fatemeh etemadi, dr. masoud hashemi, dr. frank mangan & dr...

FAVA BEANS

Growers Guide in New England

Fatemeh Etemadi, Dr. Masoud Hashemi,

Dr. Frank Mangan & Dr. Sarah Weis

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ThisguidelinehasbeendevelopedbytheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherstandisintendedtoprovidebasicinformationforgrowingfavabeansasanewdualpurposecropforNewEngland.

Youcanalsowatchthefollowingvideoformoreinformation:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6W4EoQD2Q4

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FAVA BEANS

Growers Guide in new England

FatemehEtemadi

Dr.MasoudHashemi

Dr.FrankMangan

Dr.SarahWeis

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Copyright2015byUniversityofMassachusettsAmherst

AcknowledgementsTheauthorswishtothankMassachusettsDepartmentofAgriculture,NortheastSustainableAgricultureandEducation,UniversityofMassachusettsCenterforAgriculture,FoodandtheEnvironment,andStockbridgeSchoolofAgriculturefortheircontributionandsupport.

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Table of Contents

Favabeans;GrowersguideinNewEngland......................................................................................7

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................7

GrowthandDevelopment...................................................................................................................7

GerminationandEmergence...............................................................................................................8

Pollination............................................................................................................................................8

CultivationPractices............................................................................................................................9

Soilstype..............................................................................................................................................9

Soiltemperature..................................................................................................................................9

DateofPlanting.................................................................................................................................10

MethodofPlanting............................................................................................................................10

DirectSeeding....................................................................................................................................10

Transplanting.....................................................................................................................................10

SeedSize............................................................................................................................................10

SeedingRate......................................................................................................................................12

SeedTreatment.................................................................................................................................12

SeedInoculation................................................................................................................................13

TheDustingMethod..........................................................................................................................13

TheSlurryMethod.............................................................................................................................13

TheTwo—StepMethod.....................................................................................................................13

Fertility...............................................................................................................................................14

Varietyselection................................................................................................................................15

YieldPotential....................................................................................................................................16

Diseaseandpests..............................................................................................................................16

Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae)..........................................................................................................16

Leafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis).............................................17

Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)..................................................................................17

Powderymildew(Erysiphecichoracearum)......................................................................................17

Fusariumrootrot(Fusarium solani)...............................................................................................18

Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)..........................................................................................................18

Weedcontrol.....................................................................................................................................20

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Harvest...............................................................................................................................................20

SeedStorage......................................................................................................................................21

Nutritionalvalueoffavabean...........................................................................................................21

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Favabeans;GrowersguideinNewEngland

Commonnamesfababean,favabean,broadbean,Windsorbean,Scotchbean,horsebean

Botanicalname.Viciafaba

Origin.CentralAsia

IntroductionFavabeanisacool-seasoncropthatgrowsbestintemperaturesrangingfrom60°to65°Fbutitcangrowinconditionsaslowas40°Fandashighas75°F.ThusfavabeanscanbeplantedinMassachusettsinthespringassoonasthesoilisworkableforearlyharvest.Favabeanvarietiesrequire80to100daystoreachharvest.InregionswithmilderwintersthanNewEngland,favabeansareplantedinearlyfallforwinter/earlyspringharvest.

FavabeanisnativetotheMediterraneanregion,includingItaly.Itisoneoftheoldestcultivatedplantsknown,withitscultureextendingbacktoprehistorictimes.CanadaandMexicoareperhapslargeproducersoffavabeaninNorthAmericasincethiscropgrowsandyieldsbestinareaswithcoolsummers.Minnesotaandthelakestatesproducesmallacreages.InCalifornia,favabeanisgrownasseedcropsalongthecoastfromLompoctoSalinasandintheNorthernSacramentoValley,butinotherareasofthestateitisgrownmostlyascovercrop/greenmanure.

Beingalegume,favabeanisabletofixatmosphericnitrogenandthereforeneedslessnitrogenfromfertilizersandsoilorganic.Favabeanseedsarerichinproteinandinculturesaroundtheworldthatusefavabean;theymakeupamajorsourceofproteinintheirdiet.

Dryfavabeancontainsabout24%protein,2%fat,and50%carbohydrate,andhasanaverageof700caloriesperserving.Itisalsousedinlivestockandpoultryrations.Morerecently,attentionhasbeengiventotheuseoffavabeanasalegumecovercrop.

Inmanyregionsfavabeanisconsideredasa"break"cropforcerealcropproductionbecauseitreducestheoccurrenceofcerealcystnematode(CCN)(Heteroderaavenae)whichisconsideredtobeamajordiseaseinmanyregions.Favabeantolerateswaterloggingbetterthanmanyothergrainlegumesincludingchickpeas(Cicer arietinum),fieldpeas(P. sativum sub sp. arvense (L.)),lupines(Lupinus albus L.) andlentils.Italsotoleratesacidicsoilsbetterthanotherleguminousgrains.Whenfreshpodsareharvested,theremainingresiduewhichcontainshighamountofnitrogencanbeusedasavaluablesourceoffeed,forlivestockorcanbereturnedtothesoiltoenhancesoilnaturalfertility.

GrowthandDevelopmentFavabeanisbushy,hardyannualwhichcangrowupto4feettall.Ithassquarestemswithleavesdividedintoleaflets.Podsare6to8incheslongandoftencontain3to6flat,ovalseedsthatcanbewhite,yellow,green,orpurple(Figure2).Favabeanhaswhiteflowerswithsomeblackorbrownspots.Inlarge-seededvarieties,1or2podsgrowateachnodewhereasinsmall-seededtypesthenumberofpodspernodecanbeashighasfive.Onaveragethereareabout15podsperstalkonlargetypesand60podsonsmall-seededvarieties.Whenstoredunderfavorableconditions,mostfavabeanseedswillremainviableforhavealifeexpectancyof3years.

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GerminationandEmergence

Inoptimumgrowingconditions,germinationoffavabeanseedstakeabout10to14days(Figure1).Itwilltakelongerindryorverycoldconditions.

Favabeanplantsgrowatarateofaround1nodeperweek.Becausestemsarestrongandupright,theplantcangrowfrom3to4½feet,talldependingonthevariety.Atthe8to10nodegrowthstage,whentheplantisaround12incheshigh,favabeanplantsproducetheirfirstflowers,usuallyinJune.Bothflowersandpodsappearabout8inchesabovetheground.Roughly25%oftheflowerswillproducepodswhichusuallycontainthreetosixseedsineachindividualpod(Figure2).

PollinationFavabeanisself-pollinationplantanddoesnotnecessarilyneedtheassistanceofpollinatorssuchashoneybees;however,someresearchershavefoundthathoneybeesandothernaturalpollinatorscanincreasepollinations.Favabean

Figure1.Favabeansseedlings

Figure2.Reproductivegrowthstagesoffavabean;a)flowerformation,b)podsreadyforharvest,andc)immatureseeds

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haslimitedabilityforself-pollination;therefore,itsflowersbenefitgreatlyfrominsectpollinatorsformaximumfruit-set.Introducingbeehives,atleastonehiveforeach6acresoffavabeanisgenerallyrecommendedforsuccessfulpollination.Favabeanflowersopeninmid-afternoonandcloseinearlyevening.Likeotherlegumes,theflowersareadaptedto'trip'whenvisitedbyapollinatorwhichdustspollenonthevisitor.Thistraitsuggeststhatcross-pollinationisdesirableinthiscrop.HoneybeesarecapableofpollinatingV.faba,butlargerbeesareevenmoreeffective(Figure3).Becausehoneybeeshavedifficultyreachingnectarinthefavabean,beekeepersmaywishtosupplementtheirhiveswithsugarsyrupwhiletheycollectpollenonthiscrop.Honeybeesareknowntobeeffectivepollinatorsoffavabeansinwarmerclimates,butitisnotclearhoweffectivetheyareintemperatezones.Itisalsopossiblethattheuseoftoomanyhivesmaybeunnecessary,astheplantswillonlysetfruitfromaportionoftheirflowersnomatterhowmanyarepollinated,andaborttherest.Plantsinsmallfieldsandthoseneartheedgesoflargefieldsaremoreproductive,demonstratingthevalueofwildpollinatorstothiscrop.

CultivationPracticesSoilstype

TheidealsoilpHforgrowingfavabeanrangesfrom6.0to6.5.Favabeandoesbestonwell-drainedsilt-loamsoils.LimeshouldbeappliedifpHlevelisbelow5.6.Sandyloamsarealsosuitablebutrequiremorefrequentirrigation.Thecropmaysuffermoisturestressinsoilsthatdryquicklybecausefavabeanhasrelativelyshallowroots.Favabeanseemstobetoleranttoshortperiodofwater-logging.Soiltemperature

Favabeanisacoolseasonlegumethereforeitgerminatesandgrowswellundercoolsoilconditions.Fieldsmaybeplantedassoonastheycanbeworkedon.DelayingplantingtillJunemayincreasetheincidenceofvirusorchocolatespotinfection.Theoptimaltemperatureforplantgrowthis59-68°F,especiallyduringthestagesofflowerandpoddevelopment.Favabeanflowerswillabortiftemperaturesexceed80°Fandtheyareparticularlysensitivetohot,dryconditionsduringpoddevelopment.Thus,prolongedcoolweatherinthespringisidealfordevelopmentofpods.

Irrigation

Favabeanrequiresanaverageannualrainfallof16inchesduringitsgrowth.Otherwise,itneedssupplementforirrigation.Soiltypedoesnotaffecttheamountoftotalwaterneededbutdoesdictatefrequencyofwaterapplication.Lightersoilsneedmorefrequentirrigation,butlesswaterappliedperapplication.Thetwocriticalirrigationtimesarefloweringandpodsetstages,bothofwhichareverysensitivetodroughtstressconditions.Ifusingoverheadirrigation,asopposedtodripirrigation,itisadvisabletoirrigatewhenit’ssunnytoallow

Figure3.Honeybeeispollinatingfavabeanflower

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plantleavestodryoffquicklybeforethedungoesdown.Thiswilllessenthepotentialinfectionofdiseases.

DateofPlantingWeatherconditionduringthevegetativegrowthisofgreatimportanceforthecompensatorycapacityoffavabeanandwillaffectthenumberofstemsperplant.Whenthereisalongergrowingseason,andgivenoptimumgrowingconditions,plantsgrownatlowdensitycaneffectivelycompensateforlowerplantpopulationsbydevelopingalargernumberofsidebranches.AlthoughweatherconditioninMassachusettsisquitedifferentintermsoftemperatureandday-lengthcomparedwithMediterranean-typeenvironment,favabeancanbegrownsuccessfullyifplantedasearlyasmid-MarchordelayeduntilearlyJuly.Ingeneral,earlierplantingoffavabeaninspring,whichexperiencelesshumidityandtemperature,oftenresultsinhigherpodyieldandfruitquality.Italsoprovidestheopportunityofdualpurposeproduction,bothascashcropandascovercrop.Earlyplantingalsoenablesfarmerstogrowtwocropsinonegrowingseason–theycangrowacropsuchasspinachorlettuceinthesamefieldbeforeplantingfavabeaninJuly.

MethodofPlantingTraditionally fava bean is seeded directly intothesoil.Howevertoensureearlyplantingitcanalsogrownindoorandtransplantedtothemainfield.

DirectSeedingFavabeanisacoolseasoncropandcantolerate150F.Conventionallyfavabeanseedisplanteddirectlyintothefieldatearliesttimeinspringwhensoilisworkable.Earlyplantingishighly

recommendedtoavoidchocolatespotwhichisfavoredbyhightemperaturesthatoccurinJulyandAugust.

TransplantingInsomeyears,soilandweatherconditionsdonotallowearlyplanting.Therefore,transplantingcanbeconsideredasanalternativemethodtoavoiddelayedplantingoffavabean.Sowingfavabeanseedsindoor(greenhouse)inlateMarchandtransplantingtheseedlingsintothefieldensuresitsearlyplantingwhichiscrucialforhealthyplantsandoptimumyield.Ourresearchindicatedthattheoptimumtemperatureforgrowingfavabeaningreenhouseis600Fandthebestdurationforgrowingseedlingspriortotransplantingisabout12-15days.Seedsshouldbeinoculatedwithproperrhizobiaanddonotneedanyadditionalfertilizertobeadded.Theyplantedinpro-mixsoilina1.25”cellsizetray.Favabeanseedsshouldbeplantedabout1inchdeep.Thedistancebetweenplantsonplantingrowsis6”whenrowwidthis30”and9”whenrowspacingis15”.Thisplantingarrangementprovidesabout28,000–30,000plantsperacre.Ourresearchindicatedthat15”rowsyieldbetterthan30”rowsasmuchas15%onaverage.SeedSizeSeedsizevariesgreatlyamongvarietiesandcultivarsoffavabean(Table1).Italsovarieswithpodlocationonthesameplant.Seedsareclassifiedaslarge(>1.0gseed−1),medium(0.5-1.0gseed−1)andsmall(<0.5gseed−1).Desiredpopulationdensityistraditionallydeterminedbyseedingratewhichisprimarilyrelatedtothenumberofseedsperunitweight(lb).Thereforeseedingrateofcultivarswithsmallerseedsizeissignificantlylowerthanthosewithlargerseeds.Plantbreedershaverecognizedtheimportanceoflargerseedintheproductionoffoodcrops

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andhavebeenbreedingforthetrait.Thegeneralconceptionisthatlargerseedsmayhavemorefoodreservesandthusgerminatefaster,quickerestablishment,andhigheryieldthansmallerseedswithinthesamevariety/cultivar.However,theuseofsmallseedscansignificantlyreducetheproductioncostsbyloweringtheamountofseedsneededperunitarea.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenfavabeanisgrownascovercroporasdualpurpose.Forcovercroppurposes,itisrecommendedtoplantsmallseededvarietieswhichcanbeseededat80lbacre-1asopposeto110lbacre-1whenWindsorvarietyisusedasavegetable.

WeusedWindsorvarietyinatwo-yearstudyandwefoundthatthereissignificantyielddifferenceamongseedsizes.Largeseeds(lowerpods)producedhigherpodnumberandout-yieldedsmallandmediumseedsize.

CurrentlyWindsoristhedominantvarietyavailableinNewEngland.Thecostofseedisrelativelyhigh(275seeds/lbwithaveragecostof3.0-3.5$/lb).Thereforethecostof28,000seedswouldberoughly$300-350peracre.Smallerseedsizevarietiesthereforearepreferableespeciallyiffavabeansaregrownascovercrop.Wealsofoundsignificantdifferencesinseedsizeamongfavabeanvarieties(Table1).Thosewithlargerseedsproducedmoreyieldthansmallseededvarieties.Howeverevenwithinavariety,seedsizemayvarysignificantly(Figure5).Thisismainly

becausethelowerpodswhichappearfirstonthepodsproducelargerseedsthanthoselocatedinthemiddleorupperpartsoftheplant.

Table1.Seedsizeandpodfreshweightofsomefavabeanvarieties.

Cultivar SeedSize(g/100seeds)

PodFreshWeight(lb/ac)

Aquadulce 265 15107a*

BellBean 51 3327c

D’Aquadulce 392 5549c

DelleCascine

335 15201a

Earlyviolletto

280 12059ab

Earlywhite 253 10581b

SweetLorane

68 1831c

Windsor 311 5144c*Those with the same letter are notsignificantlydifference.

Figure4.Transplantinganddirectseedingcanbeusedforplantingfavabean.

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SeedingRatePlantdensityaffectscanopydevelopment,radiationinterception,drymatterproduction,evapo-transpiration,weedcompetition,developmentofdiseases,plantheight,seedyield,andtheeconomicsofcropproductioninafarmingsystem.

Awiderangeofdensitiesoffavabeaniscommonlyused,from25,000-40,000plantsperacre,dependingonthecultivar(seedsize)andtheregion.Thus,forcrop-managementpurposes,referenceismadeonlytocultivarseedsizeregardlessofbotanicaltype.Asstatedearlier,favabeanvarietiesareclassifiedaslarge-seeded(>1.0gseed−1),medium-seeded(0.5-1.0gseed−1)andsmallseeded(<0.5gseed−1).Regardlessofseedsize,favabeanyieldincreaseswithpopulationandreachesitsmaximumyieldatdifferentplantpopulationsdependingonthesizeoftheseed;thesmallertheseed,thehighertheplantpopulationwouldbeneededtoreachitsyieldpeakataround30,000plantsperacre.Itmustbenotedthatfavabeantendstoproducelateralbranches(Figure6)inlowerpopulationswhichoftenarenotasproductiveasthemainstem.Thereforeseedingratesshouldbeadjustedforloweringthenumberoflateralbranches.Thereisacorrelationbetweenhigherseedingrateandhigherhumiditywithinthecanopy.Giventhefactthatfavabeanismoresensitivetodiseases

inhighhumidity,highpopulationsshouldbeavoided.Alsoifpossibleplantingshouldbearrangedwest-eastforbetterventilation.

Figure6.Lateralbranchformationsinfavabeangrown

withlowplantpopulation

SeedTreatment

Favabeanisalegumecropthereforeisabletofixasignificantamountofnitrogenthroughasymbioticrelationshipwithrhizobiumbacteria.

Thebacteriaentertheroothairsofthehostplantandinducenoduleformationonitsroots(Figure7).Thehostplantprovidesorganiccarbonandsugarstothebacterialivinginsidethenodulesandinreturnthebacteriaconvertsatmosphericnitrogenintoplant-useableformsofnitrogen.Maximumbenefitfromthissymbioticrelationshipoccurswhenavailablesoilnitrogenislowandthesoilmoistureandtemperaturelevelsareadequatefornormalseedlingdevelopmentfromthetimeofseedinguntilseedlingsarewellestablished.

Highlevelofnitrogeninthesoilpreventspropernodulationsincefavabeanplantswillpreferentiallyusethesoilnitrogenratherthanfixednitrogen.Rhizobiacanliveinthesoilforanumberofyears;however,themostefficientnitrogen-fixingbacteriamaynotbeamongthosethatsurvive.Favabeanseedsshouldbeinoculatedwith“R.leguminosarum bv. viciae”.Althoughrhizobiumbacteriaremainaliveupto3yearsinsoils,itisrecommendedtoinoculate

Figure5.VariationinseedsizewithinWindsorfavabean

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theseedseveryyearforachievingmaximumnitrogenfixation.

Growersshouldasktheseedcompaniesforthebestavailableinoculantswhenpurchasingtheirseeds.Inoculantsshouldbekeptdryandfreshandstoredproperly(Figure8).Agrow-outtestcanbedonetocomparethequalityofvariousinoculants.

SeedInoculation Farmersshouldcoattheirseedwithinoculantsjustbeforeplantingsothatlargenumbersofrhizobiawillbereadytostarttheinfectionprocessassoonasprimarytherootsemerge.Theserhizobiacanthenquicklyinfecttherootsandstarttheprocessofnodulation.

TheDustingMethod Frequentlyfarmersdonotuseanystickingagentsuchassugarsolution.Theysimplymixdrypowderedinoculantssuchasthepeat-basedtypewithdryseedwithoutusinganykindofliquid.Drydustingisthepoorestmethodofinoculationsincedryinoculantsdoesnotadherewelltoseed,andmostofitwillblowawayduringplanting.

TheSlurryMethod Seedcanbeinoculatedbycoatingthemwithslurryofinoculantsandstickersolution.Justbeforeplanting,mixpremeasuredamountsofstickersolutionandinoculantsthoroughlytomakesmoothliquidslurry.Addthistoaweighedamountofseedandstirthemixturecontinuouslyuntiltheseedisevenlycoated.Themixingcontainershouldbetwiceaslargeasthevolumeoftheseeds.Acementmixerisrecommendedforlargeamounts. Therateofstickersolutionmixedwiththeinoculantsdependsonthetypeofseedused.Smallerseedsrequiremorestickersolutionperseedweightthanlargerseedsbecausetheyhavealargersurfaceareatobecoated.Theslurryshouldbeaddedtotheseedsinsmallamountsbecausetoomuchstickersolutionwillcausetheseedstoclumptogetherorswell.Forallvarietyoffavabeans,5gofinoculantsshouldbeappliedforeach2lbofseeds.

TheTwo—StepMethod

Inthetwo-stepmethod,thestickerandinoculantsareappliedtotheseedseparately.Inthefirststep,seedsareevenlycoatedwiththestickersolution.Inthesecondstep,thepowderedinoculantsareaddedtothestickyseeds.About10timesasmanyrhizobiacanbeboundtoseedsbythetwo-stepmethodasbytheslurrymethod.Withthismethod,itisparticularlyimportanttousetheproperamountofsticker.

Figure7.Favabeanrootnodules

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FertilitySoiltestingishighlyrecommendedpriortoplantingfavabeanforspecificnutrientrecommendations.

Nitrogen:Applicationofnitrogenfertilizeroftenisnotrecommended,sincemuchoffavabeannitrogenrequirementcanbemetthroughnitrogenfixation.TherehasbeensomecontroversyaboutthebenefitsfromapplicationoflowlevelofnitrogenfertilizerasstarterwhichmayovercomeN-limitationsduringearlygrowthstagesbutapositiveyieldresponseisseldomobservedifthesoilcontainsmorethan20–30lbNac-1intheplowlayer.

Phosphorus:Favabeanisarelatively

highuserofphosphorus(Table2).Phosphorusfertilizershouldbebandedatplantingforvigorousearlyseedlinggrowth.Bandsshouldbelocated2to3inchestothesideand2to3inchesbelowtheseed.ItisrecommendedbandingastarterfertilizerthatishighinP.IfthePisverylow,itwouldberecommendedbroadcastingsothatphosphorusisevenlydistributedinthefieldforfutureplantings.

Potassium(K):Potassiumshouldbeappliedbeforeplantingorbandedatplantingtime.Amountsabove50K2Operacreshouldbebroadcastedandincorporatedintothesoil.Table2showstherecommendedrateofpotassiumapplicationatdifferentexistingsoillevels.

Table2.Recommendationforphosphorusfertilizerforfavabean

NitrogenLb/A

PhosphorusP2O5Lb/A

PotassiumK20Lb/A

Soiltestresult

VeryLow Low Optimum Above

Opt.VeryLow Low Optimum Above

Opt.Raterecomended

50 100 75 0-50 0 100 75 0-50 0

*AssumesextractionproceduressimilartothoseusedbytheUMasssoiltestingLaboratory.Specificinformationonsoiltestproceduresisavailableatwww.nevegetable.orgas“newEnglandvegetableguide,2015-2016.”

Figure8.AsampleoffavabeanInoculant

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ZINC(Zn):Whensoiltestindicateslessthan1ppmZn,aresponsetoZnisexpectedonallsoil.WhereZnisrequired,15lbofZnperacremayimprovegrowthandyieldoffavabeans.Abroadcastapplicationof15lbacre-1ofzincsulphateisrecommended.

VarietyselectionAswithothercrops,varietyselectionrequiresachievingabalancebetweenadaptabilitytoaspecificenvironment,diseasetolerance,and

marketability.Asmentionedearlier,favabeanvarietiesvarysignificantlyinseedsizeandcolour.Small-seededtypes(Viciafabavar.minor)maybecalledfavabeanortickbeanandarecommonlyusedforhumanconsumptionandanimalfeed.Mediumandlargesizeseedtypes(V.fabavar.major)alsocalledbroadbeanusedmorecommonlyasdryorgreenbeans.SelectvarietiestestedatUMassareshowninFigure8andtheirspecificationsarepresentedinTable3.

Table3.AgronomicanddiseaseguideforsomeFavabeansvarietiestestedatUMass

R=ResistantRMR=ResistanttomoderatelyresistantMR=moderatelyresistantMRMS=moderatelyresistanttomoderatelysusceptibleMS=moderatelysusceptibleMSS=moderatelysusceptibletosusceptibleS=SusceptibleSVS=SusceptibletoverysusceptibleVS=Verysusceptible

Variety Seed size Seed colour

Flowering time Maturity Chocolate spot

Aquadulce large light green early early MS

D’Aquadulce large dark green mid early MS

Bell Bean small light brown mid mid MRMS

Sweet Lorane small light brown late late MRMS

DelleCascine large light green early early MS

Early White med-large green late early MS

Early Violletto med-large purple early early S

Windsor large light green early early MRMS

Figure9.Selectvarietiesoffavabean

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YieldPotential

Seedyieldinfavabeanismostlydependentonenvironmentalfactorsandagronomicpracticesincludingdateofplantingandfertility.However,plantgeneticsalsocanplayamajorrole.Somevarietiesproducehigheryieldthanothers,whichisimportantforvarietyselection.Ingeneral,shorterseasonfavabeanproduceslightlylessyieldpotentialthanlongerseasonvarieties,butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Freshpodyieldvariesgreatlyandcouldbeashighas5tonsperacrewhengrownsolelyforfreshpods.

Diseaseandpests

Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae) Thisdiseaseiscausedbyfungus.Longperiodsofhighhumidityandhightemperaturepromotetheswitchfromanon-aggressivephasetoanaggressivephaseofthedisease.Theaggressivephaseofthediseaseisfavoredalsobylowlevelsofpotassiumandphosphorusinthesoilandhighplantdensitywhichleadstomorehumidconditionswithintheplantcanopy.

SymptomsSymptomsfornon-aggressivechocolatespotincludesmallred-brownlesionsonleavesoftheplantwhichmayalsobepresentonstemsandpods.Underhightemperatureandhumiditythediseasemovestotheaggressivestageandlesionscoalesceandbecomecoveredbyfluffymyceliumandlargepatchesoftissuecanbecomenecroticanddie.

ManagementPreventionisthemosteffectivemanagementstrategy.Earlyplantingisrecommendedtoavoidhighhumidityandhottemperaturesinlatespringandearlysummer.Inaddition,appropriateplantspacingtoencourageaircirculationaroundtheplantsisalsoaneffectivemanagementtool.Foliarfungicideapplicationthroughouttheseasoncanalsobeeffective.

Figure10.Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae)symptomonfavabeanleaves.

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Leafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis)

Thisbacterialdiseasecanbeintroducedbycontaminatedseedandoverwinteringbacteriaincropresidues.Thisdiseaseisfavoredbywarmtemperaturesandwet,humidconditions.

SymptomsWater-soakedspotsonleaveswhichenlargeandbecomenecrotic.Spotsmaybesurroundedbyazoneofyellowdiscolorationandlesionscancoalesceandgivetheplantaburntappearance.Deadleavesremainattachedtotheplantandcircular,sunken,red-brownlesionsmaybepresentonpods.Thelesionsonpodmayleakingoutduringhumidconditions.

ManagementUseofcleanseeds,resistantvarieties,seedtreatmentwithanappropriateantibioticpriortoplantingandsprayingplantswithanappropriateprotective,copper-basedfungicidebeforeappearanceofsymptomsareamongeffectivetreatments.

Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)Thebacteriaover-wintersincropresiduesandismoreseverewhenthefoliageiswetforrelativelylongperiod.

SymptomsSmall,darkbrownnecroticspotsonleaveswhichmaybesurroundedbyanareaofyellowtissue,watersoakedspotsonpodswhichturnbrownandnecroticandpodsmaytwistanddistortinareaofinfection.

ManagementUseofcleanseeds,useofpropercroprotationandtheremovalofcropresiduesfromthefieldafterharvest.

Powderymildew(Erysiphecichoracearum)Fungusoverwintersonplantresiduesoralternatehosts.Diseaseemergenceisfavoredbywarm,dryweatherwithcoolnightsthatresultindewformation.

Figure11.Necroticfavabeanleavescausedbyleafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis).

Figure12.Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)onbeans

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Symptoms

Yellowspotsonuppersurfaceofleaves,powderygray-whiteareaswhichcoalescetocoverentireplantandiftheplantisheavilyinfecteditmayappearlightblueorgrayincolor.

ManagementUseofresistantvarietiesandwhenpossibleuseofoverheadirrigationwhichwashesfungusfromleavesandreducesitsviability.Also,recommendedearlyplantingtoavoidhighairtemperatureandhumidity.Applicationofsulfur-basedpesticidesmayberequiredtocontrolheavyinfestations.

Fusariumrootrot(Fusarium solani)Damagecausedbytheemergenceofthefungusdiseaseisworsenedbywarm,compactedsoils,limitedsoilmoistureandpoorsoilfertility.

SymptomsStuntedplantgrowthandyellowing,necroticbasalleaves.Brown,redorblackstreaksonrootsthatcoalesceastheymatureandtheselesionsmayspreadabovethesoilline.

ManagementTheuseofcleanseedandnotplantingfavabeaninthesameareaformorethanfiveyearsinthesamefield.

Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)

Blackbeanaphidscancauseseveredamagetofavabean.Distinguishingfeaturesincludethepresenceofcornicles(tubularstructures)whichprojectbackwardsfromthebodyoftheaphid;willgenerallynotmoveveryquicklywhendisturbed;transmitviruses.

SymptomsSmallsoftbodiedinsectsonundersideofleavesand/orstemsofplant;usuallygreenoryellowincolor,butmaybepink,brown,redorblackdependingonspeciesandhostplant;ifaphidinfestationisheavyitmaycauseleavestoyellowand/ordistorted,necroticspotsonleavesand/orstuntedshoots;aphidssecreteasticky,sugarysubstancecalledhoneydewwhichencouragesthegrowthofsootymoldontheplant.

ManagementIfaphidpopulationislimitedtojustafewleavesorshoots,thentheinfectedportionsof

Figure13.Bacterialbrownspot(Erysiphecichoracearum)onbeans

Figure14.Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)onfavabeanplant

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theplantscanbeprunedouttoprovidecontrol.Whenusingseedlings,checkforaphidsbeforetransplanting;useofthosewithoutanyaphids.Reflectivemulchessuchassilvercoloredplasticcandeteraphidsfromfeedingonplants;sturdyplantscanbesprayedwithastrongjetofwatertoknockaphidsfromleaves;insecticidesare

generallyonlyrequiredtotreataphidsiftheinfestationisveryhigh-plantsgenerallytoleratelowandmediumleafinfestation;insecticidalsoapsoroilssuchasneemorcanolaareusuallythebestmethodofcontrol;Labelsoftheproductsshouldbecheckedforspecificusageguidelinespriortouse.

Table4.Favabeansdiseaseguidesummary*

Disease Organism Symptoms Occurrence Hosts Control Ascochyta blight

Ascochytafabae Large, light tan to grey lesions on leaves. Small black fruiting bodies develop within lesions. Centres of lesions may fall out, leaving holes in leaves. Sunken lesions on stem similar in colour to leaf lesions. Brown-black discolouration of grain.

Common in all fava bean growing areas in southern Australia. Most severe in wet seasons. Spores spread by wind and rain. Infected seed.

Fava bean, vetch.

Foliar fungicides. Resistant varieties. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants. Clean seed.

Chocolate spot

Botrytis fabae Botrytis cinerea

Passive phase: small chocolate covered spots scattered over leaves. Aggressive phase: tissue around spots turn dark grey and black. Leaves die and blacken.

Occurs in all areas where beans are grown. Disease usually becomes established in late winter and becomes more severe as day temperatures increase during spring. Spores spread by wind and rain. Can destroy unprotected crops in wet seasons.

Fava bean, vetch, lentil, chickpea.

Foliar fungicides. Resistant varieties. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants.

Cercospora leaf spot

Cercosporazonata Irregular black lesions, with a distinct margin on the leaf. Easily confused with Ascochyta or Chocolate spot but distinguished by the concentric pattern within lesions.

Occurs in all areas where beans are grown.

Fava bean, vetch.

Foliar fungicides.

Rust Uromyces viciae-fabae

Numerous small, orange-brown rust pustules, surrounded by a light yellow halo on the leaves of infected plants.

Most prevalent in northern Australia. Crops usually affected late in the season.

Fava bean, vetch.

Foliar fungicides. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants.

Sclerotinia stem rot

Sclerotinia trifoliorum var. fabae, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Infection usually begins close to ground level and slimy wet rot extends into stem and down into the roots. Plants easily pulled from soil and have blackened base covered with cottony, white fungus growth. Usually isolated plants that suddenly

Rapid development of disease in wet, cool conditions. Foliar form of disease spread by air-borne spores. Fungus survives in the soil for many years.

Wide host range.

Crop rotation. Lower seeding rates, wider row spacing and good weed control.

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wilt and collapse. Sclerotia on surface and within stem turn from white to black.

Stem nematode

Ditylenchusdipsaci Patches of malformed and stunted plants with curling leaves and water-soaked spots. Stem may die back, turning reddish-brown colour.

Most severe in wet seasons. Nematode can survive many years in seed, straw or soil.

Fava bean, pea, oat, wild oat. Infected seed straw or soil.

Seed test. Crop rotation.

VIRUS DISEASES SCSV Subterranean

clover stunt virus Stunting, tip yellowing, small and thick leaves.

Prevalent in all bean growing areas, symptoms appear early on fava bean.

Sub clover, fava bean, lupin, lentil, chickpea, lucerne, soybean.

Managing aphids and weeds.

BLRV Bean leaf roll virus Interveinal yellowing, leaf rolling, stunting, leathery leaves.

Occurs in all bean growing areas.

The host range is limited to Fabaceae.

Managing aphids.

PSbMV

Pea seedborne mosaic virus

Can be symptomless or systemic dark and light-green leaf mottle, leaf margins upright leaf blade reduced in size. Seeds have brown rings or line patterns on surface.

Occurs in all bean growing areas.

Host range is limited to Fabaceae

Virus free seed is recommended. Managing aphids.

*Source:DEPI'sVictorianWinterCropSummary

Weedcontrol

Generallyfavabeanisapoorcompetitortoweeds,particularlyintheseedlingstageorundermoisturestresscondition.Appropriatecontrolofperennialweedsduringtheyearsprecedingfavabean,anduseofcleanseedsareimportantforsuccessfulproduction.

Post-emergentharrowingshouldbeavoidedduringcropemergenceorduringwetconditionorconditionsofheavydewtopreventthespreadoffungaldiseases.Harrowingcanoccurwhenseedlingsare6”high.Anincreasedseedingrateshouldbeconsideredtocompensateforthelossofcropseedlingsduringharrowing.Tineharrowsarethemosteffectiveacrossthedirectionofseedings.Bestweedcontrolwillbeobtainedbyharrowingonadryandsunnyday.

Apre-emergentburnoffapplicationofglyphosatewillhelpcontrolwinterannualandearlyemergingweeds.Productscontainingphenoxyherbicidessuchasdicambaor2,4-D

shouldnotbeusedbeforeorjustafterplanting.Favabeanissensitivetothesoilresiduesofanumberofherbicidesandshouldnotbeplantedinfieldswithahistoryoftheseproducts.Useofpropercroprotationcansignificantlyreduceweedpopulationsinfavabeanfield.Also,aspre-plantherbicide,amixtureofDualMagnum(12fl-oz)andTreflan4e(10fl-oz)couldbehelpful.

HarvestFavabeanisgrownforfreshpodharvestordrybeans.Whenharvestedforfreshpods,immature,lessstarchyseedsareusedforspecificrecipeswhilematurestarchygreenseedsareusedforotheruses.Greenseedscanbeconsumedfreshorbeingfrozenforfutureuse.Favabeanpodsmayalsobeharvestedafterthepodsaredriedforvariousrecipes.Inmanyfavabeanproducingregionsearlypodsareharvestedasfreshandremainderarebeingharvestedasdrybeans.Favabeanisanindeterminateplant;inotherwordstheplantcontinuouslyproducesflowers

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andpods.Flowersandpodsfirstappearonlowernodesusuallyabout6-9”abovetheground.Growersoftenharvestfavabeans2-3timeswhencropisgrownasfreshproduce.Freshpodsareusuallyharvestedwhentheseedshavereachedfullsizebutarestillgreen,thickandhaveaglossyshiningappearance(Figure15).Whenharvestedgreen,podsmaybesoldintactorasshelledproducteitherfreshorfrozen.

SeedStorage

Favabeanfreshpodsshouldbestoredat40to450Fandrelativehumidityof95%.Podsorseedslosemoisturerapidlyifnotproperlyprotectedbypackagingorbyalowerrelativehumidity.Whentherelativehumidityapproachessaturation,asinconsumerpackages,temperaturesabove440Fmustbeavoidedordecayislikelytobeseriouswithinafewdays.Forhomeconsumers,unshelledfavabeanscanbekeptintherefrigeratorforupto1week.Broadbeanscanbefrozen,canned,or

dried.Driedshelledfavabeanscanbestoredin

acooldryplacefor10to12months.

Nutritionalvalueoffavabean

Favabeanstubble/cropresidueofferssignificantvalueasasourceoffeedforgrazinganimals.Amajorportionofthevalueofstubbleliesinthegrainremainingafterharvestandnotinthedeadplant(leafandstem)material.Althoughthedeadplanthassomenutritivevalue,livestockselectthegrainfirstandonlyeatplantresidueswhengrainisnotavailable.

Figure15.Maturefavabeanpods

Figure16.Packagingoffavabeanforstorageormarketing

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Table5.Nutritivevalueoffavabeanper100g.(Source:USDANationalNutrientdatabase)

Principle NutrientValue

PercentageofRDA

Energy 341Kcal 15%Carbohydrates 58.59g 45%Protein 26.12g 46.5%TotalFat 1.53g 7%Cholesterol 0mg 0%DietaryFiber 25g 66%

Vitamins Folates 423µg 106%Niacin 2.832mg 18%Pantothenicacid 0.976mg 19.5%

Pyridoxine 0.366mg 28%Riboflavin 0.333mg 25%Thiamin 0.555mg 46.25%VitaminA 53IU 2%VitaminC 1.4mg 2%VitaminK 9µg 7.5%Electrolytes

Sodium 13mg 1%Potassium 1062mg 23%

Minerals Calcium 103mg 10%Copper 0.824µg 91%Iron 6.70mg 84%Magnesium 192mg 18%Manganese 1.626mg 71%Phosphorus 421mg 60%Selenium 8.2µg 15%Zinc 3.14mg 9%

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AdditionalResources

Bond, D.A. & Kirby, E.J.M. 1999. Anthophoraplumipes (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae) as a pollinator of broad bean (Viciafaba major). Journal of Apicultural Research 38:199-203.

Bond, D.A. & Pope, M. 1974. Factors affecting the proportion of crossbred and self-bred seed obtained from field bean (Viciafaba L.) crops. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Cambridge 83:343-351.

Crofton, G.R.A. 1996. A review of pollination and pod setting in faba beans(ViciafabaL.).PlantVarietiesandSeeds9:29-35.

Free, J.B. & Williams, I.H. 1976. Pollination as a factor limiting the yield of field bean (Viciafaba L.) Journal of the Agricultural Society of Cambridge 87:395-399.

Hebblethwaite, P.D., Scott, R.K., & Kogbe, J.O.S. 1984. The effect of irrigation and bees on the yield and yield components of Viciafaba L. In Hebblethwaite, P.D. et al. (eds.) Viciafaba: Agronomy, Physiology, and Breeding. MartinusNijhoff, The Hague.

http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/grains-and-other-crops/crop-production/growing-faba-bean.

https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/F7F82898C7044D4E9F01A56F3BBAD9D7.pdf.

McVetty, P. B. E. & Nugent-Rigby, J. 1984. Natural cross pollination of faba beans (Viciafaba L.) grown in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 64:43-46.

Mussalam, I.W., Haddad, N.J., Tawaha, A.R.M., & Migdadi, O.S. 2004. The importance of bee-pollination in four genotypes of faba bean (Viciafaba L.). International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 6:9-12.

Scott-Dupree, C.D., Winston, M., Hergert, G., Jay, S.C., Nelson, D., Gates, J., Termeer, B., & Otis, G. 1995.A guide to managing bees for crop pollination.Canadian Association of Professional Apiculturists, Aylesford NS.

Somerville, D.C. 1999. Honeybees (Apismellifera L.) increase yields of faba beans (Viciafaba L.) in New South Wales while maintaining adequate protein requirements from faba bean pollen. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39:1001-1005.

Stoddard, F.L. & Bond, D.A. 1987.The pollination requirementsof the faba bean. Bee World 68:144-152.

CABI Crop Protection Compendium.(2013). Vicia faba datasheet. Available at:http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/56364.

Duke, J. A. (1983). ViciafabaL. Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plant Products.Availableat:http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/de....[Accessed 07 November 14]. Schwartz, H. F., Steadman, J. R., Hall, R. & Forster, R. L. (2005) Compendium of Bean Diseases.Availableat:http://www.apsnet.org/apsstore/shopap.

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Sattell, R., Dick, R. & McGrath, D. (1998). Fava Bean (Vicia faba L.).Oregon State University.Availableat:http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xml.