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Mahayana
Mahyna
Buddhism
Lands
India China Japan
Vietnam Korea
Taiwan SingaporeMalaysia Mongolia
Tibet Bhutan Nepal
Doctrine
Bodhisattva la
Samdhi Praj
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mahyna(Sanskrit:mahyna, literally the "Great Vehicle") is one
of the two main existing branches of Buddhismand a term for classification
of Buddhist philosophies and practice. Mahyna Buddhism originated in
India,[1] and is associated with the oldest historical sect of Buddhism, the
Mahsghika.[2][3][4][5][6]
The Mahyna tradition is the larger of the two major traditions of
Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the Theravda school.
According to the teachings of Mahyna traditions, "Mahyna" also refers
to the path of seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient
beings,also called "Bodhisattvayna", or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle.[1][7]
In the course of its history, Mahyna Buddhism spread from India to
various other Asian countries such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea,
Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Major traditions of
Mahyna Buddhism today include Zen/Chn, Pure Land, Tiantai, andNichiren, as well as the Esoteric Buddhist traditions of Shingon, Tendai and
Tibetan Buddhism.
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1 Etymology
2 History
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ipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_ushttps://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page 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[edit]
unyat Trikya
Mahyna Stras
Prajpramit Stras
Lotus Stra
Nirva Stra
Sadhinirmocana Stra
Avatasaka Stra
ragama Stra
Mahyna Schools
Mdhyamaka
Yogcra
Esoteric Buddhism
Pure Land ZenTiantai Nichiren
Huayan
view talkedit
Part of a series on
Buddhism
Outline Portal
.
2.1.1 Origins of Mahyna
2.1.2 Earliest Mahyna stras
2.1.3 Earliest inscriptions
2.1.4 Early Mahyna Buddhism
2.1.5 Legacy of Early Mahyna Buddhism
2.1.6 Late Mahyna Buddhism
3 Doctrine3.1 Universalism
3.2 Bodhisattva
3.3 Expedient means
3.4 Liberation
3.5 Buddha nature
4 Mahyna scriptures
4.1 Mahyna and the gamas
4.2 Turnings of the Dharma Wheel4.3 Mahyna and early canon
5 Mahyna and the Theravda school
5.1 Role of the Bodhisattva
5.2 Theravda and Hnayna
6 See also
7 References
8 Notes
9 Further reading10 External links
Etymology
According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahyna ("Great Vehicle") was
originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayna ("Bodhisattva
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History
Timeline Councils
Gautama Buddha
Later Buddhists
Dharmaor concepts
Four Noble Truths
Five Aggregates
ImpermanenceSuffering Non-self
Dependent Origination
Middle Way Emptiness
Karma Rebirth
Samsara Cosmology
Practices
Three Jewels
Noble Eightfold PathMorality Perfections
Meditation Mindfulness
Wisdom Compassion
Aids to Enlightenment
Monasticism Laity
Nirva
Four Stages Arahant
Buddha Bodhisattva
Traditions Canons
Theravda Pali
Mahyna Hinayana
Chinese
Vajrayna Tibetan
V T E
Vehicle")[8] the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking buddhahood for the
benefit of all sentient beings.[1] The term Mahyna was therefore formed
independently at an early date as a synonym for the path and the
teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for
Bodhisattvayna, the creation of the term Mahyna and its application to
Bodhisattvayna did not represent a significant turning point in the
development of a Mahyna tradition.[8]
The earliest Mahyna texts often use the term Mahyna as a synonym
for Bodhisattvayna, but the term Hnayna is comparatively rare in the
earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between Mahyna and
Hnayna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in
relation to one another in the same era.[9]
Among the earliest and most important references to the term Mahyna
are those that occur in the Lotus Stra (Skt. Saddharma Puarka Stra)
dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.[10] Seishi
Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhri
Prakrit version of the Lotus Stra was not the term mahyna but the
Prakrit word mahjna in the sense of mahjna (great knowing).[11] At a
later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this
mahjna, being phonetically ambivalent, was mistakenly converted into
mahyna, possibly due to what may have been a double meaning in the
famous Parable of the Burning House, which talks of three vehicles or carts
(Skt:yna).[12][13]
History
Early Mahyna Buddhism
Origins of Mahyna
Bahasa Melayu
Mirands
Nederlands
Norsk (bokml)
Norsk (nynorsk)
Polski
Portugus
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Suomi
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Ting Vit
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Ancient Buddhist s tpas in Borobodur,Indonesia.
Early statue of the Buddha
The origins of Mahyna are still not completely understood. [14] The
earliest views of Mahyna Buddhism in the West assumed that
it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called
"Hnayna" schools. Due to the veneration of buddhas and
bodhisattvas, Mahyna was often interpreted as a more
devotional, lay-inspired form of Buddhism, with supposed origins
in stpa veneration,[15] or by making parallels with the history of
the European Protestant Reformation. These views have been
largely dismissed in modern times in light of a much broader
range of early texts that are now available. [16] These earliest
Mahyna texts often depict strict adherence to the path of a
bodhisattva, and engagement in the ascetic ideal of a monastic
life in the wilderness, akin to the ideas expressed in the
Rhinoceros Stra.[17] The old views of Mahyna as a separate lay-
inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as misguided andwrong on all counts.[18]
The earliest textual evidence of "Mahyna" comes from stras
originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has
noted that in some of the earliest Mahyna texts such as the
Ugraparipccha Stra use the term "Mahyna", yet there is no doctrinal
difference between Mahyna in this context and the early schools, and
that "Mahyna" referred rather to the rigorous emulation of Gautama
Buddha in the path of a bodhisattva seeking to become a fully enlightenedbuddha.[19]
There is also no evidence that Mahyna ever referred to a separate
formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain
set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. [19] Paul Williams has
also noted that the Mahyna never had nor ever attempted to have a
separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of
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, CE.
A statue of Prajpramitpersonified, from Singhasari, East
Buddhism, and therefore each bhiku or bhiku adhering to the
Mahyna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today
with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia, and the
Mlasarvstivda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore Mahyna was never a separate rival
sect of the early schools.[20]
The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahyna from Hnayna as
follows:
[21]
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five
offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas
and read the Mahayana stras are called the Mahynists, while those who do not perform
these are called the Hnaynists.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahyna comes from early Chinese translations of
Mahyna texts. These Mahyna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokakema, the first
translator of Mahyna stras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE.[22]
Earliest Mahyna stras
Some scholars[who?] have traditionally considered the earliest Mahyna
stras to include the very first versions of the Prajpramit series,
along with texts concerning Akobhya Buddha, which were probably
written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[23][24][25] Some
early Mahyna stras were translated by the Kua monk Lokakema,
who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhra. His first translationsto Chinese were made in the Chinese capital of Luoyang between 178
and 189 CE.[22] Some Mahyna stras translated during the 2nd
century CE include the following:[26]
1. Aashasrik Prajpramit Stra
2. Vimalakrti Nirdea Stra
3. Larger Sukhvatvyha Stra
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Java, Indonesia.
Mahyna Buddhist triad, includingBodhisattvaMaitreya, the Buddha, andBodhisattva Avalokitevara. 2nd3rdcentury CE, Gandhra.
4. Akobhyatathgatasyavyha Stra
5. Ugraparipccha Stra
6. Majurparipcch Stra
7. Drumakinnararjaparipcch Stra
8. ragama Samdhi Stra
9. Bhadrapla Stra
10. Ajtaatrukauktyavinodana Stra
11. Kyapaparivarta Stra
12. Loknuvartana Stra
13. An early stra connected to theAvatasaka Stra
Some of these were probably composed in the north of India in the 1st century CE. [27] Thus scholars
generally think that the earliest Mahyna stras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the
activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north.[28] However, the assumption that the
presence of an evolving body of Mahyna scriptures implies the contemporaneous existence of distinct
religious movement called "Mahyna", may be a serious misstep.[29]
Earliest inscriptions
The earliest s tone inscription containing a recognizably
Mahyna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha
was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura, and dated to
around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the
Brahmi inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of king
Huvishka, .. . for the Buddha Amitabha" (Mathura Museum).
However, this image was in itself extremely marginal and
isolated in the overall context of Buddhism in India at the time,
and had no lasting or long-term consequences.[30] Evidence of
the name "Mahyna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before
the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of
Mahyna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at that time.[31][32]
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These views of a discrepancy between translated texts and epigraphical evidence assume the presence of
Mahyna as distinct from the "Hnayna" schools. This view has been largely disproved in more recent
scholarship[citation needed], as Mahyna is now recognized as a tradition working within the context of the
early Buddhist schools rather than as a separate movement.
Early Mahyna Buddhism
During the period of early Mahyna Buddhism, four major types of thought developed: Mdhyamaka,Yogcra, Buddha Nature (Tathgatagarbha), and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent. [33] In India,
the two main philosophical schools of the Mahyna were the Mdhyamaka and the later Yogcra. [34]
Legacy of Early Mahyna Buddhism
Earlier stage forms of Mahyna such as the doctrines of Prajpramit, Yogcra, Buddha Nature, and
the Pure Land teachings are still popular in East Asia. In some cases these have spawned new
developments, while in others they are treated in the more traditional syncretic manner. Paul Williams has
noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to study of the stras.[35]
Late Mahyna Buddhism
Late stage forms of Mahyna Buddhism in India are found largely in the schools of Esoteric Buddhism.
These were replaced in India and Central Asia after the early millennium by Islam ( Sufism etc.) and
Hinduism, and in south-east Asia by Theravda Buddhism from Sri Lanka and Islam. They continue to exist
in certain regions of the Himalayas. In contrast to the East Asian traditions, there has been a strong
tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan traditions to approach the stras indirectly through the
medium of exegetical treatises if at all. [35]
Doctrine
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Amitbha Buddha statue from Borobodur,Indonesia.
Buddhism,[36] especially its early Indian form, other than that the
Buddhism practiced in China, Vietnam, Korea, Tibet, and Japan
is Mahyna Buddhism.[37] Mahyna can be described as a
loosely bound collection of many teachings with large and
expansive doctrines that are able to coexist simultaneously. [38]
Mahyna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by
plurality and the adoption of new Mahyna stras in addition tothe earlier gama texts. Mahyna sees itself as penetrating
further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. There is a
tendency in Mahyna stras to regard adherence to these
stras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that
arise from being a follower of the non-Mahyna approaches to
Dharma. Thus the rmldev Stra claims that the Buddha
said that devotion to Mahyna is inherently superior in its
virtues to the following the ravaka or pratyekabuddha paths.[39]
The fundamental principles of Mahyna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from
suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of buddhas and bodhisattvas
embodying Buddha Nature. The Pure Land school of Mahyna simplify the expression of faith by allowing
salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitbha Buddha by having faith and devoting
oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism has greatly contributed to the
success of Mahyna in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon mindfulness of the
Buddha, mantras and dhras, and reading of Mahyna stras. In Chinese Buddhism, most monks, letalone lay people, practice Pure Land, some combining it with Chn (Zen).[40]
Most Mahyna schools believe in supernatural bodhisattvas who devote themselves to the perfections
(Skt.pramit), ultimate knowledge (Skt. sarvajna), and the liberation of all sentient beings. In
Mahyna, the Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all
places, and the bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence.
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Bodhisattva Maitreya, thefuture successor of GautamaBuddha. Thikse monastery,
Ladakh.
Universalism
Mahyna traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of
arhat is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between
the Mahyna and some views contained in the early Buddhist schools
concerning the issues of Nirva With Remainder and Nirva Without
Remainder. The Mahyna position here is similar to that of the early
school of the Mahsghika[citation needed]
.Some of the early schools considered that Nirva Without Remainder
always follows Nirva With Remainder (Buddhas first achieve
enlightenment and then, at "death", Mahparinirva) and that Nirva
Without Remainder is final; whereas the Mahyna traditions consider
that Nirva Without Remainder is always followed by Nirva With
Remainder[citation needed] the state of attainment of arhat is not
considered final, and should be succeeded by
Bodhisattvahood[citation needed].
This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the
capability of a Buddha after Nirva, which is identified by the early schools as being Nirva Without
Remainder. Amongst the early schools, a completely enlightened buddha (Skt. samyaksabuddha) is not
able to directly point the way to Nirva after death. Some[who?] Mahayana schools however, hold that once
a completely enlightened Buddha (Skt. samyaksabuddha) arises, he or she continues to directly and
actively point the way to Nirva until there are no beings left in sasra[citation needed]. Consequently,
some Mahyna schools talk of a bodhisattva deliberately refraining from Buddhahood.[41]
The Lotus Sutrastates that Shakyamuni Buddha's parinirvana is an expedient, and that he actually remains in the world to
teach and guide living beings.[42] This is why Nichiren Buddhism regards Shakyamuni as the Eternal
Buddha.[43]
The early schools held that Maitreya will be the next Buddha to rediscover the path to Nirvana, when
teachings of Gautam Buddha are forgotten[citation needed]. In contrast, some Mahyna schools[who?] hold
that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the Dharma when it no longer
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Avalokitevara, thebodhisattva of compassion.Aja Caves, Mahrtra, India.
exists , but when he dies (or enters Mahparinirva), he will likewise continue to teach the Dharma for all
time[citation needed]. Moreover, some Mahyna schools [who?] argue that although it is true that, for this
world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems,
many of which have currently active buddhas or bodhisattvas manifesting [citation needed].
Because the Mahyna traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve complete enlightenment (Skt.
Anuttar Samyaksabodhi), the Mahyna is labeled universalist, whereas the stance of the early
scriptures is that attaining Nirva depends on effort and is not pre-determined. [44]
Bodhisattva
The Mahyna tradition holds that pursuing only the release from
suffering and attainment of Nirva is too narrow an aspiration, because it
lacks the motivation of actively resolving to liberate all other sentient
beings from Sasra. One who engages in this path is called a
bodhisattva.
The defining characteristic of a bodhisattva is bodhicitta, the intention toachieve omniscient Buddhahood (Trikaya) as fast as possible, so that
one may benefit infinite sentient beings. Sometimes the term bodhisattva
is used more restrictively to refer to those sentient beings on the grounds.
As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, "The most essential part of the
Mahayana is its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, which replaces that
of the arhat, or ranks before it."[45] According to Mahyna teachings,
being a high-level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of great
compassion and transcendent wisdom (Skt.praj) to realize the reality
of inherent emptiness and dependent origination. Mahyna teaches that
the practitioner will finally realize the attainment of Buddhahood.
Six perfections (Skt.pramit) are traditionally required for bodhisattvas:
1. dna-pramit: the perfection of giving
2. la-pramit: the perfection on behavior and discipline
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3. knti-pramit: the perfection of forbearance
4. vrya-pramit: the perfection of vigor and diligence
5. dhyna-pramit: the perfection of meditation
6. praj-pramit: the perfection of transcendent wisdom
Expedient means
Main article: Upaya
Expedient means (Skt. upya) is found in the Lotus Sutra, one of the earliest dated Mahyna stras, and
is accepted in all Mahyna schools of thought. It is any effective method that aids awakening. It does not
necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is
conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and nirvana. Expedient means could thus be
certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the noble eightfold path itself. Basic Buddhism
(what Mahyna would term ravakayna orpratyekabuddhayna) is an expedient method for helping
people begin the noble Buddhist path and advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed, according
to some Mahyna schools, until the practitioner has striven for and attained Buddhahood for the liberationof all other sentient beings from suffering.
Some scholars have stated that the exercise of expedient means, "the ability to adapt one's message to
the audience, is also of enormous importance in the Pli canon." [46] In fact the Pli term upya-kosalla
does occur in the Pli Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikya.[47]
Liberation
Devotional Mahyna developed a rich cosmography, with various Buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in
paradise realms. The concept of the three bodies (trikya) supports these constructions, making the
Buddha himself a transcendental figure. Dr. Guang Xing describes the Mahyna Buddha as "an omnipotent
divinity endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities ...[He] is described almost as an
omnipotent and almighty godhead."[48]
Under various conditions, the realms Buddha presides over could be attained by devotees after their death
so, when reborn, they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the
sect, this salvation to paradise can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple
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invocation of the Buddhas name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional
Buddhism, especially represented by the Pure Land ().
This rich cosmography also allowed Mahyna to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or
deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as popular Hindu devotional
cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest. [49]
Buddha nature
Main article: Buddha nature
The teaching of a "Buddha nature" (Skt. tathgatagarbha) may be based on the "luminous mind" concept
found in thegamas. The essential idea, articulated in the Buddha nature stras, but not accepted by all
Mahynists, is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to the awakening of
bodhiand that this link is an uncreated element (dhtu) or principle deep inside each being, which
constitutes the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the self".[50] The Mahparinirva Stra states: "The
essence of the Self (tman) is the subtle Buddha nature..." while the later Lankvatra Stra states that the
Buddha nature might be taken to be self (tman), but it is not. In the Buddha nature class of stras, theword "self" (tman) is used in a way defined by and specific to these stras. (See Atman (Buddhism).)
According to some scholars, the Buddha nature discussed in some Mahyna stras does not represent a
substantial self (tman); rather, it is a positive language and expression of emptiness (nyat) and
represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.[51] It is the "true self" in
representing the innate aspect of the individual that makes actualizing the ultimate personality possible.
The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha essence (Buddha-dhtu, co-terminous with the
Dharmakya or self[citation needed] of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic liberation. This Buddha essence or"Buddha nature" is stated to be found in every single person, ghost, god and sentient being. In the Buddha
nature stras, the Buddha is portrayed as describing the Buddha essence as uncreated, deathless and
ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation. Yet, it is this already real and present, hidden
internal element of awakeness (bodhi) that, according to the Buddha nature stras, prompts beings to seek
liberation from worldly suffering, and lets them attain the spotless bliss that lies at the heart of their being.
Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings, and unwholesome behaviour (the kleas) are eliminated from
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B ddhi t h l i I di h l d S k it f th i b i
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Statue of the Buddha w ithDharmacakraMudra, symbolizinghis teaching of the Dharma.Sarnath, Vras.
Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon.
These correspond to the Nikyas used by the Theravda school. The
surviving gamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools,
while most of the gamas teachings were never translated into Tibetan.
In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the various early
Buddhist schools as valid, Mahyna Buddhism also maintains large
additional collections of stras that are not used or recognized by the
Theravda school. In the past, these were also not recognized by some
individuals within the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities were divided along
these doctrinal lines. In Mahyna Buddhism, the Mahyna stras are often given greater authority than
the gamas. The first of these Mahyna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century
BCE[56] or 1st century CE.[57]
Turnings of the Dharma Wheel
Dating back at least to the Sadhinirmocana Stra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into threecategories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the
Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[58]
1. In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Vras for those in the ravaka
vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning
controversy.[59] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the Dharmacakra Pravartana
Stra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in
the history of Buddhism.
2. In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahyna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching thatall phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and
essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring
interpretation and occasioning controversy.[59] Doctrine of the second turning is established in the
Prajpramit teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is
exemplified by the Mdhyamaka school of Ngrjuna.
3. In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the
three vehicles including all the ravakas pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas These were meant to
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three vehicles, including all the ravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to
be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be
necessary, and controversy would not occur.[59] These teachings were established by the
Sadhinirmocana Stra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.[60] In the Indian philosophical
schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogcra school of Asaga and Vasubandhu.
Some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and Vajrayna to be the
third turning of the Dharma Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second
turning as the highest teaching, due to their particular interpretation of Yogcra doctrine. The Buddha
Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel. The Chinese tradition has a different
scheme.
The Chinese scholar T'ien-T'ai believed the Buddha taught over Five Periods[61]. These are:
1. The Flower Garland Period[62].
2. The Agama Period[63].
3. The Correct and Equal Period (provisional Mahayana Sutras, including the Amida, Mahavairochana
and Vimalakirti Sutras)[64].
4. The Wisdom Period (Perfection of Wisdom Sutras)[65].
5. The Lotus and Nirvana Period (when Shakyamuni taught from the standpoint of his
Enlightenment)[66].
Mahyna and early canon
Scholars have noted that many key Mahyna ideas are closely connected to the earliest texts of
Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahyna philosophy, Ngrjuna'sMlamadhyamakakrik, mentions the
canon's Katyyana Stra (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.[67]
Ngrjuna systematized the Mdhyamaka school of Mahyna philosophy. He may have arrived at his
positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon.
In his eyes the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mdhyamaka system. [68]
Ngrjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different
works. [69]
Yogcra the other prominent Mahyna school in dialectic with the Mdhyamaka school gave a special
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Yogcra, the other prominent Mahyna school in dialectic with the Mdhyamaka school, gave a special
significance to the canon's Lesser Discourse on Emptiness (MA 190).[70] A passage there (which the
discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogcra texts as a true definition of emptiness.[71]
According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogcra school's Abhidharma-samuccaya is
undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma.[72]
Both the Mdhyamikas and the Yogcrins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way
between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing).
The Yogcrins critic ized the Mdhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mdhyamikas critic ized
the Yogcrins for tending towards substantialism.[73]
Key Mahyna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to
passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and may have been based
on this idea.[74]
Mahyna and the Theravda school
Role of the Bodhisattva
In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching
Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future
generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for
most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly
virtuous goal.[75]
Theravda and HnaynaAlthough the Theravda school is usually described as belonging to Hnayna, [76][77][78][79][80] some
authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahyna perspective. Their view is
based on a different understanding of the concept of Hnayna. Rather than regarding the term as referring
to any school of Buddhism that hasn't accepted the Mahyna canon and doctrines, such as those
pertaining to the role of the boddhisatva,[77][79] these authors argue that the classification of a school as
"Hnayna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenological position. They
point out that unlike the now extinct Sarvstivda school which was the primary object of Mahyna
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point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvstivda school, which was the primary object of Mahyna
criticism, the Theravda does not claim the existence of independent entities (dharmas); in this it maintains
the attitude of early Buddhism.[81][82][83] Adherents of Mahyna Buddhism disagreed with the
substantialist thought of the Sarvstivdins and Sautrntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness,
Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. [84] The Theravdins too refuted the
Sarvstivdins and Sautrntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with
the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravda arguments are preserved in the Kathvatthu.[85] Thus,
according to this view, no form of real Hnayna Buddhism survives today.
Some contemporary Theravdin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahyna
philosophy found in texts such as the Heart Stra (Skt. Prajpramit Hdaya) and Ngrjuna's
Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way(Skt. Mlamadhyamakakrik).[86][87]
See also
Buddha nature
Buddhist Ceremonies
Dzogchen
Early Buddhist Schools
Faith in Buddhism
God in Buddhism
Golden Light Sutra
History of Buddhism
Lotus Sutra
Mahayana sutras
Nirvana Sutra
Pure Land
Rebirth
Schools of Buddhism
Shunyata
Silk Road transmission of
Buddhism
Tathagatagarbha
Tendai
Zen
References1. ^ abc Keown, Damien (2003),A Dictionary of Buddhism: p. 38
2. ^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 11
3. ^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999. p. 426
4. ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p.
65-6
5. ^ Skilton, Andrew.A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 48
6. ^ Williams, Jane, and Williams, Paul. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Volume 2. 2005. p.
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6. Williams, Jane, and Williams, Paul. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Volume 2. 2005. p.
189
7. ^ "The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps
more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." - Warder, A.K. (3rd
edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 338
8. ^ ab Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
9. ^ Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 172
10. ^ Ven. Dr. W. Rahula, Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism
11. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahyna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50.
12. ^ I have ass umed that, in the earliest stage of the transmiss ion of the Lotus Stra, the Middle Indic fornja
or *jna (= Pkt < Sktjna,yna) had s tood in these places ... I have assum ed, further, that the Mahynis t
terms buddha-yn ("the Buddha-vehicle"), mahyna ("the great vehicle"), hnayna ("the inferior vehicle")
meant originally buddha-jna ("buddha-knowledge"), mahjna ("great knowledge") and hnajna
("inferior knowledge"). Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some Features of the Language of the Saddharma-
puarka-stra, Indo-Iranian Journal44: 207-230
13. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahyna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50
14. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass : p. 260
15. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (1993),A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana: p. 271
16. ^ e.g. Williams, Mahayana Buddhism
17. ^ "As scholars have moved away from this limited corpus, and have begun to explore a wider range of
Mahayana stras, they have s tumbled on, and have started to open up, a literature that is often s tridently
ascetic and heavily engaged in reinventing the forest ideal , an individualis tic, antisocial, ascetic ideal that is
encapsulated in the apparently resurrected image of wandering alone like a rhinoceros. Macmillan
Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
18. ^ "One of the most frequent ass ertions about the Mahayana ... is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-
inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic
character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts ." Macmillan
Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
19. ^ ab Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-194
20. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5
21. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5
22 ^ a b "The most im portant evidence in fact the only evidence for s ituating the emergence of the
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22. The most im portant evidence in fact the only evidence for s ituating the emergence of the
Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China.
Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small , seem ingly idiosyncratic collection of
subs tantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian,
whos e Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004):
p. 492
23. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass: p. 263, 268
24. ^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder, A.K. (3rd edn.
1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
25. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass : p. 253
26. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass: p. 248-251
27. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass: p. 252, 253
28. ^ "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the secondcentury AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in
the South." - Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
29. ^ "But even apart from the obvious weaknesses inherent in arguments of this kind there is here the tacit
equation of a body of literature with a religious movement, an ass umption that evidence for the presence of
one proves the existence of the other, and this may be a serious m isstep." - Macmillan Encyclopedia of
Buddhism (2004): p. 493
30. ^ "In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather
than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at leas t,
appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhis t cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then
what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no las ting or long-term cons equences
there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern
occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader s cale when nontextual evidence is considered." -
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
31. ^ "Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But
nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a nam ed
Mahyna.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
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y y p ( ) p
32. ^ "What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and real ity: We know from
Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahyna sutras were being compos ed in the period between
the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the
sam e period, very different in fact seemingly older ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating
actual behavior, and old and es tablished Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized
and supported., Macmil lan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
33. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass: p. 8,934. ^ Harvey, Peter (1993).An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press: p. 95.
35. ^ ab Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: p.103
36. ^ "There are, it seems , very few things that can be said wi th certainty about Mahayana Buddhism ",
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
37. ^ "But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism em bedded in China,
Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty
about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in
India.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 49238. ^ "It has becom e increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seem s, a
loosely bound bundle of many, and like Walt Whitman was large and could contain, in both sens es of
the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." - Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p.
492
39. ^ Hookham, Dr. Shenpen, trans. (1998). The Shrimaladevi Sutra. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p.27
40. ^ Welch (1967). Practice of Chinese Buddhism. Harvard: p. 396
41. ^ Cook (1977). Hua-Yen Buddhism. Pennsylvania State University Press
42. ^ Lotus Sutra, Ch. 16, Lifespan of the Thus Come One
43. ^ Nichiren the Buddhist Prophet, MASAHARU ANESAKI, p. 27, CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
(1916)
44. ^ Harvey, Peter (1995). The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press : p. 87.
45. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1975). Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Boston: University Books, Inc..
p. 229. LCCN64056434 .
46. ^ "It is true that the term translated 'expounding in means', upaya-kausalya, is post-canonical, but the
exercise of expounding to which it refers, the abili ty to adapt one's mess age to the audience, is of
enormous importance in the Pali Canon." Gombrich, Richard F. (1997). How Buddhism Began. Munshiram
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Manoharlal: p. 17
47. ^ Walshe, M. trans. (1987). Thus Have I Heard: the Long Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom: p. 486
48. ^ Guang Xing (2005). The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory.
Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp.1 and 85
49. ^ Lowenstein, Tom. The Vision of the Buddha
50. ^Nirva Stra
51. ^Heng-Ching Shih, The Significance Of "Tathagatagarbha"A Positive Expression Of "Sunyata".
52. ^ King, Sallie B. The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist : pp. 174-179.
53. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru
Publications: p. 268
54. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru
Publications: p. 151; cf. also p. 110
55. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru
Publications: p. 278
56. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993).A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass : p. 25257. ^Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 293
58. ^Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2002). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture.
Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5: p. 80
59. ^ abc Keenan, John (2000). The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning. Numata Center.
ISBN 1-886439-10-9: p. 49
60. ^ Powers, John (1993), Hermeneutics and tradition in the Sadhinirmocana-stra, Brill Academic
Publishers, pp. 411, ISBN9004098267
61. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '62. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '
63. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '
64. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '
65. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '
66. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '
67. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 5.
68. ^ Lindtner, Christian (1997). Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 324.
69. ^ Lindtner, Christian (1997). Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Ngrjuna is
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referencing the DN.
70. ^ Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). Madhyamika and Yogachara. Albany: SUNY Press:
p. 53.
71. ^ Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). Madhyamika and Yogachara. Albany: SUNY Press:
p. 200.
72. ^ Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, page 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to
Rahula'sZen and the Taming of the Bull .
73. ^ Harvey, Peter (1993).An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press: p. 106.
74. ^ Harvey, Peter (1989). Conscious ness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed.,
The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press : p. 97.
75. ^ Harvey, Peter (2000).An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge University Press : p. 123.
76. ^Google Books
77. ^ ab Gombrich, Richard Francis (1988). Theravda Buddhism: P.83
78. ^ Collins , Steven. 1990. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravda Buddhism. P.21
79. ^ ab Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: P.14
80. ^ Swearer, Donald (2006). Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.) The OxfordHandbook of Global Religions: P.83
81. ^ Hoffman, Frank J. and Mahinda, Deegal le (1996). Pali Buddhism. Routledge Press: p. 192.
82. ^ King, Richard (1999). Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought. Edinburgh
Universi ty Press: p. 86.
83. ^ Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi (1998).Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist
Explorations of Consciousness and Time. Wisdom Publications: p. 42.
84. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 6.
85. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 24.86. ^ Lopez, Donald S. and Dge-dun-chos-phel (2006). The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Real ity of
the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel. Universi ty of Chicago Press: p. 24.
87. ^Gil Fronsdal, in Tricycle, posted online on November 8, 2007
Notes
"Mahayana". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.
[edit]Further reading
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Further reading
Beal (1871). Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese
Kuroda, S. (1893). Outline of Mahayana
Lowenstein, Tom. The Vision of the Buddha. ISBN 1-903296-91-9
Lynch, Kevin (2005). The Way Of The Tiger: A Buddhist's Guide To Achieving Nirvana. Yojimbo Temple
Murdoch (1910). History of Japan, volume i.
Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayanain India",Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10, 1990
Suzuki, D. T. (1914). In Paul Carus, ed., The Monist, volume xxiv,.
Suzuki, D. T. (1907). Outline of Mahayana Buddhism
Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism. Routledge.
External links
Digital Dictionary of BuddhismSacred Library Contains many Mahyna stras
Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana - Therevada -
Tibetan)
Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English
The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis.
Major Mahayana Tathagatagarbha sutras in English translation
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism
April 2010 Smithsonian Magazine Article
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