ore is produced by high-grade iron ore which
have ore constituent parts greater than 8 mm in size. In other case the ore having particle sizelower than. In iron ore industry mainly the quantity and quality are concerned very much.
Since the easiest tradable product is in mineral rather than processed metallic form, the
quality and quantity of the ore itself taken from any mine in Canada is concerned very much.
There are many chemical and physical variants of iron ore. However, they all provide the
same purpose: providing the iron component of steel.
Fig.4: an open pit iron ore mine in Canada
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4.1.1 Occurrence
There are many iron ore deposits discovered around the country in every region. Nearly all of
Canadas iron ore production comes from the Labrador Trough area in northern Quebec in
the Canadian Shield. Since the closure in 1998 of the Algoma Iron Ore Division near Wawa,
Ontario, nearly all of Canadas iron ore production has been concentrated in the LabradorTrough, a major geological belt extending through northern Quebec and Labrador.
Fig.5: Iron ore reserves and mining areas in Canada
The Labrador Trough contains world-class iron deposits that have been mined since
1954. This band broadens for about 1100 km southeast of Ungava Bay through both Quebec
and Labrador. When going further south, it turns southwest direction towards the Wabush
and Mount Wright areas to within 300 km of the St. Lawrence River. The degree of
metamorphism is erratic, varying from concentrated in the northern and southern portions to
green schist facies in the central portion. Numerous deposits of exceedingly metamorphosed
magnetite-specularite iron formation (medium- to fine-grained) are located west of Ungava
Bay. North of Schefferville, several billion tones of taconite are outlined in fine-grained,
cherty magnetite-iron formation. In the area from Wabush Lake to Mount Wright, a medium-
to coarse-grained friable specularite-quartz iron forms several large deposits.
4.1.2 Iron ore mining companies
There are large numbers of iron ore mining and producing companies in Canada. Out
of them some are large companies which perform active iron ore mining in Canada. Some of
the iron ore companies are listed below:
1. Iron Ore Company of Canada (The IOC)
2. ArcelorMittal Mines Canada (previously QCM),
3. Cliffs Natural Resources Inc. (Wabush)
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4. Consolidated Thompson Iron Mines Ltd. (CLM).
5. AltaSteel Ltd
6. Labrador Iron Mines Limited (LIM)
7. Quebec Cartier Mining Company
8. Baffinland Iron Mines Corporation
9. Mano River Resources Inc.
IOC is Canada's largest iron ore producer and a leading global supplier of iron ore
pellets and concentrates. The company employs almost 1900 people in the provinces of
Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador. IOC is owned by several companies such as Rio
Tinto, Mitsubishi Corporation and the Labrador Iron Ore Royalty Income Fund (15.1%) but
the IOC operates within the Rio Tinto Iron Ore group. The facilities began operation in 1962
and have produced more than 1 billion t of crude ore with an average iron content of 39%.The site still has a significant resource base available.
ArcelorMittal Mines Canada (previously known as Quebec Cartier Mining Company
[QCM]) is another leading suppliers of iron ore to steel markets around the world, generating
some 40% of Canadas total production. The company produces about 19.3 Mt of iron ore
concentrate and about 14.1 Mt of iron oxide pellets. The company manages two large open-
pit mines: one in Mount Wright, which is the largest of its kind in North America, and one in
Fire Lake. The Mount Wright mining complex includes a concentrator and automated
concentrate train-loading system. The site is linked by company rail to the Port-Cartierindustrial complex, which comprises the pellet plant, storage areas, and port facilities.
Cliffs Natural Resources (Canadian operation) employs roughly 990 workers. The
company produces four grades of pellets two standards and two fluxed and is a supplier
of high- and low-manganese concentrates to the sinter market. Shipments of its iron ore are
done via the QNS&L railway from Wabush to Pointe-Noire. The mine has an estimated
annual capacity of 6.0 Mt.
4.1.3 Iron ore production
As previously declared that Canada is become a largest iron ore producer in the
world. To be exact Canada ranked among the top nine global producers of iron ore based on
estimates of 2009 iron ore production. Most of the excavated iron ore in the country is
exported (roughly 96% in 2009 and 88% in 2008 of total iron ore production was exported).
The value of exports increased by 10.9% from 28.1 Mt in 2008 to 31.1 Mt in 2009 and in the
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same time Canadian ore imports decreased by 63.9% from 9.4 Mt in 2008 to 3.4 Mt in 2009.
Most Canadian iron ore mines are open cast mines where used huge trucks and shovel
types. To improve the iron grade in Canadian production, the producers use a range of
beneficiation processes, such as the use of spirals, high- and low-intensity magnetic
separators, and high-tension separators to improve the iron content by removing the silica
content and other impurities.
4.1.4 Value Addition
Steel manufacture is the main driving force for almost all iron ore demand. However,
technological changes in iron ore mining through the production of finished steel have beenmajor contributors in determining the quantities and properties of the iron ore demanded. In
steel production iron ore pelletizing is turn out to be the major important stage in iron ore
production. About 25% of excavated iron ore is pelletized. Some iron ore which is produced
in western Canada is directly taken for the coal industry in the country.
4.1.5 Developments and Exports
There are new explorations are carried out all around the country. Also many new mines were
started during last two years after the economic crisis. Some of special development cases inthe iron ore industry can be exemplified as follows.
y Labrador Iron Mines Limited (LIM) has acquired licenses for mining project where
estimated 100 Mt of high-grade iron ore going to be excavated in northwestern Labrador.
The company expected to start-up of commercial production at its iron ore mines in 2010
which involves the development of eight direct shipping iron ore deposits.
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y Baffinland Iron Mines Corporation (Baffinland) is developing a on Baffin Island in
Nunavut, 160 km south of Pond Inlet on northern Baffin Island. Deposit is believed to
contain up to 200 Mt of iron ore graded at 65% Fe, which would be exploited over a
period of 25+ years.
y Roche Bay plc owns one of the world's largest known undeveloped magnetite (iron ore)
resources located at Roche Bay on the Melville Peninsula in Nunavut. In two families of
deposits, referred to as the Eastern and Western deposits, Roche Bay has over 4 billion t
of resources and over 460 Mt of drilled resources.
These are some of the developments can be seen in the iron ore industry in Canada. They all
benefit the country and also the world. Data show that Canada exported close to 31.1 Mt of
iron ore valued at $3360.6 million, of which 62.7% was pellets valued $2323.3 million and
37.3% was concentrates valued $1037.3 million for a 10.9% increase in total exports from
2009.
4.2 Diamond
Canada is relatively new to the Diamond industry but in the present it is competing to
govern the worlds diamond market. Diamond exploration began in Canada as early as the
1960s, but major kimberlite findings were not made until the 1980s. The first economic
diamond deposit was discovered in the Lac de Gras area of the Northwest Territories in
1991and Canada became a diamond producer in October 1998 when the Ekati diamond mine
opened in Yellowknife.
4.2.1 Occurrence
Diamonds are formed inside Kimberlites rock formations. Generally diamonds are
formed at a depth greater than 150 kilometres within the earth crust. After their formation,
diamonds are carried to the surface of the earth by strong volcanic activity. This mixture of
magma, transported rock and diamonds forms pipes called kimberlites as it reaches the
surface.
In Canada these Kimberlite rock formations are found in several provinces. They are mainly
Prince Edward Island, Ontario, Alberta, British Columbia and Northwest Territories Nunavut.
In these provinces many explorations have carried out. By the end of 2003, the total number
of kimberlites discovered in Canada was close to 600, most of them in the Archean Slave
Craton in parts of the North West Territory and Nunavut. But until now only four diamond
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deposits were converted as large scale diamond mines. Those four mines are: the Ekati,
Diavik, and Snap Lake mines.
Fig.6: Kimberlite pipes locations in Canada
4.2.2Mining Companies and Mines
Since only four mines are operating its better to refer in the name of the mine initialyl
rather than referring the company and then its related mines.
1. Ekati Mine
This mine is the Canadas first diamond-producing mine which came into production
in 1998. It is owned by a company known as BHP Billiton Ltd. It is also the first
surface and underground diamond mine in North America. It is located 310 km north-
east of Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, and about 200 km south of the Arctic
circle, near Lac de Gras.
2. Diavik Mine
This mine is the Canadas second diamond mine which began production in early
2003. It is an unincorporated joint endeavor between Diavik Diamond Mines Inc.
(DDMI), which owns 60%, and Harry Winston Diamond Mines Ltd. (HWDML),
which owns 40%. DDMI, the manager of the mine, is a wholly owned subsidiary of
Rio Tinto plc, while HWDML is a wholly owned subsidiary of Harry Winston
Diamond Corp. of Toronto, Ontario.
3. Snap Lake Project
The Snap Lake diamond deposit, 100% owned by De Beers Canada Inc. (part of the
De Beers Group), is located approximately 220 km northeast of Yellowknife.The
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deposit is unique in that the kimberlite is in the form of a dyke, as opposed to the more
common carrot-shaped pipe.
4. Victor Project
In northern Ontario, about 90 km west of the coastal community of Attawapiskat on
the James Bay coast, the fully owned De Beers Victor project was commenced at
the end of December 2007 and was officially opened on July 26, 2008.
4.2.3 Diamond Production
Between 1998 and 2009, only by the ekati mine has produced 45 million carats (8,000
kg / 17,636 lb) of diamonds out of six open pits. In 2009, Ekati achieved a production level of
4.2 Mct. The Koala underground mine of ekati is expected to supply 25% of the mine feed
and 40% of the diamond output by value in the coming years. In the present the ore reservesare estimated at 38.5 Mt grading 0.476 ct/t, for a total of about 18.3 Mct. Production at
Diavik in 2009, occurring from the A154 South and North kimberlites, as well as from the
A418 kimberlite, reached 5.6 Mct for an average grade of 4.09 ct/t. This industry generates
mining revenues estimated in 2009 at $1.7 billion and provides an estimated 4000 direct
Canadian jobs and an equivalent number of indirect jobs in the service industries. Roughly
Canada contribute about 17% to the world diamond production
Fig.7: Share of world diamond production
Canadas total primary exports of diamonds in 2009 are estimated to be valued at $1.79
billion
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4.2.4 Value Addition
The mined diamonds are used in several industries. Some are directly exported or
used domestically for various purposes without processing. The largest mark-up in the
pipeline for diamonds is at the jewellery stage. There are approximately 20 major plants
located mainly in the Toronto region with a few in Montral. There are also several smaller
plants in Montral.
The other uses of candian diomands are Diamond products manufactured in Canada
include drill bits, segments for circular blades, grinding wheels, and specialty tools. The
major manufacturing plants are Fordia and K&Y Diamond Limited at Ville St-Laurent,
Diamond Production and North Star Abrasives at Montral, Diacan at Qubec City, and
Diamond Systems at Dorval, all in Quebec; Tru-Form Diamond Tool Company at
Georgetown, JKS Boyle, Longyear, JKS Lamage, and Pilot Diamond Tools, all in North Bay,
Diatech Diamond Tools in Toronto, Hammond Diamond Tooling Ltd. in Collingwood, and
Northern Super Abrasives at Oakville, all in Ontario; Dimatec at Winnipeg, Manitoba; Diaset
Products Ltd. at Delta, British Columbia; and Hobic Bit Industry at Richmond, British
Columbia.
4.2.5 Exports
Canadas total primary exports of diamonds in 2009 are estimated to be valued at $1.79
billion. The Canadas rough diamond is the most important diamond export item representing
unsorted diamonds. Exports under this item were mostly directed towards the United
Kingdom (82%) and Belgium (18%).
Fig.8: Canadian Diamond exports
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The second most important trade diamonds are non-industrial, unworked or simply sawn,
cleaved or bruted, and large diamonds. These mined diamonds that are sorted before export
and are specifically destined for cutting and polishing and exported to Belgium (60%), the
United Kingdom (35%), and India (4%). The third most important type is cut gem-quality
diamonds. These exports are sent mostly to the United States (70%), Mexico (19%), and
Belgium (5%) in 2008, have significantly increased over the past decade and reflect the
increase in cutting and polishing capacity and branding efforts in Canada.
4.3 Copper
4.3.1 Copper mine in Canada
Canada is the third largest copper producer in the world, after Chile and the USA. It is
also the worlds largest zinc and second largest nickel and lead producer. Canada produced
534,287 t of copper concentrate in 2003, representing a continuing decrease as a result of
several mine suspensions and closures. Most of Canada's copper production comes from
mines in Ontario, British Colombia and Quebec.
The production of copper in Canada is associated with the production of other metals
(and sulphuric acid). There is no Canadian copper mine whose revenue from its domestic
operations is derived entirely from copper. Most of Canadas base metals are hosted by
massive sulphide sources (e.g. the Sudbury complex) as well as porphyry deposit (e.g. the
Highlands Valley Porphyry).
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In most cases copper is produced as a co product with nickel, zinc, lead and gold.
Although Noranda is a world leading zinc and nickel producer, it also produces significant
amounts of copper from four lead zinc silver mining operations in New Brunswick and
Quebec. The Gaspe undergrounds mine, situated at Needle Mountain, Quebec, closed in
1999.
Falconbridge (of which Noranda owns 55 %) produces nickel and copper at its world
class nickel copper deposits at Sudbury, Raglan and Kidds Creek. Sudbury division is
comprised of five underground mines.
Raglan was officially opened in 1998 and has proven and probable reserves estimated
at 19 Mt grading at an average 2.85% nickel and 0.77% copper. The Kidds Creek division
comprises three mines of which the No 1 mine produces more than 50%.
Boliden acquired the Myra Falls underground zinc copper mines on Vancouver
Island, British Colombia in 1998. After suspending operations for several months due to poor
ground conditions, production resumed in March 1999. Myra Falls produced 52 000t zinc, 15
000 t copper, 21 500 oz gold and 0.5 M oz silver. The mine has estimated proven and
probable reserves of over 6.7 Mt grading at an average of 7.7% zinc, 1.5% copper, 0.4 %
lead, 1.4 g/t gold and 35 g/t silver.
Canadas largest base metal mine, Highlands Valley, suspended operations for five
months 1999 due to the poor copper prices. The mine is located 75 km southwest of
Kamloops, in central British Columbia. Highlands Valley Copper is owned by Teck Cominco
(64% interest) and Billiton Base Metals (33.6%), and Highmont 2.5%. The mine has
remaining proven and probable reserves of 417 Mt grading at 0.42% copper.
4.3.2 Property of copper
Copper (Cu) is a malleable, ductile, reddish metal that melts at 1083C. Copper has both
a high electric and thermal conductivity. OnlySILVERis a better thermal and electrical
conductor. In general, copper has good resistance to corrosion, although when exposed to
the environment, the surface of the metal oxidizes to form a light green patina or a black
oxide coating.
y Melting point: 1083C (1982F)
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y Boiling point: 2567C (1408F)
y Atomic number: 29 (one copper 63 atom contains 29 protons, 34 neutrons, and 29
electrons).
y Relative atomic mass: 63.546
y Density: 8.96 g/cc
4.3.3 Copper alloys
Copper alloys are made by mixing copper with one or more other metals to produce a
new material that combines some of their best properties. The best-known copper alloys are
bronze and brass.Bronze is an alloy mostly containing copper and tin, sometimes with
added zinc or lead, and it's harder, stronger, and more resistant to corrosion than pure copper.
Different types of bronze have varying proportions of these ingredients. For example, the
hard bronze used in making statues is typically 78.5 percent copper, 17.2 percent zinc, 2.9
percent tin, and 1.4 percent lead. Brass is an alloy of copper and typically anything from 10-
50 percent zinc, depending on how it will be used.
4.3.4 Companies and Organizations linked to Copper Mining in Canada
y Africo Resources Limited
y Amera Resources Corporation
y Belvedere Resources
y Breakwater Resources Ltd
y Cancor Mines Inc.
y Chapleau Resources Ltd
y Dorex Minerals Inc.
y Douglas Lake Minerals Inc.
y Dundee Precious Metals Inc.
y El Nino Ventures Inc.
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Year Production Unit of Measure % Change
2002 603498 Metric tons NA
2003 557082 Metric tons -7.69 %
2004 562795 Metric tons 1.03 %
2005 595383 Metric tons 5.79 %
2006 603295 Metric tons 1.33 %
2007 596249 Metric tons -1.17 %
2008 606999 Metric tons 1.80 %
4.4 Silver
4.4.1 Silver mine in Canada
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Silver has been an important mineral product for Canada's economy ever since the
Cobalt boom which followed the discovery of rich veins of the metal near here in 1903.
Although the production of the Cobalt silver mines began to decline in the 1920s, new
sources were developed, principally in the lead and zinc mines of British Columbia and
Ontario, which have maintained Canada's position in the world as a leading supplier of silver.
The Cobalt boom was also important as a stimulus to future mining development in the
Canadian Shield, and as an influence on government mining policy.
The North American nation is amongst the top world-leading producers of uranium,
zinc, potash, nickel, molybdenum, and gold. However, in terms of silver production, Canada
ranks 11th with 19.6 million ounces produced in 2009, according to the Silver Institute.
While global silver mine production rose by nearly 4 percent in 2009, its seventh
straight annual gain, Canada posted a loss of more than 1 million ounces, says the Institute.
Most mined silver is a by-product from other metal mines, and silver production in
Canada fits that description. According to Natural Resources Canada (NRC), the nations
mines are primarily polymetallic; so, its no surprise that the main sources of silver in Canada
are copper-zinc, copper-nickel, gold, and lead-zinc ores.
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Silver is mined as a by-product of base metal or gold mining in new foundland, New
Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, the Yukon and the
Northwest Territories. The Samatosum mine and Equity Silver mine in British Columbia
were the last mines to primarily produce silver; they closed in 1992 and 1994, respectively. In
2003 Canada had an estimated output of 1,255t of silver.
4.4.2 Companies and Organisations linked to Silver Mining in Canada
y Amera Resources Corporation
y Avalon Ventures Ltd.
y Avino Silver & Gold Mines Ltd.
y Breakwater Resources Ltd
y Cancor Mines Inc.
y Continuum Resources Ltd
y Cream Minerals Ltd
y Dorex Minerals Inc.
y Silver Pursuit Resources Ltd
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Year Production Unit ofMeasure % Change
2002 1408 Metric tons NA
2003 1310 Metric tons -6.96 %
2004 1337 Metric tons 2.06 %
2005 1123.83703613281 Metric tons -15.94 %
2006 995.023986816406 Metric tons -11.46 %
2007 860.448974609375 Metric tons -13.52 %
2008 727.710021972656 Metric tons -15.43 %
2009 608 Metric tons -16.45 %
4.5Manganese
Hard and brittle manganese is widely distributed in the Earth's crust. In its impure
state, this transition metal is chemically reactive and burns readily in oxygen.
Manganese possesses many physical and chemical properties similar to those of iron,
and traces of manganese are often found associated with iron ores. Hard manganese, as an
additive in the manufacture of steel, improves the strength and wear resistance of the steel.
Canadian Manganese Inc. has developed a low-cost, environmentally friendly
hydrometallurgical process to recover manganese (Mn) from lower grade resources
containing pyrolusite (MnO2), psilomelane and other four valent Mn oxides. As part of the
development work, American Manganese contracted Kemetco Research Inc. to undertake an
extensive metallurgical test program. The purpose of this program has been to conduct bench
scale testing of unit operations, that when combined, form the basis of a complete conceptual
Process flow sheet to process lower grade Mn resources into high purity Mn metal in a
Robust and economically viable manner.
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In Canada, manganese is primarily employed in the steel industry, where it is used to
counteract the effects of sulphur, as a deoxidizing agent and as an ingredient in special alloys.
Manganese is also used in the manufacture of dry cell batteries and as an oxidizing agent in
the chemical industry. In 1985, about 25 398 t of ferromanganese, 6979 t of silicomanganese,
102 048 t of manganese ore and 3240 t of manganese metal were imported into Canada; 22
408 t of ferromanganese were exported.
Year Production Unit of Measure % Change
2002 80000 Metric tons NA
2003 78000 Metric tons -2.50 %
2004 54000 Metric tons -30.77 %
2005 50000 Metric tons -7.41 %
2006 65000 Metric tons 30.00 %
2007 16300 Metric tons -74.92 %
2008 2000 Metric tons -87.73 %
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4.5.1 Companies and Organizations linked to Manganese Mining in Canada
y Ecometals Limited
y Blackstone Resources
y Capstone Mining Corp.
y Monroe Minerals Inc
y Vena Resources Inc.
y Buchans Minerals Corporation
Buchans Minerals Corporation owns a 100% interest in the 5,800
hectare Woodstock Manganese Property in New Brunswick, Canada that is
host to three zones of sediment-hosted-manganese and iron mineralization,
including the historic Plymouth deposit. Based on historical work, these
deposits have the potential to become one of the largest undeveloped
manganese resources in North America.
BMC Industry Average Grade
open pit underground unspec.
Mn (%) 48.37 26.80 21.52
Zn (%) 5.20 9.56 6.78
Ag (g/t) 39.06 377.31 127.37
Cu (%) 1.06 2.18 1.50
Fe (%) 96.93 - 66.38
Pb (%) 2.17 5.52 3.09
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4.6Mica
Mica is invaluable in the electrical industry because of its unique combination of
physical, chemical and thermal properties, low power loss factor, dielectric constant and
dielectric strength. In Latin it is known as micare, which mean to shine or to glitter or the
Latin mica is a crumb or grain. Nowadays mica is finding increasing use in equipment that
encounters very high temperatures like rockets, missiles and jet engine ignition system. It is
reported that in the manufacture of Telestar transmission satellites by teh USA, good use of
mica has been made.
A group of minerals having perfect basal cleavage and capable of splitting into thin
laminae is called mica. Chemically they contain complex silicate of aluminium and alkalies
with hydroxyl. They crystallize in monoclinic system. Some varieties may contain iron,
magnesium, lithium and rearely fluorine, barium, manganese and vandium. There are seven
important mica minerals:
y Muscovite or potassium mica
H2KAl3(SiO4)3
y Paragonite or sodium mica
H2NaAl3(SiO4)3
y Lepidolite or lithium mica
K Li Al(OH, F)2Al(SiO4)3
y Phlogopite or magnesium mica
H2KMg3Al(SiO4)3
y Biotite or magnesium iron mica
(H2K)(Mg, Fe)3Al(SiO4)3
y Zinnwaldite or lithium iron mica
Li2K2Fe2Al4Si7O24
y Lepidomelane or iron mica
(H, K)2(Fe, Al)4(SiO
y Muscovite is the commonest of all and whenever the word mica is used it is
understood to mean muscovite.
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4.6.1 Other names ofMica
y Cat-gold
y Cat-silver
yGlimmer
y Glist
y Katen-silber
y Katzen-silber
y Katzengold
y Or des chats
y Rhomboidal Mica
Mica is found in pegmatites intruding mica schists. It is found to occur in book form in
the pegmatites. The mode of formation of mica which is found in the form of small flakes to
big slabs cleavable into the fine laminae is still the subject of active research. The presence
of tourmaline crystals and decomposed feldspar in the pegmatites shows the possibility of
finding good quantity of mica.Mica pegmatite consists of quartz core with felspar on the
sides adjoining the country rock, mica-schists. In the quartz and felspar zones, which usually
form the core, the formation of mica is sparsely found and also the flakes are not big in size.
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Year Production Unit of Measure % Change
2002 17500 Metric tons NA
2003 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %
2004 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %
2005 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %
2006 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %
2007 18000 Metric tons 2.86 %
2008 17000 Metric tons -5.56 %
2009 15000 Metric tons -11.76 %
4.6.2 Properties
Muscovite finds the largest use while phlogopite has a limited application. Phlogopite does
not possess the splitability and flexibility of muscovite. On the other hand phlogopite is
superior to muscovite in heat resistance. Muscovite can withstand temperatures up to 700C,
and phlogopite up to about 1000C. Phlogopite is, therefore, preferred where a high
temperature is required. Other mica have no use except for lepidolite which is a source of
lithium. The quality of mica for commercial purposes depends largely on the amount of
staining, air inclusions, the degree of flatness, and the colour.
The staining is caused by mineral inclusions which occur intergrown with muscovite or
between cleavage planes. The most common minerals which occur as inclusions are biotite,
quartz, magnetite, hematite, garnet, plagioclase, apatite, clay minerals and the alteration
products of biotite and iron oxides.
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4.7Mineral sand
Tiomin Resources Inc. of Toronto Canada is a transnational corporation (TNC) with
various miningoperations all over the world. It is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange with
shares actively tradingon the exchange. Indeed in January 2001, Tiomin Resources Inc
announced that it has raised US$5million (approximately Sh400 million) to finance its Kwale
titanium-mining project.
Heavy mineral sands are a class of ore deposit which is an important source of
zirconium, titanium, thorium, tungsten, rare earth elements, the industrial minerals diamond,
sapphire, garnet, and occasionally precious metals or gemstones.
Heavy mineral sands are placer deposits formed most usually in beach environments
by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains. It is equally likely that
some concentrations of heavy minerals (aside from the usual gold placers) exist within
streambeds, but most are of a low grade and are relatively small.
Oil sands exploration incorporates both mining ("conventional" methods) and in-situ
(non-conventional) production methods. Mining of the oil sands involves excavation of the
bitumen-rich sand using open pit mining methods. This is the most efficient method of
extraction when there are large deposits of bitumen with little overburden. In-situ methods
involve processing the oil sand deposit so that the bitumen is removed while the sand remains
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in place. These methods are used for oil sands that are too deep to support surface mining
operations to an economical degree. 80% of the resource in Northern Alberta lies deep below
the surface.
There are some example of mineral sands:
4.7.1 Quartz
There is no other mineral that is as important in sand as quartz. It is really almost
everywhere and forms the bulk of sand composition in most cases. Pure quartz is transparent
but quartz can have almost any color. The grains are usually rounded and they may be
covered by a very fine hematite pigment which gives them a rust colored appearance. Why is
quartz so common in sand? It is a widespread rock forming mineral and it is also extremely
resistant to weathering. Quartz has no cleavage. So we never see planar surfaces on fresh
fractured grains. Rocks that contain lots of quartz are sandstone, quartzite, gneiss, granite,
and many others.
4.7.2 Chalcedony
Chalcedony is very fine-grained quartz. It is so fine-grained that individual quartz
crystals are impossible to see with the naked eye. Even light microscope is of little help.
Chalcedony is formed by the crystallisation of silica gels. It is common cementing material in
sedimentary rocks. Chert (rock type) is composed mostly of chalcedony and many sand
grains composed of chalcedony are actually small chert fragments.
4.7.3 Sanidine
Sanidine is one of feldspars which are very important rock forming minerals.
Feldspars make up more than half [sic] of the composition of the Earths crust. Sanidine itself
is definitely not the most common among them. It occurs primarily in volcanic rocks
(rhyolite, trachyte, phonolite). We have best chances to encounter sanidine in volcanic sandsof felsic composition. Sanidine is one of K-feldspars (potassium rich feldspars). Other
common K-feldspars are microcline and orthoclase which are more common in clastic
sediments (sand).
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4.7.4 Orthoclase and microcline
Common K-feldspars but they are not as resistant to weathering as quartz. K-feldspars
weather to clay minerals. It may be quite difficult to differentiate feldspars from quartz but
they generally appear to be more blocky. Feldspar grains sometimes have planar cleavage
surfaces and they often show signs of weathering. K-feldspars are commonly white, yellow
or pink in color. Microcline generally forms deeper in the crust than orthoclase but it is pretty
complicated task to differentiate one from the other. K-feldspars are the most important
building block of granite.
4.7.5 Plagioclase
Plagioclase feldspars are definitely the most widespread feldspars overall but their
resistance to weathering is not good. Plagioclase decays faster than K-feldspars. We have
best chances to see plagiocalse containing sand in volcanically active areas where fresh sand
rich in volcanic minerals is abundant. Plagioclase crystals are often elongated. They are
usually different shade of gray in color. Plagioclase is common mineral in mafic igneous
rocks (basalt, gabbro).
4.7.6 Estimated ilmenite production in thousands of tons for 2006 according to U.S.
Geological Survey
Country Production(tons)
Australia 1,140,000
South Africa 952,000
Canada 809,000
China 400,000
Norway 380,000
USA 300,000
Ukraine 220,000
India 200,000
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4.7.7GYPSUM
One of the softest minerals known to exist is the basis for one of Iowa's most durable
mineral resource industries. Gypsum is a gray to white-colored mineral that can be easily
scratched with a fingernail, and is referred to chemically as a hydrous calcium sulfate. Some
of its other, perhaps more familiar, names are based on its various forms of occurrence. For
example, alabaster is a massive form; satin spar is a fibrous variety; and selenite is its
crystalline form. Gypsum often occurs in varying proportions with anhydrite (calcium
sulfate), a slightly harder and more dense mineral that lacks water in its chemical make-up.
Gypsum has several principal uses. Ground gypsum is added to Portland cement to
slow the setting time of the cement. Pulverized gypsum, and to a lesser extent anhydrite, is
used in agriculture as a soil conditioner and as an animal-food additive. The best known use
of gypsum is as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of wallboard and plaster. This is
possible because of gypsum's unique property of rehydrating with the addition of water after
having been ground, calcined (baked to a powder), and mixed with other wallboard
ingredients. Anhydrite is considered a contaminant in this case because it cannot be hydrated
like gypsum.
North American gypsum demand will rise 2.7 percent annually through 2013, based
mainly on a recovery in US new housing. Synthetic gypsum will continue to increase its
Brazil 130,000
Vietnam 100,000
Mozambique (750,000)
Madagascar (700,000)
Senegal (150,000)
Other Countries 120,000
Total World 4,800,000
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share of crude gypsum production. Regular gypsum board, water-resistant board, veneer
board and mobile home board will benefit the most from the housing turnaround.
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS) Minerals Resources Program
Year Production Unit of Measure % Change
2002 8378 Thousand metric tons NA
2003 9339 Thousand metric tons 11.47 %
2004 9339 Thousand metric tons 0.00 %
2005 9400 Thousand metric tons 0.65 %
2006 9035.79296875 Thousand metric tons -3.87 %
2007 7562 Thousand metric tons -16.31 %
2008 5740 Thousand metric tons -24.09 %
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4.7.7.1 Companies and Organisations linked to GYPSUMMining in Canada
y National Gypsum (Canada) Ltd
y Cgc Inc
y 9184-5685 Quebec Inc
y National Gypsum (Canada) Ltd
y Certainteed Gypsum Canada, Inc
4.8 Nickel
4.8.1 Introduction
Most of the nickel mined in Canada comes from the Thompson Nickel Belt in
Manitoba, the Sudbury Basin of Ontario; and the Ungava peninsula of Quebec. Nickel
exploration is currently underway in most provinces and territories in Canada. Some notable
hot-spots include CVRD's Voisey's Bay deposit in Labrador and Bucko Lake deposits in
Manitoba, and Starfield Resources' Ferguson Lake deposit in Nunavut. NRCan produces a
yearly review of the Canadian Nickel industry.
Nickel is hard, corrosion resistant and has a relatively high melting point of 1453C,
nearly as high as that of iron. It is, nevertheless, malleable and ductile, allowing it to be
readily worked into sheets or wire. It has excellent strength and toughness at extreme
temperatures. It has low thermal and electrical conductivities, and is capable of being
magnetised, although not as strongly as iron. It is very durable as a pure metal, and alloys
readily with many other metals.
4.8.2 Occurrence
Nickel occurs in the Earths crust principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates. The
majority of economic nickel deposits occur in two geological environments. These are
magmatic sulphide deposits and lateritic deposits. Sulphide deposits may be formed during
slow crystallisation of a magma body at depth or in ancient lava flows. The principal ore
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mineral is pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8]. Nickel-bearing lateritic ores are formed by tropical and
sub-tropical surface weathering. The principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite
[(Fe,Ni)O(OH)] and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate). Mining exploits both sulphide and
laterite ores in almost equal proportions, although laterites currently account for around 70
per cent of known nickel resources. Nickel ores are widespread, but the principal nickel
mining countries are Russia, Canada, Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Colombia and
Brazil. Important nickel refineries treating imported raw materials operate in Norway,
Finland, France, Japan and the United Kingdom.
Nickel is normally extracted from sulphide ores using pyrometallurgical processes
(smelting) followed by electrolytic refining. Lateritic ores may be smelted directly to
ferronickel or treated by hydrometallurgical leaching processes, using either ammonia or
acids. New bioleaching methods are currently under development for the treatment of low-
grade ores and waste dumps.
Primary nickel is marketed as nickel metal with varying purities, and as nickel oxides.
Ferronickel, with a nickel content of 25 to 40 per cent, is an intermediate product that is
added to alloy steel melts particularly in the production of stainless steel.
Nickel in the form of scrapped alloy steel or nickel-based alloy is readily recycled, and large
tonnages of this material are used to supplement newly mined metal.
WORLD WIDE NICKEL PRODUCION
YEAR 2005 2006
Australia 189,000 191,000
Botswana 28,000 28,000
Brazil 52,000 74,200
Canada 198,000 230,000
China 77,000 79,000
Colombia 89,000 90,000
Cuba 72,000 73,800
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Dominican Republic 46,000 46,000
Greece 23,200 24,000
Indonesia 160,000 145,000
New Caledonia 112,000 112,000
Philippines 26,600 42,000
Russia 315,000 320,000
South Africa 42,500 41,000
World total (rounded) 1,490,000 1,550,000
4.8.3Mining Companies
COMPANY LAST PRICE(Us dolers) VOLUME(Metric
ton)
Osisko Mining Corporation 9.84 626471
Altius Minerals Corp. 10.79 42270
Lionore Mining International Ltd. 4.99 825807
First Nickel Inc. 0.11 168275
Goldbrook Ventures Inc. 0.23 349089
GobiMin Inc. 0.58 19500Donner Metals Ltd. 0.29 23500
4.8.4 Uses
Nickel is used as pure metal only in electroplating applications for corrosion
resistance, e.g. medical equipment, scissors and cosmetic applications such as domestic
fittings and vehicle parts, giving them a hard, tarnish-resistant surface. More than 80 per cent
of nickel production is combined with other metals, especially iron, chromium and copper, to
form alloys. Nickel adds
toughness, strength, rust resistance and other electrical, magnetic and heat resistant
properties. Stainless steels account for around 65 per cent of nickel consumption
(International Nickel Study Group, 2010) and are used in construction, the chemical and
food-processing industries, and household products. Nickel-based high-performance alloys
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are critical in the aerospace industry. Nickel is also used in the manufacture of rechargeable
(nickel-cadmium) batteries, incomputer hard discs, in coinage, jewellery and in electrical
components
4.9 Lead
4.9.1 Introduction
Lead is bright and silvery when freshly cut but the surface rapidly tarnishes in air to
produce the commonly observed dull luster normally associated with lead. It is a dense,
ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity
when compared to most other metals. This metal is highly resistant to corrosion, and because
of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (for example, sulfuric acid). Because
lead is very malleable and resistant to corrosion it is extensively used in building construction
for example in the external coverings of roofing joints
4.9.2 Occurrences
Metallic lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Lead is usually found in ore with
zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The
main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6 % lead by weight. Other commonvarieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4).
4.9.3 Consumption
Lead is a soft, heavy, inexpensive metal, which makes it useful in the manufacture of
many consumer products such as pipes, sheeting, and as filler in the automobile body
industry. In Canada, the major use of lead is in the manufacture of (lead-acid) batteries used
in automobiles. It is also used in ammunition, fishing weights, and solder. Lead pigments areadded to glass to prevent radiation exposure from television and computer screens, to storage
containers for nuclear waste and to x-ray shielding aprons. Lead-acid batteries account for the
most significant proportion of global lead consumption
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4.9.4 Lead Produce Company
Company TickerLast Price
(native)
Change
(native)Change (%) Volume
Teck Cominco Ltd. TCK-B.TO 35.91 0.70 1.99% 1,010,745
Inmet Mining Corp. IMN.TO 65.50 0.10 0.15% 176,870
Lundin Mining Corp. LUN.TO 3.87 0.00 0.00% 3,927,306
HudBay Minerals Inc. HBM.TO 10.14 0.23 2.32% 297,730
Nevsun Resources Ltd. NSU.TO 5.66 0.15 2.72% 236,280
Capstone Mining Corp. CS.TO 2.78 0.01 0.36% 179,148
4.10 Antimony
General Information antimony trioxide (Sb2o3) is a slightly soluble, white crystalline
powder. it is produced from the smelting of antimony containing ores or by reacting
antimony trichloride with water. antimony is not abundant in the earths crust. Antimony
trioxide may also be referred to as DaT (diantimony trioxide), antimony oxide or in
manufacturing as antimony white. There are numerous other synonyms and product names;
see HSDB for more information .The epidemiological literature is not extensive and is
limited by difficulty in controlling for confounding variables. recent reviews of studies
reporting excesses of lung cancer in antimony exposed smelter workers acknowledge that
factors such as smoking, exposures to paHs and other metals (eg. arsenic), were not
appropriately controlled.
4.10.1Main Uses
Use in Canada
PET was produced in Canada as of 2003 by 2 companies,mostly in the form of plastic
bottles, but also as fibres for thetextile industry .
Searches of MSDS and industry databases yielded the following results on current usage of
antimony trioxide in Canada
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4.10.2 Production And Trade
ACTIVITY QUANTITY YEAR
Canadian Production 234 t (of antimony) 2001
Domestic Consumption 517 t (of antimony) 2000
Export
Mainly to US 41 t of antimony oxides 2007
Import
Mainly from China, 1600 t of antimonyoxides 2007
Mexico
4.11Tungsten
Tungsten was first identified in 1781 and first isolated in 1783. It has the highest
melting point of any pure metal, at 3 410 C. Until 1986, Canada was a major producer of
tungsten ore and concentrate. Annual production reached a high of 3715 t (8% of world)
tungsten content in 1984, after which prices collapsed as a result of increased exports from
the Peoples Republic of China. The low-priced material from China eventually forced theclosure of most Canadian operations. In 2003 (3,654 t) tugsten was produced only in the
Northwest Territories.
Minly 3 companies have been involved to mine the Tungsten in Canada
1 North American Tungsten Corporation.
2 Primary Metals Inc.
3 Tiberon Minerals Ltd.
4.11.1 Uses
Tungsten is used in the production of hard steels and, when it is mixed with carbon,
the result is tungsten carbide. Tungsten carbide is often used to produce tool tips employed in
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high-speed machining. Other applications of tungsten include filaments for light bulbs, andnew applications are being developed as it is increasingly being used as a substitute for lead,
which is not environmentally benign.
Tungsten production in Canada
Year Production (metric tons)2003 3636
2005 384
2006 1983
2007 2305
2008 2277
2009 1964
4.12 COAL
4.12.1 Introduction
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in
rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as
anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated
temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable
quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Throughout history, coal has been a useful resource for human consumption. It is
primarily burned as a fossil fuel for the production of electricity and/or heat, and is also used
for industrial purposes such as refining metals. Coal forms when dead plant matter is
converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then anthracite. This involves
biological and geological processes that take place over a long period of time. Domestic
resources of graphite are relatively small, but the rest of the worlds inferred resources exceed
800 million tons of recoverable graphite.
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Anthracite coal
Bituminous coal
Anthracite (Ibbenbren, Germany)
4.12.2 Occurrences in Canada
In North America, coal occurs in rocks of three major geologic periods: the
Carboniferous of the Appalachian region, the Cretaceous of the Rocky Mountain region, and
the Tertiary of the Rocky Mountain and Gulf Coast regions. Of these three periods,
Cretaceous-age strata contain the most coal. Early in this century, there was some
development of Cretaceous and Tertiary coals to fuel the railroads in the western United
States and Canadian provinces.
The decline of the steel industry and the substitution of coal by oil and gas for
domestic heating and transportation caused a substantial fall in coal production by the middle
of the century. Since the early 1960's, however, there has been a steady increase in the
production of coal, mainly as a result of the development of major coal fields in the western
United States and Canada. Today over 50 percent of the United States' electricity is produced
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from coal. Approximately one third of coal mined in the United States is from Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata.
Worldwide demand for graphite was very weak during the last quarter of 2008 and in
the first half of 2009, owing to the global recessions impact on the industrial sectors that use
it. However, during the second half of 2009 worldwide demand for graphite began a slow
increase, which continued steadily throughout 2010. Principal import sources of natural
graphite were, in descending order of tonnage, China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and
Madagascar, which combined, accounted for 98% of the tonnage and 90% of the value of
total imports. Mexico provided all the amorphous graphite, and Sri Lanka provided all the
lump and chippy dust variety. China and Canada were, in descending order of tonnage, the
major suppliers of crystalline flake and flake dust graphite. During 2010, China produced the
majority of the worlds graphite, and Chinas graphite production is expected to continue
growing. In recent years, Canada has opened a number of new graphite mines, and this trend
is expected to continue through the next few years. Advances in thermal technology and acid-
leaching techniques that enable the production of higher purity graphite powders are likely to
lead to development of new applications for graphite in high-technology fields. Such
innovative refining techniques have enabled the use of improved graphite in carbon-graphite
composites, electronics, foils, friction materials, and special lubricant applications. Flexible
graphite product lines, such as graphoil (a thin graphite cloth), are likely to be the fastest
growing market. Large-scale fuel-cell applications are being developed that could consume asmuch graphite as all other uses combined
4.12.3 Coal mining methods
Two major factors are involved in determining which coals are currently economic for
mining: the cost of transportation to areas where the coal is utilized and the environmental
concerns associated with mining and utilization. From a geologic perspective, the quality,
thickness, dimensions and depth of coal are important in determining whether or not a coal is
mineable. Coal contains inorganic impurities (ash) that are left after burning. Cretaceous
coals generally contain only moderate amounts of ash. The amount of sulfur in coal is also
important because it is a major contributor to emissions that cause acid rain. Cretaceous coals
are relatively low in sulfur. The rank of coal largely depends on the depth to which it was
buried through geologic time-the deeper the coal, the greater the amount of energy that can be
produced per unit of weight. Cretaceous coals are generally bituminous in rank, which is
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higher than most Tertiary coals and lower than Carboniferous coals. Cretaceous coal beds
reach a maximum thickness of about 100 feet, but most are less than 10 feet thick and few
less than 6 feet thick are mined.
4.12.4 Environmental effects
There are a number of adverse health and environmental effects of coal
burning especially in power stations, and of coal mining. These effects include: Coal-fired
power plants shortened nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States, including 2,800
from lung cancer
Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom
ash, flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and
other heavy metals
Acid rain from high sulfur coal
Interference with groundwater and water table levels
Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills such
as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill
Aerial photograph of site taken the day after the event
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Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses
Dust nuisance
Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
Uncontrollable underground fires which may burn for decades or centuries.
Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of
human-caused background radiation exposure
Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human
health and the environment
Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and global
warming according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the
human-made increase of CO2 in the air
With increasing environmental concerns, much research has been conducted to discover
cleaner ways of burning coal. Over the last decade, a relatively clean use of some deep coal
resources has been developed by the in situ extraction of methane from coal beds. Sites of
coal development in the next century will be determined by the combination of new
technologies for extraction and utilization, environmental concern, energy demand, and
geologic investigations.
4.12.5Recycling
There are various graphite recycling methods.Refractory brick and linings, alumina-
graphite refractories for continuous metal castings, magnesiagraphite refractory brick for
basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces, and insulation brick led the way in recycling of
graphite products. The market for recycled refractory graphite material is growing with
material being recycled into products such as brake linings and thermal insulation.
Recovering high-quality flake graphite from steelmaking kish is technically feasible, but not
practiced at the present time. The abundance of graphite in the world market inhibits
increased recycling efforts.
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Import Sources (200609): China, 46%; Mexico, 23%; Canada, 21%; Brazil, 6%; and other, 4%.
Country Mine production 2009 (x1000T) Mine production 2010 (x1000T) Reserves
United States - - -
Brazil 76 76 360
Canada 25 25
China 800 800 55,000
India 130 130 5,200
Korea, North 30 30
Madagascar 5 5 940
Mexico 5 5 3,100
Norway 2 2
Sri Lanka 11 11
Ukraine 6 6
Other countries 3 3 6,400
World total (rounded) 1,100 1,100 71,000
.
4.12.6 Coal Mining Companies at Canada
y Sherritt International Corporation (Sherritt)
y Teck Resources Limited (Teck Resources)
y Walter Energy, Inc. (Walter)
4.13Gold
4.13.1 Introduction
Gold was among the first metals to be mined because it commonly occurs in its native
form, that is, not combined with other elements, because it is beautiful and imperishable, and
because exquisite objects can be made from it.
Gold is called a "noble" metal (an alchemistic term) because it does not oxidize under
ordinary conditions. Its chemical symbol Au is derived from the Latin word "aurum". In pure
form gold has a metallic luster and is sun yellow, but mixtures of other metals, such as silver,
copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, tellurium, and iron, with gold create various color hues
ranging from silver-white to green and orange-red.
4.13.2Occurrences of
Gold
Gold is relatively scarce in the earth, but it occurs in many different kinds of rocks
and in many different geological environments. Though scarce, gold is concentrated by
geologic processes to form commercial deposits of two principal types: lode (primary)
deposits and placer (secondary) deposits.
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Lode deposits are the targets for the "hardrock" prospector seeking gold at the site of its
deposition from mineralizing solutions. Geologists have proposed various hypotheses to
explain the source of solutions from which mineral constituents are precipitated in lode
deposits.
Another hypothesis suggests that gold-bearing solutions may be expelled from magma
as it cools, precipitating ore materials as they move into cooler surrounding rocks. This
hypothesis is applied particularly to gold deposits located in or near masses of granitic rock,
which represent solidified magma.
A third hypothesis is applied mainly to gold-bearing veins in metamorphic rocks that
occur in mountain belts at continental margins. In the mountain-building process,
sedimentary and volcanic rocks may be deeply buried or thrust under the edge of the
continent, where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical
reactions that change the rocks to new mineral assemblages (metamorphism). This hypothesis
suggests that water is expelled from the rocks and migrates upwards, precipitating ore
materials as pressures and temperatures decrease. The ore metals are thought to originate
from the rocks undergoing active metamorphism.
4.13.3 Occurrences in Canada
Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such
as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds and lead. Several of Canada's largest companies are basedin natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The
vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many
secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.
Canada is one of the world's top gold producers, after South Africa, the USA and
Australia. Canada produced 140,529 kg of gold in 2003 from 330 gold mines which
accounted for more than 90% of production. Several of Canada's gold mines have closed as a
result of the low gold price and exhausted ore reserves. Remaining production came from
placer workings and base metal by products.
The low price of gold and the depletion of reserves are responsible for the closure of
nine mining operations over the past two years. By the end of 2002, there were only about 30
mines remaining in Canada; 10 years earlier, there were more than 50. This decrease in the
number of operations is forecast to continue for a few years with 8-10 other mines expected
to cease operations by 2005 when their economic reserves are depleted. The lost production
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resulting from these closures is not expected to exceed 5 t of gold and could be compensated
for by the expansion and resumption of production at existing mines. Gold produced in
Canada comes primarily from gold mines, which account for 92.5% of the total. The
remainder is produced by base-metal (6%) and placer (1.5%) mines. Almost 90% of
Canadian gold mines are underground operations where productivity is relatively high, which
keeps production costs among the lowest in the world.
Several major mining companies are actively producing gold from Canada, including
Placer Dome, Barrick and TVX Newmont Americas (TVXNA). Other major producers are
Miramar Mining, Kinross Gold, Newmont and Cambior. Gold is also produced as a by
product from most of the base metal mines in Canada. The merger between Barrick and
Homestake produced one of the world's largest gold mining companies.
Canada ranked third in world gold production, as its output increased slightly to 3.7billion
dollars. It is 15.5% to 28.4% of worlds gold production.
Goldcorp which is one of the largest gold mining companies, it operated three mines
in Ontariothe Musselwhite, Porcupine, and Red Lake Mines. In 2009, the Red Lake Mine
produced 19,400 kg of gold approximately. The Porcupine and Musselwhite Mines produced
9,900 kg and 7,230 kg of gold, respectively, which was 9% and 10% more than in 2008,
respectively, because of higher mill throughput and higher grades.
Country Percentage%
USA 79.2
EU 6.8
China 2.1
Japan 2.0
Mexico 1.8
Other 8.1
Export Percentage of Mine Gold by Customer
4.13.4Gold Separation Method
Impure gold, as it commonly occurs in deposits, has a density of 16 to 18, whereas the
associated waste rock (gangue) has a density of about 2.5. The difference in density enables
gold to be concentrated by gravity and permits the separation of gold from clay, silt, sand,
and gravel by various agitating and collecting devices such as the gold pan, rocker, and
sluicebox.
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Mercury (quicksilver) has a chemical affinity for gold. When mercury is added to
gold-bearing material, the two metals form an amalgam. Mercury is later separated from
amalgam by retorting. Extraction of gold and other precious metals from their ores by
treatment with mercury is called amalgamation. Gold dissolves in aqua regia, a mixture of
hydrochloric and nitric acids, and in sodium or potassium cyanide. The latter solvent is the
basis for the cyanide process that is used to recover gold from low-grade ore.
Highly toxic sodium cyanide (NaCN) is used increasingly by the international mining
community to extract gold and other precious metals through milling of high grade ores and
heap leaching of low grade ores. In Canada, more than 60% of the mined gold is extracted
from ores with the cyanidation process. This process consists of leaching gold from the ore as
a gold-cyanide complex, and gold being recovered by precipitation . there are many negative
effects of this method. By milling and heap leaching require cycling of millions of liters of
alkaline water containing high concentrations of potentially toxic NaCN, free cyanide, and
metal cyanide complexes that are frequently accessible to wildlife. Some milling operations
result in tailings ponds of 150 ha and larger. Heap leach operations that spray or drip cyanide
solution onto the flattened top of the ore heap require solution processing ponds of about 1 ha
in surface area. Although not intentional or desired, puddles of various sizes may occur on
the top of heaps where the highest concentrations of NaCN are found Exposed solution
recovery channels are usually constructed at the base, of leach heaps. All of these cyanide-
containing water bodies are hazardous to wildlife if not properly managed. In this account we
emphasize hazards of cyanide from mining operations to fish and wildlife species and
proposed mitigation to protect them.
4.13.4 Value addition ofGold and their benefits
Aside from monetary uses, gold is used in jewelry and allied wares, electrical-
electronic applications, dentistry, the aircraft-aerospace industry, the arts, and medical andchemical fields.
1. Jewelry
The production of ornamental objects was probably the first use of gold over 6000 years ago.
Gold is found in the pure state, is very easy to work and was probably the first metal used by
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humans. Today, most of the gold that is newly mined or recycled is used in the manufacture
of jewelry. About 78% of the gold consumed each year is used in the manufacture of jewelry.
2. Financial Gold
Because gold is highly valued and in very limited supply it has long been used as a medium
of exchange or money. The rarity, usefulness and desirability of gold make it a substance of
long term value. Gold works well for this purpose because it has a high value, is durable,
portable and easily divisible.
3. Electronic Applications
The most important industrial use of gold is in the manufacture of electronics. Solid state
elect
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