exceptionally difficult to define standard” language

s o u t h e r n G e r m a n y w o u l d say " M a u s l e " . A p e r s o n s p e a k i n g

o n e of the n o r t h e r n d i a l e c t s w o u l d say " M a u s k e n " w h e r e a s a

S w i s s p e r s o n w o u l d say "Mausli". T h i s is an e x a m p l e of

g e o g r a p h i c a l or r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n o f langu a g e . It is

e x c e p t i o n a l l y d i f f i c u l t to d e f i n e " s t a n d a r d” la n g u a g e

b e c a u s e of all t hese v a r i a t i o n s and b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e is

a l w a y s i n f l u e n c e d and d e t e r m i n e d by g e o g r a p h i c a l

b o u n d a r i e s . I d i o m s and e x p r e s s i o n s of any t y p e are

e s p e c i a l l y p r o n e to g e o g r a p h i c a l i n f l u e n c e s .

T h e social c:lass c a t e g o r y r e f e r s to the a p p a r e n t social

s t a n d i n g of the s p e a k e r . A p e r s o n m a k i n g u s e of the

e x p r e s s i o n "Du S c h w e i n ! " is p r o b a b l y rude* v u l g a r and n o n ­

c o n f o r m i s t , and the s e l e c t e d E n g l i s h e q u i v a l e n t s h o u l d

c o n v e y this to the r e a der.

T he time c a t e g o r y w h i c h may vary in the c a s e of a text, but

not in the e x p r e s s i o n s we are c o n c e r n e d with, will a l m o s t

i n v a r i a b l y s i g n i f y the fact that the r e l e v a n t t e rms are

m o d e r n and c o n t e m p o r a r y , for this p r o j e c t is not c o n c e r n e d

w i t h a r c h a i c t e r m i n o l o g y .

In B, the c a t e q o r y of m e d i u m r e f e r s to w h e t h e r the text or

e x p r e s s i o n is w r i t t e n to be read, or sa i d to be h e a r d . For

i n s t a n c e the term "Du bist ’n o l l e s S c h w e i n " is

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e and s i g n i f i e s the

c o l l o q u i a l s t y l e of a text or a d i a l o g u e . It w o u l d be

11

u n a c c e p t a b l e to t r a n s l a t e it as ’‘You are an old p i g " , but

w o u l d be b e t t e r r e n d e r e d as " Y o u’re an o l ’ pig".

P a r t i c i p a t i o n r e f e r s to the e x t e n t to w h i c h the s p e a k e r

d i r e c t l y or indirectly' a d d r e s s e s or i n v o l v e s the r e c i p i e n t .

T e r m s of a f f e c t i o n or a b u s e a l w a y s a d d r e s s the h e a r e r , be

it d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y by their v e r y natu r e : "Du E s e l !"

or " E s el!" and "Vou a s s 1" or "Ass!" . Th i s r e n d e r s the

f u n c t i o n of s u c h t e rms as h i g h l y i n t e r p e r s o n a l . T e r m s of

a f f e c t i o n or a b u s e a r e n e c e s s a r i l y a m e a n s for i n v o l v i n g

the a d d r e s s e e , e v e n if h e or she is not a w a r e of this. O n e

p e r s o n s i t t i n g in a car m a y call s o m e o n e in a n o t h e r c a r an

idiot. The p e r s o n who was c a l l e d an idiot h a s thus

c o n t r i b u t e d to e v o k i n g u n f a v o u r a b l e e m o t i o n s w i t h the o t h e r

d r i v e r , but h a s not b e e n a w a r e of this.

The so c i a l r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p r e f e r s to the ro l e o f the

a d d r e s s e r vis a vis the a d d r e s s e e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n be

e i t h e r s y m m e t r i c a l or a s s v m n e t r i c a 1. The f o r m e r i m p l i e s

that the a d d r e s s e r is o n the s a m e level as the a d d r e s s e e ,

w h e r e a s the latter o f ve n i m p l i e s that the a d d r e s s e r is on a

level s u p e r i o r to that of the a d d r e s s e e , e.g. M o t h e r to her

v o u n g son: "Du k l e i n e s Ferkb’l!"* but the r e v e r s e also

o c c u r s : Pupil to te a c h e r : "Sie d u m m e S a n s ! " In m o s t c a s e s

t: a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s will b e c o m e

u n c l e a r w h e n the te r m is t r a n s l a t e d into E n g l i s h d u e to

the a b s e n c e of an e q u i v a l e n t p o l i t e f o r m in E n g l i s h for the

IS

n/ ■-v

G e r m a n v i i,r f o r m "Sie", w h i c h is a l w a y s t r a n s l a t e d as

"vou" ir L. Misti, c o n s t i t u t i n g a c o v e r t l y e r r o n e o u s e r r o r

b e c a u s e it is an . n t e r U n q u a q e d i f f e r e n c e . A n o t h e r e l e m e n t

w h i c h i n d i c a t e s the social r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the

a d d r e s s e r and the a d d r e s s e e is the c h o i c e of w o r d s e.g.

" S c h w e i n " (abusive) or " S c h w e i n c h e n " ( a f f e c t i o n a t e ) .

So c i a l a t t i t u d e n o r m a l l y r e f e r s to the s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s

p r e s e n t in the u t t e r a n c e i n d i c a t i n g d e g r e e s of social

d i s t a n c e or p r o x i m i t y . T h e s e s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s such as the

f r e q u e n t u s e cf c o m p l e x n o u n p h r a s e s * the c o m p l e t e n e s s or

i n c o m p l e t e n e s s of p h r a s e s to s u g g e s t for m a l it,* or

in f o r m a l i t y * i n t e r j e c t i o n s , p a s s i v i z a t i o n etc. a r e a b s e n t

b e c a u s e of the o u t - o f - c o n t e x t n a t u r e of th«? p h r a s e s . In the

c a s e of v o c a t i v e s t h e r e f o r e , the o n l y i n d i c a t o r s of so c i a l

a t t i t u d e are the ac t u a l w o r d s t h e m s e l v e s . " Mein k l e i n e s

S c h w e i n c h e n " s i g n i f i e s that the a d d r e s s e r is f a v o u r a b l y

i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s the a d d r e s s e e , and this f e e l i n g m u s t be

c o n v e y e d to the a d d r e s s e e in the w o r d s of the T L . T e r m s of

a f f e c t i o n and a b u s e n a t u r a l l y g i v e r i s e to a c l o s e social

a t t i t u d e e v e n if they are u t t e r e d by e n e m i e s or s t r a n g e r s .

Tn e y a l w a y s e v o k e a c e r t a i n r a p p o r t b e t w e e n two p e o p l e e v e n

if the a d d r e s s e r c u r s e s to h i m s e l f w i t h o u t s a y i n g the

w o r d ( s ) out loud. A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t is that all

c o m m o n l y u s e d t e r m s of a f f e c t i o n and abuse* are o n a v e r y

low level of f o r m a l i t y .

13

P r o v i n c e r e f e r s to the s p h e r e of the s o c ial* i.e.

o c c u p a t i o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f the t e r m in

q u e s t i o n . W h e n a n a l y s i n g terms of a f f e c t i o n and abuse*

p r o v i n c e c a n bf» a p p l i e d m e r e l y to s i q n i f y c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

w h e t h e r a p e r s o n is b e i n g f a v o u r a b l y or u n f a v o u r a b l y s p o k e n

about. " K o m m mal mit du k l e i n e s S c h w e i n c h e n !" c o u l d

i n d i c a t e * t e a c h e r s p e a k i n g to her y o u n q pupil or a p a r e n t

s p e a k i n g to h i s or her ch i l d * but not a b o s s s p e a k i n g to

h i s s e c r e t a r y or a ba n k m a n a g e r tc h i s c l i e n t . Ea c h

e x p r e s s i o n we a r e c o n c e r n e d with, ci.uld o n l y be a p p l i e d to

a limited p o s s i b l e n u m b e r of social r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w i t h the

m a j o r i t y of the r e m a i n i n g p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e i n g

a u t o m a t i c a 11y e x c l u d e d by v i r t u e o f the w o r d s and tone

c h o s e n by the s p e a k e r .

A n o t h » r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of H o u s e ’s model to be b o r n e in

m i n d by the t r a n s l a t o r . is what H o u s e t e r m s " i 1 l o c u t i o n a r y

f orce" and " p r o p o s i t i o n a 1 c o n t e n t " . This r e f e r s to the

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the literal m e a n i n g and the i n t e n d e d

m e a n i n g of what h a s b e e n said. P r o p o s i t i o n a 1 c o n t e n t r e f e r s

to wh a t the a d d r e s s e r i n t e n d e d to s a y i.e. "Maus". W a s the

s p e a k e r s a y i n g that the c h i l d r e s e m b l e d a m o u s e (which is

the literal m e a n i n g ) , or was h e e x p r e s s i n g h i s a f f e c t i o n

t o w a r d s the c h i l d 7 (See S e c t i o n B <e>). A c c o r d i n g to

H a l l i d a y (1970) and e x p o u n d e d by H o u s e (1976), e v e r y text

or term h a s an i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n . T h e l n t e r p e r s o n a 1

f u n c t i o n of a t e r m is th f u n c t i o n w h i c h c o n v e y s a c e r t a i n

!*♦

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the a d d r e s s e r and the a d d r e s s e e . T h i s

i n t e r p e r s o n a l e l e m e n t is i n h e r e n t in e v e r y text b e c a u s e

e v e r y text or l t r a n c e is a d d r e s s e d to s o m e o n e . The

i de a t i o n a l f u n c t i o f an e x p r e s s i o n is its p r o p o s i t i o n a 1

c o n t e n t e.g. the idr»ational f u n c t i o n of the e x p l e t i v e "Sie

S c h w e i n ! " is to c o m p a r e a c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l to a pig* (by

c o m p a r i n g h i m to a pig> but the i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n is

to insult that i n d ividual by e x p r e s s i n g p r o f o u n d d i s g u s t

a b o u t him. The i d e a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n p o i n t s to a literal

m e a n i n g , but the i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n h a s a p r a g m a t i c *

c o n n o t a t x v e e l e m e n t * w h i c h is b a s e d o n c o m m o n u s a g e w i t h i n

a language. In G e r m a n and E n g l i s h * r e f e r e n c e to s o m e o n e as

a pig, s u g g e s t s not o n l y that a p e r s o n m a y h a v e d i r t y

h a b i t s but a l s o that h e may h a v e a bad c h a r a c t e r , s u b ­

s t a n d a r d m o r a l s , no s c r u p l e s etc.

F i n a l l y , a g o o d t r a n s l a t i o n r e q u i r e s a m a t c h w h i c h is

d i m e n s i o n a l and f u n c t i o n a l ( a c c o r d i n g to H o u s e ) , and any

e r r o r s m a d e in this r e s p e c t a r e c a l l e d c o v e r t l y e r r o n e o u s

e r r o r s , i m p l y i n q that the t r a n s l a t o r has not g r a s p e d the

f u n c t i o n of w h a t he w a s t r a n s l a t i n g i.e. the f u n c t 'i n of

tne text or term. O v e r t l y e r r o n e o u s e r r o r s are m a d e w h e n

t h e r e is a m i s m a t c h of the literal m e a n i n g of an

e x p r e s s i o n . W h e r e p r a g m a t i c m e a n i n g s are c h a n g e d , this

c o n s t i t u t e s c o v e r t e r r o r u or " r e c o d i n g " as o p p o s e d to

s i m p l e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n . H o u s e (1977:29) d e f i n e s a

t r a n s l a t i o n as "the r e p l a c e m e n t of the text in the s o u r c e

15

languac?* by a s e m a n t i c a l l y and p r a g m a t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t

text in the ta r g e t ’i n g u a g e , "

This is a b r i e f and s o m e w h a t s i m p l i f i e d s u m m a r y of H o u s e ’s

model for t r a n s l a t i o n a s s e s s m e n t * but it is s u f f i c i e n t l y

d e t a i l e d for the p u r p o s e of this p r o j e c t . V a r i o u s o t h e r

e l e m e n t s such as t h e m e d y n a m i c s * c l a u s a l linkage* iconic

l i n k a g e anc. textual p r o f i l e h a v e b e e n omit'. ?d b e c a u s e they

c a n n o t be a p p l i e d to o u t - o f - c o n t e x t e x p r e s s i o n s .

W i t h i n o n e c u l t u r e t h e r e m a y be m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s in

r e l i g i o n * c u s t o m s * e m o t i o n s and language. W h e n p e o p l e do

not s h a r e the s a m e c u l t u r e * v a l u e s * k n o w l e d g e and

a s s u m p t i o n s * mutual u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e c o m e s d i f f i c u l t and

u n i n t e n d e d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o m m o n . (Lakoff and J o h n s o n

1 9 8 0:231). A ne e d a r i s e s to b e c o m e a w a r e of and to r e s p e c t

i n h e r e n t c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s as well as to n e g o t i a t e

m e a n i n g , and for the t r a n s l a t o r p r o b l e m s are o f t e n as m u c h

b i c u l t u r a l as b i l i n g u a l . ( O s good et al 1975:17) For a

t r a n s l a t e d expresr-ion to fulfil its f u n c t i o n a t r a n s l a t o r

s h o u l d be f a m i l i a r with the s o c i o - c u 1tura 1 and p s y c h o ­

social valn»»«, of the p e o p l e who will r e a d h i s t r a n s l a t i o n .

He m u s t u n d e r s t a n d their m e n t a l i t y and kn o w w h e t h e r they

e x p e r i e n c e the s a m e e m o t i o n o in the s a m e i n t e n s i t y as the

o r i g i n a l a u t hor. O s g o o d et al (1975*6) f u r t h e r c l a i m that

16

i r r e s p e c t i v e of l a n g u a g e or c u l t u r e ) i n d i v i d u a l s e m p l o y

s i m i l a r q u a l i f y i n g or d e s c r i p t i v e f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e in

g i v i n g a f f e c t i v e K.eaninq to c o n c e p t s . K a i n z ( 1 9 M in R e i s s

1971:125) h o w e v e r , h a s c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n ? a b o u t this

p o s t u l a t i o n . " Z w e i f e l l o s gi b t es e i n e a l l g e m e i n m e n s c h l ich.?

L e b e n s - und W e 1 twe i she i t , e b e n s o e i n e u n m i t t e l b a r e 'vJatur-

u n d M e n s c h e n b e t r a c h t u n q ... u n d A q u i v e l e n t e fur

spr ichwor 1 1 iche R e d e n s a r t e n , B i l d e r und M e t a p h e r n lasser.

s i c h a u f w e i s e n . . . aber d a n e b e n f i n d e n sich we i t k e n n t l i c h e r

h e r v o r t r e t e n d e chiir «ok ter i s c h e D i f f e r e n z e n . " Indeed, the

q u a l i f y i n g f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e do not v a r y to a n y m a j o r

e x t e n t b e t w e e n the G e r m a n and the E n g l i s h c u l t u r e s ,

p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e they a r e bo t h W e s t e r n i s e d c u l t u r e s and

a d h e r e n t s of C h r i s t i a n i t y . For e x a m p l e in b o t h c u l t u r e s a

lamb is s e e n as a small, doci l e , cute, a d o r a b l e c r e a t u r e .

But if we look at the E s k i m o c u l t u r e , they tend to d e s c r i b e

t heir y o u n g as li t t l e s e a l s r a t h e r than as lit t l e lambs,

1

(pers. comm. P r o f . M a s »n g - D e 1 ic ) s i m p l y b e c a u s e lambs

p l a y no pa r t in their c u l t u r e . T e r m s of a f f e c t i o n and

a b u s e in the E s k i m o c u l t u r e are c e n t e r e d m o r e a r o u n d dogs,

be a r s , fi s h etc. th a n is the c a s e in G e r m a n or E n g l i s h .

" L i n g u i s t i c i n s t r u m e n t s " (Osgood et al 1975:6) a r e d e v i s e d

w i t h i n a c u l t u r e for g i v i n g m e a n i n g to c o n c e p t s . T h e s e

i n s t r u m e n t s o f t e n a p p e a r in the f o r m of m e t a p h o r s w h i c h

c r e a t e r e a l i t i e s , b e c a u s e w o r d s a l o n e c a n n o t c r e a t e r e a l i t y

b u t m e t a p h o r s p a i n t i m a g e s e.g. "a tear w i t h a s o r e head".

R u s s i a n D e p a r t m e n t , U n i v e r s i t y of the W i t w a t e r s r a n d

T h e s e ima g e s o f t e n lead to c h a n g e s in our c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m

and h e n c e a chancje in our p e r c e p t i o n of our r e a l i t y world.

H u m a n p e r c e p t i o n s of r e a l i t y v a r y s l i g h t l y fro.n c u l t u r e to

c u l t u r e b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s h a v e d i f f e r e n t

c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m s . In bo t h G e r m a n and E n g l i s h p e o p l e are

o f t e n c o m p a r e d to cows. In India h o w e v e r , this w o u l d be

c o m p l e t e l y u n a c c e p t a b l e b e c a u s e c o w s are sacred, e v e n m o r e

s a c r e d than man, and it w o u l d be t a n t a m o u n t to b l a s p h e m y to

1

c o m p a r e a c o w to a h u m a n (pers. comm. Prof. M a s i n g - D e l i c ).

Over c e n t u r i e s e a c h c u l t u r e h a s d e v e l o p e d a d e c o d i n g

m e t h o d in o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h r e a l i t y (Lak o f f and J o h n s o n

1980: l*+5). C o r d e r (1981:79) t a l k s of " c o n v e n t i o n a l and

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d c o d e s " w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y , and for the

t r a n s l a t o r the m a i n d i f f i c u l t y lies in d e a l i n g w i t h t hese

c o d e s , w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l and d e s t a n d a r d i s e d

w h e n t a k e n out of o n e c u l t u r e and p l a c e d into a n o t h e r . The

o n l y w a v in w h i c h the c u l t u r a l t r a i t s of one c u l t u r e c a n be

s h a r e d with p e o p l e of a n o t h e r c u l t u r e ? is by c i r c u m v e n t i n g

the l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r . For N i d a (196^ in R e i s s 1971:81) this

c a n o n l y be s u c c e s s f u l l y a c h i e v e d by p l a c i n g the ST, w h i c h

will be t r a n s l a t e d into the target language, into an

a p p r o p r i a t e "cult u r a l c o n t e x t " . R e i s s ( 1 9 76:101) t e r m s i.h:s

p r o c e s s " r e c o d i n g " (" u m k o d i e r e n " or " u b e r t e x t e n " ). She

p o s i t s that a t r a n s l a t o r mu s t r e c o d e the ST in su c h a way

that the t a r g e t l a n g u a q e a d d r e s s e e is ab l e to p l a c e the

text w i t h i n a c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t f a m i l i a r to him, and u n d e r -

R u s s i a n D e p a r t m e n t , U n i v e r s i t y of the W i t w a t e r s r a n d

VO

s t a n d the text or p h r a s e . E x a m p l e s for this are q u o t e d by

h e i s s ( 1 9 7 6 : 2 5 and 1971:123) w h e r e (1) in a B i b l e for

I n d i a n s f r o m the a r i d M e x i c a n H i g h l a n d * , J e s u s d o e s not

w a l k over a lake but ov e r a m a r s h ; (2) in the E s k i m o

v e r s i o n of * he ’Our F a t h e r ’ the w o r d s go " Give us t o d a y our

d a i l y fish" and (3) the s heep w h i c h ap p e a r so f r e g u e n t l y in

our 8 i ble a r e t r a n s p o s e d into seals. In the e x a m p l e s g i v e n

ab o v e , not o n l y w o r d s but also r e a l i t i e s and c o n c e p t s h a v e

b e e n c h a n g e d . F o r t u n a t e l y for the t r a n s l a t o r , t r a n s l a t i o n

t h e o r i s t s h a v e d i g r e s s e d f r o m the c l a s s i c a l wo r d for wo r d

t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s , to m o r e f e a s i b l e and r e a l i s t i c f r e e

t r a n s 1 a 1 1 o n s , and ov e r ti m e the p a r a p h r a s i n g , a d a p t a t i o n

and m o d i f i c a t i o n of a text, h a v e a c q u i r e d a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d

d e q r e e of l e g i t i m a c y , as long as the t r a n s l a t o r d o e s not

s t r a y too far f r o m the c o n f i n e s of c o n v e n t i o n .

F or a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s l a n g u a a e is not a t h ing in i t s e l f but

f o r m s the b a s i s of o n e or m o r e c u l t u r e (Leach 1 9 6 ^ : 2 ^ ) .

F r o m their p o i n t of view, verbal c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m an

i n t e r p e r s o n a l level, is e s s e n t i a l to the m a i n t e n a n c e of

s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e (A l l e n and G u y 197^:33). It p r o v i d e s

the b a s i s for c o m m o n m e a n i n g f u l c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s

( H e r tzler 1965 in A l l e n and Guy 197^:33), and c o m m u n i c a t i o n

w i t h o u t w h i c h c u l t u r e s w o u l d be i s o l a t e d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r .

T h i s i l l u s t r a t e s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e r o l e and task o f the

t r a n s l a t o r for it is his p r i m e d u t y to p r o p a g a t e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

19

K F

i

(2) T h e d i f f i c u l t y in a c h i e v i n g p e r f e c t t r a n s l a t i o n e q u i v a l e n c e

T r a n s l a t i o n is o n l y p o s s i b l e to the e x t e n t that

e q u i v a l e n c e s e x i s t b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e s on the level of

" la n g u e " (the l a n q u a g e as a w h o l e ) . W h e n t r a n s l a t i n g , the

o p t imal e q u i v a l e n t o n the level of " p a r o l e " must be c h o s e n .

The e q u i v a l e n c e r e q u i r e d b e t w e e n two t exts m u s t be

f u n c t i o n a l on the levels of b o t h s t y l e and c o n t e n t (Kade

1965 in R e i s s 1976:29). A n e q u i v a l e n t c a n o n l y b e r e g a r d e d

as o p t imal if it h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the

l i n q u i s t i c and s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t * in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the

l i n q u i s t i c and s t y l i s t i c level of the SL and in a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h the a u t h o r’s i n t e n t i o n .

In the light of wh a t w a s d i s c u s s e d in (1) c o n c e r n i n g

c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s (In this c a s e b e t w e e n the G e r m a n and

the E n q l i s h c u l t u r e s ) * t r a n s l a t i o n e q u i v a l e n c e is a goal to

be s o u ght* but is seld o m * if e v e r a c h i e v e d ( O s good et al

1975:17) b e c a u s e of what they r e fer to as " c u l t u r a l

i n t a n g i b l e s " ( p . 10). B e c a u s e c e r t a i n a s p e c t s a r e c u l t u r e -

s p e c i f i c * they b e c o m e d e v o i d of all m e a n i n g w h e n they are

r e m o v e d f r o m the b o u n d s of their n a t i v e c u l t u r e and p l a c e d

into an a l i e n one. C u l t u r a l i n t a n g i b l e s h a v e no e q u i v a l e n t s

in any o t h e r l a n g u a g e s and the t r a n s l a t o r is left w i t h the

o p t i o n of s u b s t i t u t i n g the a l i e n c o n c e p t wi t h o n e w h i c h is

f a m i l i a r in the TL* or leaving the c o n c e p t as it is, and

a d d i n q a f o o t n o t e . S o m e t i m e s the s e m a n t i c s p h e r e s of t r a n s -

2 0

l a t i o n s u b s t i t u t e s or p o t e n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e e q u i v a l e n t s , 00

o v e r l a p p a r t i a l l y and they b e c o m e a c c e p t a b l e in t r a n s ­

lation. Q u e s t i o n s w h i c h c o n s t a n t l y s u r r o u n d the t r a n s l a t o r

are: W h e n is the sa m e r e a l l y the s a m e ? W h e n is the s a m e

r e a l l y d i f f e r e n t 7 W h e n is d i f f e r e n t r e a l l y d i f f e r e n t ? W h e n

is d i f f e r e n t r e a l l y the s a m e ? ( O s g o o d et al 1975:5). The

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g lines of t hese four g u e s t i o n s a r e o f t e n

o b s c u r e d and the t r a n s l a t o r will h a v e to r e a c h a d e c i s i o n

b y s o r t i n g out o n e n u a n c e f r o m a n o t h e r at h i s o w n

d i s c r e t i o n . He m u s t r e m e m b e r that w o r d s c a n c o n v e y

" m e a n i n g s of e v e r y s h a d e and import" ( A n d e r s o n 1969:3) and

the i n c o r r e c t s u b s t i t u t i o n of s u i t a b l e e g u i v a l e n t s

c o n s t i t u t e s c o v e r t l y e r r o n e o u s e r r o r s and i m p a i r s p r o p e r

c o m m u n i c a t i o n . ’.et us a s s u m e for i n s t a n c e , that a f a t h e r

s a y i n g "Komm m a 1 her Du F e r k e 1c h e n !" to h i s y o u n g son, is

q u o t e d as s a v i n g "Just c o m e h e r e you p i g l e t ! " in the

t r a n s l a t i o n . The r e a d e r , who in all l i k e l i h o o d d o c s net

h a v e a c c e s s to the s T , will be s e r i o u s l y m i s l e a d , as to the

r a p p o r t b e t w e e n the fat h e r and h i s son. A b e t t e r

t r a n s l a t i o n to c a p t u r e the i n t e n d e d m o o d w o u l d be "Just

c o m e h e r e you d i r t y little p i g!"

The n e c e s s i t y of f i n d i n g e g u i v a l e n t s for w o r d s is just as

q r e a t as f i n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e e g u i v a l e n t s for p h r a s e s ,

idiomsi m e t a p h o r s , puns, p r o v e r b s and s i m i l i e s . M a n y of

these e l e m e n t s of s p e e c h do in fact h a v e w o r d fo~ wo r d

( i s o m o r p h o u s ) equivaleni:- in the TL c o n c e r n e d , but m a n y do

SI

not, and th i s b e i n g the case, they s i m p l y c a n n o t be

t r a n s l a t e d l i t e r a l l y . A me r e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n w o u l d r e s u l t

in a loss of m e a n i n g e.g. in G e r m a n it is q u i t e in o r d e r

for a thin p e r s o n to be r e f e r r e d to as "ein m a g e r e s H u hn"

b ut in E n g l i s h the te r m "a thin c h i c k e n " o n l y h a s a literal

m e a n i n g . A n o t h e r example1 w o u l d be "Du d u m m e s K u k e n ! " w h i c h

m e a n s s o m e t h i n g e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t if t r a n s l a t e d as "You

s i l l y c h i c k ! " . U n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the t r a n s l a t o r m u s t

f i n d a m e t a p h o r (for e x a m p l e ) , w m c h , a l t h o u g h it m a y be

d e n o t a t i v e l y q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m the m e t a p h o r in the ST, it

m a v v e r y well be e m p l o y e d a f f e c t i v e l y in the s a m e way, thus

r e p r e s e n t i n g a " c o m m o n e v a l u a t i v e f a c t o r " (Osgood et al

1975:33). An i diom or e x p r e s s i o n s p e c i f i c to o n e p a r t i c u l a r

c u l t u r e c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d by t r a n s l a t i n g or r e c o d i n g the

c o n c e p t if t h e r e a r e no s u i t a b l e e q u i v a l e n t s a v a i l a b l e e.g.

"ich h a b e e i n e n H u n q e r b i s u n t e r b e i d e A r m e " c a n be r e c o d » d

as "I c o u l d eat a h o r s e " or "I am s t a r v i n g / r a v e n o u s /

f a m i s h e d " . T h e r e f o r e we must s u p p o r t t h e o r i s t s su c h *s

P a r t r i d g e and C o r d e r , who p o s i t that t h ere is m o r e to a

l a n g u a g e th a n a k n o w l e d g e of its s t r u c t u r a l rules, or of

its sy n t a x or v o c a b u l a r y (Corder 1981: ^ 0 ) , or d e c l i n a t i o n s

and that o n e of the mo s t e s s e n t i a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s for a g o o d

t r a n s l a t i o n is the t r a n s l a t o r’s n e a r - n a t i v e SL and n a t i v e

TL s p e a k i n g a b i l i t y i.e. k n o w i n g w h e n to u s e what, h o w to

u s e it and h o w and w h e n not to u s e it,. T h i s is what C o r d e r

a p t l y t e rms " c o m m u n i c a t i v e competenci!" (p . <*8 > and w h a t is

c o v e r e d by P a r t r i g e’s term of " S p r a c h g e f u h 1" ( 1 9 3 8 : 1 6 3 ) .

C o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e al s o r e f e r s to the k n o w l e d g e of

the r u l e s for p o l i t e n e s s and tact, to the r e c o g n i t i o n of an

insult and to k n o w i n g w h e r e p r a i s e is due.

N i d a and Taber <1969 in R e i s s 1976:125) c l a i m that the

ma ior d o w n f a l l of t r a n s l a t i o n is that too few t r a n s l a t o r s

a re a d e g u a t e l y f a m i l i a r w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i d i o m a t i c

w a y s of e x p r e s s i o n in the target language. T h e i r

s h o r t c o m i n q r e s u l t s in a d i l u t i o n of the m e t a p h o r i c a l p o w e r

of the target language, b e c a u s e the loss of c e r t a i n i d i o m s

etc. is not s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p e n s a t e d for in the

s u b s t i t u t i o n of o t h e r s w h i c h are not o p t i m a l e q u i v a l e n t s .

In the c a s e of the t r a n s l a t o r h c v i n g to r e n d e r a d i a l e c t

a c r o s s a l a n q u a q e b a r r i e r , h e will m o r e o f t e n t h a n not,

find h i s a t t e m p t s at s u b s t 1 tu t i n q e q u i v a l e n t s f u t ile. The

o n l y f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n w o u l d b e to recodi* the e n t i r e

d i a l o g u e . In so d o i n g h o w e v e r , the t r a n s l a t o r , for w a n t of

s u i t a b l e e g u i v a l e n t s , ru n s the risk of ei t h e r d e g e n e r a t i n g

or e l e v a t i n q the s t a t u s of a w o r d or term u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y ,

e.q. it is r e a s o n a b l y c o m m o n for G e r m a n s to r efer to p e o p l e

who are i r r i t a t i n g them or b e i n q i n s i d u o u s l y s t u p i d , as "Du

R i n d v i e h ! " The term is b i s e x u a l and h a s no E n g l i s h

e q u i v a l e n t . It c o u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d as "bitch", w h i c h also

r e f e r s to a w o m a n of i n c o n s i d e r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y , (but w h i c h

is o n a lower level than " R i n d v i e h " ) or it c o u l d be

2 3

t r a n s l a t e d as "ass", w h i c h w o u l d i n c r e a s e the level of

r e s p e c t toward a b l a t a n t l y s t u p i d p e r s o n . T h e s e are s o m e of

the m ajor p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to e q u i v a l e n c e , and it d e p e n d s

to a large e x t e n t o n the t r a n s l a t o r h i m s e l f as to h o w h e is

b e s t a b l e to deal w i t h them.

(3) T h e l a n g u a g e a s p e c t

L a n g u a g e is the m e d i u m in w h i c h mo s t h u m a n e m o t i o n s are

e x p r e s s e d . It is an integral part of any h u m a n

r e l a t i o n s h i p , b e it formal, informal, intim a t e , h o s t i l e ,

s a r c a s t i c , witty, d i s a p p r o v i n g or c o m p e t i t i v e etc. T h e

e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t in l a n g u a g e is not its p h y s i c a l l y o v e r t

m e d i u m , in w h i c h e m o t i o n s are aired, but its p u r p o s e

(Revesz 1956*85>, and this c o i n c i d e s w i t h H o u s e ’s ideas of

the f u n c t i o n of w h a t e v e r is impar ed by p e r s o n A to p e r s o n

B. F s p e c i a l l y in the t r a n s l a t i o n of v o c a t i v e s , the t r a n s ­

lator may never for an instant be o b l i v i o u s of the p u r p o s e

and f u n c t i o n of an u t t e r a n c e . for in t h ese lie the m e a n s

for the e x c h a n g e of t h o u g h t s and the t r a n s f e r of will.

T h o u g h t and s p e e c h are i n s e p a r a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o n e

a n o t h e r , and the e x i s t e n c e of the o n e p r e s u p p o s e s the

e x i s t e n c e of the other. It t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w s that a

m i s t r a n s 1r t i o n or a m i s m a t c h a c r o s s the l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r

will not g e n e r a t e in the a d d r e s s e e , the t h o u g h t s w h i c h the

s p e a k e r int e n d e d to g e n e r a t e in him, thus d i s t o r t i n g the

f u n c t i o n and p u r p o s e of the w o r d s u s e d for the u t t e r a n c e .

*

T h r o u g h the m e d i u m of l a n g u a q e the so c i a l s p a c e b e t w e e n two

or m o r e i n d i v i d u a l s is b r i d g e d and e a c h verbal e m i s s i o n

s i g n i f i e s an e x c h a n g e of i n f o r m a t i o n . It is the

t r a n s l a t o r’s d u t y to work in c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h the

f u n c t i o n and p u r p o s e of w h a t is said* in o r d e r not to

d e p r i v e the e x p r e s s i o n * and h e n c e the r e c i p i e n t , of any

m e a n i n g .

P a r t r i d g e ( 1 9 3 8 : 1 9 1 ) h a s g u o t e d G r e e n o u g n (1962) as s a y i n g

"e v e r y e d u c a t e d p e r s o n has at least two w a y s of s p e a k i n g

h i s mother tongue. The first is that w h i c h he e m p l o y s in

h i s f a m ily, a m o n q h i s f r i e n d s ... and on o r d i n a r y o c c a s i o n s .

The s e c o n d . . . is the l a n g u a g e w h i c h he e m p l o y s w h e n he is

o n his d i g n i t y . . . and the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e two

f o r m s c o n s i s t s in g r e a t m e a s u r e , of a d i f f e r e n c e in

v o c a b u l a r y " . H e r e it is i n t e r e s t i n g to no t e that u p o n

a n a l y s i n g what w a s said by G r e e n o u g n it is p o s s i b l e to

f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e the p r i v a t e l a n g u a g e into " s e c r e t " and

" p r i v a t e " » w h e r e the s e c r e t l a n g u a g e is s p o k e n b e t w e e n

lovers or c r i m i n a l s for e x a m p l e , <as o p p o s e d to the ja r g o n

u s e d by j a i l b i r d s or c o m p u t e r e x p e r t s ) w h i c h o u t s i d e r s

c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d , and w h e r e the p r i v a t e l a n g u a g e c a n also

b e s p o k e n by lo v e r s or e v e n s t r a n g e r s i.e. b e t w e e n a

c a s h i e r and a c u s t o m e r at a s u p e r m a r k e t . In o t h e r words,

s e c r e t v e r s u s p r i v a t e v e r s u s p u b l i c language, w h e r e the

85

fi rst way is o f t e n the u n c o n v e n t i o n a l , n o n - s t a n d a r d ,

i d i o s y n c r a t i c , m a r k e d way ot s p e a k i n g E n g l i s h (which h a s

hc-en termed an i d i o l e c t or " i d i o s y n c r a t i c d i a l e c t " by

C o r d e r a m o n g s t o t h e r s ) , w h e r e the s e c o n d is u s u a l l y the

m o r e n o r m a t i v e u n m a r k e d style, and w h e r e the t h ird

r e p r e r e n t s a s t i l t e d , a b o v e - s t a n d a r d , l e a r n e d style.

I d i o l e c t s or p e r s o n a l d i a l e c t s are s u b j e c t to s p e c i f i e d

r u l e s w h i c h a r e u n i q u e to the i n d i v i d u a l usinr} the lect,

and o f t e n also to p e o p l e sha ing his c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d

and l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y . I d i o l e c t i c e x p r e s s i o n s a r e h e n c e

not r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e or t r a n s l a t a b l e , s i n c e the

a b i l i t y to i n t e r p r e t an u t t e r a n c e d e p e n d s largely on the

k n o w l e d g e of the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d c o n v e n t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g

that u t t e r a n c e . A c c o r d i n g to S a u s s u r e (1V7<*> " p a r o l e "

(speech) is the individual e l e m e n t ("un a c t e i n d i v i d u e l de

v o l o n t e et d 'i n t e 1 1 i g e n c e " ), w h e r e a s "langue" ( l a n g u a g e )

c o n s t i t u t e s the w o r d p i c t u r e s and r e f e r e n c e s w h i c h r e s i d e

in the m i n d s of p e o p l e c o m i n q f r o m c o m p a t i b l e b a c k g r o u n d s ,

and h e n c e s h a r i n g s i m i l a r v a l u e s . On t a k i n q a c l o s e r look

at C h o m s k y’s t h e o r y (C h o m s k y 196^:10) " p arole" m a y be

e q u a t e d w i t h " p e r f o r m a n c e " w h i c h he f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e s into

the actual p e r f o r m a n c e and the p o t e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e of a

language, m e a n i n g that w h i c h is a c h i e v e d by an u t t e r a n c e

and that w h i c h c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by the sa m e u t t e r a n c e ,

d e p e n d i n g u p o n the tone of the u t t e r a n c e and the s i t u a t i o n

in w h i c h it is u t t e r e d . P o t e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e d e p e n d s

la r gely o n the l i s t e n e r’s r e a c t i o n to the u t t e r a n c e b e c a u s e

26

if the s a m e t h ing is s a i d to ten d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e all

s p e a k i n g the s a m e l a n g u a g e it could h a p p e n that all ten

r e s p o n s e s a r e d i f f e r e n t d e p e n d i n g on p e r s o n a l i t y , b e l i e f s

a nd c o u n t l e s s o t h e r e x t r a - 1 i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s " . F u r t h e r m o r e

the S a u s s u r i a n "la n g u e " m a y b e e g u a t e d wi^.h what C h o m s k y

t e r m s " c o m p e t e n c e " , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s the g r a m m a r of a

language. It is the l i s t e n e r ' s p r o b l e m "to d e t e r m i n e the

structural d e s c r i D t i o n a s s i g n e d b y h i s g r a m m a r to a

p r e s e n t e d u t t e r a n c e <or, w h e r e the s e n t e n c e is a m b i g u o u s ,

to d e t e r m i n e the c o r r e c t s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n . . . (and

u s i n g the i n f o r m a t i o n in the s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n , to

u n d e r s t a n d the u t t e r a n c e " . J e s p e r s e n (19^6:17) h a s

s u b s e q u e n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d S a u s s u r e as h a v i n g sa i d that e v e r y

m a n is m a s t e r of h i s o w n speech, that h e is at l i b e r t y to

distort w o r d s as h e sees fit, and to c o i n n e o l o g i s m s for

h i s o w n use, and indeed todav m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s take full

a d v a n t a g e of this fr e e d o m . This h o w e v e r , w h e n c a r r i e d out

to its f u l l e s t extreme, c a n no 1o n g e r be c a l l e d " p a r o l e " in

the S a u s s u r i a n s e n s e of the word, b e c a u s e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y

all s p e e c h is s o c i a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h a s o c i a l l y l i n king

e l e m e n t in e v e r y u t t e r a n c e , and an id i o l e c t s o m e t i m e s d o e s

not e v e n m a r g i n a l l y c o n f o r m to the norm, thus i s o l a t i n g the

i nd i v i d u a 1.

The s t u d y of i d i o l e c t s a c g u i r e s m o r e d e f i n i t i v e m e a n i n g

w h e n a n a l y s e d w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of a unit far s m a l l e r

then a c u l t u r e , n a m e l y in a f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n . In m a n y wa y s

5 7

Author Conze Ingola

Name of thesis Translating Terms Of Affection And Abuse From German To English With Special Reference To Animal

Metaphors. 1986

PUBLISHER: University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

©2013

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