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i
Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy: The Impact on Pakistani Women in
Higher Education
By
Sadia Irshad
March 2016
Department of English Language and Literature
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
Bahawalpur, Pakistan
iii
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy: The
Impact on Pakistani Women in Higher Education
by
Sadia Irshad
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the
Requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In
Linguistics
March 2016
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
Bahawalpur, Pakistan
iv
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the thesis “Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy: The Impact on Pakistani Women in Higher Education ” submitted by
Ms. Sadia Irshad, has been found satisfactory and is approved for the award of the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Linguistics.
Internal Examiner _____________________________
Prof. Dr Mamuna Ghani
Dean Faculty of Arts & Islamic Learning
Chairperson , Department of English
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
External Examiner _____________________________
Prof. Dr. Naveed Ahmed Ch.
Chairman, Department of English,
Bahuddin Zakaria University, Multan
External Examiner _____________________________
Dr. Tahira Asghar
Department of English,
GSWCU, Bahawalpur
Dated: 1st November, 2016
v
DECLARATION
I, Sadia Irshad, PhD scholar of the Department of English, the Islamia University of
Bahawalpur, hereby declare that this research work entitled ‘Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy: The Impact on Pakistani Women in
Higher Education’ is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material
which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the
University or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment
has been made in the text.
Date:------------------------------- ---------------------------
Sadia Irshad
Registration number:
61/IU.PhD/2010
vi
FORWARDING CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled ‘Technology and Development of ESL
Learner Autonomy: The Impact on Pakistani Women in Higher Education’,
submitted by Ms. Sadia Irshad to the Islamia University of Bahawalpur for the award
of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is a bona fide record of the research work
carried out by her under my supervision and guidance. The content of the thesis, in
full or parts have not been submitted to any other Institute or University for the award
of any other degree or diploma. This thesis is approved for submission in partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in
English Linguistics.
Date: 28th March, 2016 ------------------------------------------
Prof. Dr. Mamuna Ghani
Supervisor
Dean Faculty of Arts & Islamic Learning
Chairperson
Department of English
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is all by the grace of Almighty Allah, the most Benevolent and the most
Compassionate, that I am able to complete my PhD research work.
During this journey, my supervisor, colleagues, and my friends have supported
and encouraged me to undertake this herculean task. I would like to thank my
supervisor, Dr. Mamuna Ghani for her wisdom, patience and tolerance when the
going seemed difficult. I am in debt for her kind help and sympathetic attitude
throughout the study. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues, for
support, guidance and helpful suggestions.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my family: my parents, my husband, siblings and
children. Their love, support and cooperation have enabled me to embark on and
accomplish this task.
I would also like to appreciate Higher Education Commission Pakistan for
sponsoring this study and making it possible to carry out this research.
I am thankful to all those women ESL teachers who responded to my survey;
and especially to those who gave me valuable suggestions on the survey
questionnaire.
Last but not the least; I am indebted to technology for being a tool, a resource
and a research partner.
Sadia Irshad
ix
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy: The Impact on
Pakistani Women in Higher Education
ABSTRACT
Patriarchal societies, such as that of Pakistan, denigrate women’s participation
in the field of education and technology. Addressing this denigration, my thesis
orients from the proposition, which states that in contemporary technologically tuned
world use of technology has a positive impact on women ESL tertiary level teachers.
This usage grants them teaching-learning autonomy, which in turn, compels these
teachers to inculcate the same in ESL learners. Hence, they play an imperative role in
the development of ESL learner autonomy. The educated women’s practice of this
teaching autonomy in classroom, a miniature of the social fabric of Pakistan, is a
breakthrough the prevailing socio-political fences.
This premise is contested through the critical review of the related literature. It
reveals that the use of technology as positively affecting female ESL tertiary level
teachers’ professional competence and pedagogical practices in Pakistani context is
not well-researched. Nonetheless, this context helps to address and establish
underpinning concepts of this study. Although for some projects that deal in isolation
with either technology or learner autonomy or feminist perspective, description in
literature or other documentary sources is both comprehensive and also in depth, yet
no single framework caters to interface this study. For the purpose of study, I have
adopted a technique of theoretical triangulation. The epistemological framework is
delineated with (a) feminist pedagogical lens of Paulo Friere and a radical feminist
pedagogue bell hooks 1 ; (b) the soft technological deterministic view of Andrew
Feenberg (2002); and (c) Phil Benson’s (2011) philosophy of the role of teacher and
technology with David Little’s (1996) model of interaction with information system
for the development of learner autonomy. My theoretical framework is, thus, based
upon feminist methodology, furnished with the empirical tool: Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. To administer the survey,
‘purposeful’ and ‘snowball’ sampling techniques were employed; accordingly, the
response from 128 respondents formed the sample of this study. These sampling
1 Gloria Jean Watkins is known by her pen name bell hooks
x
techniques were employed to access those female teachers whose knowledge and
expertise are substantial in utilizing technology. To evaluate the data, descriptive
statistics are used. Moreover, the Pearson Correlation analysis correlates research
variables. In addition, the findings of One Way ANOVA analyses tabulate the
significant difference of means between variables under study.
Elucidating female tertiary level teachers ESL teaching-learning autonomy by
way of using technology, the findings of this study contribute to this field of research
in Pakistan. The results depict that technology enables the female ESL teachers to
perform beyond the customary social differences. In consequence, the emergent
theory and praxis of Pyramid of ESL Techno-Feminist Pedagogy sketch the
multifaceted philosophies of the impact of technology on women teacher autonomy in
Pakistani ESL context. This pyramid, subsequently, delineates women ESL teachers’
critical awareness of the implications of use of technology in education as the
embodiment of the active feminist movement in Pakistani educational institutions.
These teachers, as highly qualified women reject the gender discrimination and
disparage oppression that consummate women’s right to access means of education
within the microcosm of social stratum especially in the higher education institutions.
The female teachers’ pedagogical practices, in this way, are the conscious actions to
liberate and gain teaching-learning autonomy. Moreover, teachers favour teaching as
an engaged process rather than a stockpiling attempt onto learners. It also highlights
that the women ESL teachers consider classroom a radical space of possibility. Thus,
this feminist approach to education advocates voicing of the silent, freedom of the
oppressed and autonomy of the restrained.
Consequently, the future implications of this pyramid cannot be ignored
besides its limitations in addressing the core ideology of educational domain. For
example, in further research this framework will help to address the issues of social
malignance in education sector and society.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE ....................................................................................... iv
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................... v
FORWARDING CERTIFICATE ................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... vii
DEDICATED TO ...................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ....................................................................................... xv
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. xviii
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................ 6
1.1.1 Feminist Pedagogical Perspective of higher Education ........................... 8
1.1.2 ............ Focusing Women’s Use of Technology for ESL Teaching in Pakistan
14
1.1.3 Teaching-Learning Autonomy and ESL Pedagogy in Pakistan ............ 17
1.2 Statement of Purpose ............................................................................................ 22
1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................. 23
1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 24
1.5 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................. 25
1.6 Theoretical Framework......................................................................................... 26
1.7 Delimitations of the study .................................................................................... 29
1.8 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 30
1.9 Significance of the study ...................................................................................... 30
1.10 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................... 31
1.11 Thesis Outline ........................................................................................................ 33
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................ 36
Pakistani Women, Technology and Learner Autonomy: ............................................. 36
A Critical Appraisal of Related Literature ................................................................... 36
2.1 Pakistani Women and Higher Education: A Historical Perspective on
Feminism ............................................................................................................................ 37
xii
2.1.1 The Impact of Colonialism .................................................................... 38
2.1.2 Reforms by Government of Pakistan for Women’s Higher Education . 42
2.1.3 Traditionally Situated Status of Women in Pakistani Society and its
Impact on Access to Higher Education ................................................................ 47
2.1.4 Feminist Movement and Higher Education: Secular Vs Religious ....... 49
2.1.5 Women’s Educational Autonomy in Higher education in Pakistan ...... 51
2.2 Impact of Colonialism on Teaching and Learning of English in Pakistan .... 53
2.2.1 World-wide Diffusion of English .......................................................... 54
2.2.2 Rejection vs Acceptance of English in Pakistan .................................... 55
2.2.3 The Challenges to ESL Feminist Pedagogy in Higher Education ......... 58
2.3 Use of Technology in ESL Teaching in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective 62
2.3.1 Technological Determinism and ESL Pedagogy ................................... 68
2.3.2 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Use of Technology ................................ 71
2.3.3 ESL Teachers’ Competence in Technology .......................................... 72
2.4 Learner Autonomy in English as Second Language Pedagogy: A Historical
Perspective ......................................................................................................................... 77
2.4.1 Defining Learner Autonomy .................................................................. 79
2.4.2 Development of Learner Autonomy through Education..............................86
2.4.3 Development of Learner Autonomy in Second Language Teaching ..... 86
2.4.4 Development of ESL Learner Autonomy in Pakistani Social Landscape 89
2.4.5 Teacher Autonomy in ESL Classroom .................................................. 90
2.4.6 The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy .... 94
2.4.7 Factors Influencing the Role of the Teacher ........................................ 105
2.4.7.1 Individual Learner Differences........................................................105
2.4.7.2 Dependence, Independence and Interdependence ........................109
2.4.8 The Challenges for Teachers to Use Technology and Foster Learner
Autonomy ........................................................................................................... 111
2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 115
CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................................. 117
Epistemological and Methodological Framework ..................................................... 117
3.1 Epistemological Framework .............................................................................. 118
3.1.1 Towards implications of Feminist Pedagogy in ESL .......................... 119
3.1.2 Technological Determinism in ESL Pedagogy .................................... 125
xiii
3.1.3 Benson’s Philosophy of the Development of Learner Autonomy ....... 138
3.1.4 Little’s Model of Interaction with Technology for the Development of
Learner Autonomy .............................................................................................. 149
3.2 A Feminist Methodological Framework .......................................................... 151
3.3 Phase I: Survey and Piloting .............................................................................. 155
3.3.1 Development of Survey ....................................................................... 155
3.3.2 The Pilot Study .................................................................................... 160
3.3.3 Final Draft of Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy
Survey ................................................................................................................. 164
3.4 Phase II ....................................................................................................................... 169
3.4.1 Survey Administration ......................................................................... 169
3.4.2 Data Feeding and Missing Data Analysis ............................................ 173
3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 176
CHAPTER 4 .............................................................................................................. 178
Data Analysis and Interpretation ............................................................................... 178
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey.......................... 180
4.1 Section I: Teachers’ Professional Competence ............................................... 182
4.1.1 Teachers’ Educational Qualification .................................................... 184
4.1.2 Experience as ESL Teacher ....................................................................... 186
4.1.3 Teachers’ Competence in Technology ...................................................... 188
4.1.3.1 Computer Proficiency.........................................................................................190
4.1.3.2 In-service Computer Training............................................................................192
4.1.3.3 Self-induced Computer Training........................................................................194
4.1.3.4 Participation in On-line Research.......................................................................198
4.1.3.5 Participation in On-Line Research on ESL Teaching Practices………………200
4.1.4 Correlation between Teachers’ Competence in Technology and
Educational Qualification ................................................................................... 203
4.2 Section II: Use of Technology in ESL Teaching Practices ........................... 212
4.2.1 Use of Technology as a Tool ............................................................... 213
4.2.2 Use of Technology as a Resource.............................................................. 216
4.2.3 Use of Technology inside the Classroom .................................................. 219
4.2.4 Use of Technology outside the Classroom ................................................ 221
4.2.5 Overview of the Subscales of the Use of Technology ............................... 225
xiv
4.3 Section III: The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner
Autonomy ......................................................................................................................... 238
4.3.1 Identification ........................................................................................ 239
4.3.2 Capacity Building ...................................................................................... 242
4.3.3 Intervention ................................................................................................ 245
4.3.4 Decision Making........................................................................................ 250
4.3.5 Integration of Technology ......................................................................... 253
4.3.6 Social paradigm .................................................................................. 257
4.3.7 The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy:
Correlation between Variables ........................................................................... 260
4.4 Summary............................................................................................................... 268
CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................................. 272
Discussion on the Findings: ....................................................................................... 272
Emerging Themes and Patterns of Impact of Technology......................................... 272
5.1 Impact of Technology ......................................................................................... 272
5.2 Women Teachers’ Education and Teacher Autonomy ................................... 273
5.2.1 Academic Qualification ....................................................................... 273
5.2.2 Competence Development through Technology ................................. 274
5.3 A Feminist View on Technological Determinism .......................................... 279
5.4 Learner Autonomy: A teaching Philosophy .................................................... 281
5.5 Learner Autonomy and the Role of the ESL Teacher: A Feminist Perspective.... 283
5.6 Pyramid of ESL Techno-Feminist Pedagogy .................................................. 286
5.6.1 Definition ............................................................................................. 290
5.6.2 Technological Determinism and ESL Feminist Pedagogy: In an
Interface Mode .................................................................................................... 291
5.6.3 Learner Autonomy: An Antecedent of Teacher Autonomy ................ 293
5.6.4 Further Implications ............................................................................. 296
5.6.5 Strengths and Limitations .................................................................... 298
5.6.6 Opportunities and Threats .................................................................... 300
5.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 301
References .................................................................................................................. 304
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 336
xv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1.1: Targets and Achievement- GPI Youth Literacy ....................................... 10
Figure 2.1: Five Nots to learner Autonomy Summarized from Little (1990) ........... 81
Figure 3.1: Phases of the Study ..................................................................................... 155
Figure 3.2: Procedure of Survey Administration ........................................................ 172
Figure 4.1: Educational Qualification .......................................................................... 185
Figure 4.2: Experience as ESL Teacher ....................................................................... 187
Figure 4.3: Computer Proficiency ................................................................................. 192
Figure 4.4: In-Service Computer Training ................................................................... 194
Figure 4.5: Self-Induced Computer Training .............................................................. 195
Figure 4.6: Comparison of In-service and Self-Induced Computer Training ......... 197
Figure 4.7: Participation in On-line Research ............................................................. 199
Figure 4.8: Participation in On-line Research on ESL Teaching Practices ............. 201
Figure 4.9: Participation in On-line Research ............................................................. 202
Figure 4.10: Use of Technology as a Tool ................................................................... 215
Figure 4.11: Technology as a Resource ....................................................................... 218
Figure 4.12: Use of Technology inside the Class ....................................................... 221
Figure 4.13: Use of Technology outside the Classroom ............................................ 224
Figure 4.14: Use of Technology .................................................................................... 228
Figure 4.15: Identification .............................................................................................. 241
Figure 4.16 Capacity Building ...................................................................................... 244
Figure 4.17 Intervention ................................................................................................. 249
Figure 4.18 Decision Making ........................................................................................ 252
Figure 4.19: Integration of Technology ....................................................................... 256
Figure 4.20: Social Paradigm ........................................................................................ 260
Figure 4.21: The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy 261
Figure 5.1: Learner Autonomy ...................................................................................... 282
Figure 5.2: Pyramid of ESL Techno-Feminist Pedagogy .......................................... 288
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: HRD Scheme during 2014-15 ....................................................................... 13
Table 2.1: Faculty Benefitted through CPD Courses: Phase I and II ......................... 61
Table 2.2: The Three Stages of CALL ........................................................................... 70
Table 2.3: Summarized from Lee (2000) ....................................................................... 71
Table 2.4: Teacher as a Counsellor ................................................................................. 98
Table 2.5: Comparison between Teacher-centred and Learner-centred classrooms
110
Table 3.1: Approaches to the Development of Autonomy ........................................ 139
Table 3.2: CALL stages and learner autonomy ........................................................... 149
Table 3.2: Reliability Statistics ...................................................................................... 163
Table 3.3: Gender of the Respondents ......................................................................... 173
Table 3.4: Missing Value Analysis ............................................................................... 174
Table 4.1: Educational Qualification ............................................................................ 184
Table 4.2: Experience as ESL Teacher ........................................................................ 186
Table 4.3: Computer Proficiency .................................................................................. 191
Table 4.4: In-service Computer Training ..................................................................... 193
Table 4.5: Self-induced Computer Training ................................................................ 195
Table 4.6: Participation in On-line Research ............................................................... 198
Table 4.7: Participation in On-line Research on ESL Teaching Practices .............. 200
Table 4.8: Correlations of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and Educational
Qualification: Results of Pearson Correlation Coefficient ........................................ 205
Table 4.9: Comparison of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and Educational
Qualification: Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................. 206
Table 4.10: Comparison of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and Educational
Qualification: One Way ANOVA ................................................................................. 206
Table 4.11: Post Hoc Analysis with Teachers’ Competence in Technology as
Dependent Variable......................................................................................................... 207
Table 4.12: Technology as a Tool ................................................................................. 214
Table 4.13: Technology as a Resource ......................................................................... 217
Table 4.14: Use of Technology inside the Classroom ................................................ 219
Table 4.15: Use of Technology outside the Classroom ............................................. 222
Table 4.16: Use of Technology ..................................................................................... 226
xvii
Table 4.17: Correlation among Subscales: Use of Technology as a Tool, Use of
Technology as a Resource, Use of Technology inside the Classroom and Use of
technology Outside the Classroom ............................................................................... 229
Table 4.18: Identification ............................................................................................... 240
Table 4.19: Capacity Building ....................................................................................... 243
Table 4.19: Intervention ................................................................................................. 246
Table 4.20: Decision Making ........................................................................................ 251
Table 21: Integration of Technology ............................................................................ 254
Table 4.23: Social Paradigm .......................................................................................... 257
Table 4.24: Correlations among Subscales: The Role of the Teacher in the
Development of Learner Autonomy ............................................................................. 262
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ESL English as a Second Language
CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning
EFL English as a Foreign Language
TAI Technology Assisted Instruction
HRD Human Resource Development
HEC Higher Education Commission
ICT Information Communication Technologies
SAC Self Access Centre
SLA Second Language Acquisition
UN United Nations
MDG Millennium Development Goal
EFA Education For All
GPI Gender Parity Index
CPD Continuous Professional Development courses
ELTR English Language Teaching Reforms
1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
“Technology marches in seven-league boots from one ruthless, revolutionary
conquest to another, tearing down old factories and industries, flinging up new
processes with terrifying rapidity” (Beard, 1927).
This study is taken up with the proposition that in contemporary
technologically tuned world use of technology has a strong impact, aside this
masculine war metaphor, on women teaching English as second language (ESL), a
lingua franca, in higher education institutions of Pakistan. This impact is twofold; one
it fosters teacher autonomy, which she practices in her classroom: a miniature site of
social fabric of Pakistan, second it determines teachers’ competence to foster ESL
learner autonomy. My premise orients from these two point of views that autonomy is
“an alternate expression for empowerment, which denotes one’s ability to decide and
act without any external pressure and control” (Ashraf & Farah, 2007, p. 15); and
“women often perform well and go beyond men, especially in subjects related to
language” (Shah, 2015, p. 14). I interpolate these theses by arguing that women
teachers achieve socio-political ESL teaching-learning autonomy under the impact of
technological facilities present inside and outside the institutions of higher education
and transcend the prevailing gender disparity in society. Hence, the female ESL
teachers operate beyond the customary social differences.
The use of technology in second language pedagogy promotes autonomous
language learning (Warschauer, 2004; Blin, 2005; 2005; Benson, 2010; 2011). It is a
well researched and established phenomenon in applied linguistics. Keeping this in
view, as such, my study formulates the premises of the present research around the
women teacher autonomy in ESL class as the manifestation of their effort to actualize
2
their pedagogical equivalence to men, thus, leading to mark social parity.
Substantiating this, Levy (1997) finds, “One of the oft-stated benefits that the
computer brings to language learning…greater learner autonomy” (p.199). I argue
that the role of the teachers is crucial in fostering autonomous learning by using
technological gadgets. In relation to Pakistani women teachers and learners the
technology usage grants them relentless freedom not only to experiment with their
teaching-learning strategies in the realm of education but also to challenge their social
position in terms of difference and men’s dominance in the class room situation.
Thus, it foils the idea of social parity. This technology fundamentally transforms the
teaching-learning experience into a social response within the class and not only
maximizes teaching-learning outcomes but also provides an argumentative criterion to
transcend the social disparity imposed upon women in Pakistani perspective.
However, the role of the teacher is either viewed as minimal even excluded or most
significant in fostering language learner autonomy in a technology rich environment.
In connection to this Little’s (1995) proposition that the development of learner
autonomy presumes the development of autonomy in teachers determines pivotal role
of teacher autonomy in pedagogical paradigm.
In keeping with the impact of the use of technology on individuals and their
education, I study the impact of technology on educated women operating and
imparting tertiary level ESL education in the Pakistani social landscape, where the
slogan of gender parity is often heard in the realm of education, politics and
economics. This issue is also addressed in the educational spheres, particularly with
reference to the availability of the facilities of information and communication
technology (ICT), Ministry of Education in a report: National Information and
Communications Technology Strategy for Education in Pakistan, (2011) lays stress on
3
equal opportunities for technological facilities for women of Pakistan in the following
words:
The key to a nation’s development rests with its women...Even a small increase
in education levels for women can have a powerfully favourable effect on a
nation’s overall socio-economic development. Therefore, it is important that
girls are provided not just access to schools but also to powerful learning tools
in the form of ICT. This can often be difficult as technology, even in wealthier
nations, is often seen as a man’s domain; there are fewer women involved in
software programming, gaming, and technical support than men. Yet, research
demonstrates that while men enjoy the problem-solving aspects of ICT, women
also enjoy problem-solving when results are communicated and used for an
authentic purpose...national and provincial ICT policy must ensure that females
are provided equal access to, and equal opportunities to, learn from and with
ICT. (p. 11)
Indeed in this technologically tuned world, the up-to-date educational facilities are a
source to women to reflect and act so as to transform the pedagogical scenario.
Through this praxis of reflection tertiary level women teachers put technology into
use as a classroom prop up; and acquire a critical awareness of their own ESL
teaching-learning condition. It also helps them actualize an appropriation to social
parity in Pakistan. My argument for this study resides in the use of technology that
provides an instrumental space to the feminist pedagogues to subvert dominance and
difference. Feminist pedagogy provides women the “power and consciousness-
raising, [thus] acknowledges the existence of oppression as well as the possibility of
ending it, and foregrounds the desire for and primary goal of social transformation”
(Robbin, David, & Adela, 2009, p. 3).This further explains that use of technology
4
helps teachers to become autonomous to engage in voluntary decisions for their own
teaching practices. And use of technology is a gateway for women to establish their
own pedagogical autonomy being citizens of Pakistan, which is an underdeveloped
country even after over six decades of independence. Evidently, this situation has its
roots in the weak education sector, which is undersized owing to the gender
discrimination in Pakistani educational institutions. In connection to this, Easterly
(2001), in a case study of Pakistan on political economy models finds that “Pakistan
systematically underperforms on most social and political indicators” including
‘education’ and ‘gender equality’ despite “well educated and high-achieving elite and
Diaspora” (p.1). However, I propose that the technology intervention has started to
revolutionize this scenario from the beginning of this millennium, particularly at the
level of tertiary education. The Ministry of Education Pakistan is taking steps to
empower higher education by providing technological facilities to the institutions
across gender. It is as a result of these steps that today state-of-the-art, computer
technology, is available to the women in and outside the institutions of higher
education to ensure enhanced pedagogical benefits, for example, Prime Minister’s
Laptop Distribution Scheme to all high achievers in tertiary level education without
any gender discrimination. Due to wide spread accessibility to technological gadgets
and their use ESL teaching-learning is positively influenced. And English language
teaching and learning is more in focus than ever before for it is the primary medium
through which technology is used in Pakistan.
Another, impact of wide spread use of technology is evident in the rate of
enrolment in the institutions of higher education, which shows reduced gender
differences. In this connection Rana (2006) in a case study on women teaching-
learning ESL in higher education optimistically predicted that “gender parity in higher
5
education in Pakistan should be reached by 2010 if the rate of enrolment continues as
it has in the past five years” (p. 1). This continual rise in enrolment graph is directly
influencing gender equity at tertiary level of education. This is further validated as
Ministry of Education Pakistan (2004) documented the degree of improvement in
enrolment of female at tertiary level education, rising from a base level of 40% in
1990 to 88% in 2001-2002, which means that in 2001-2002 for every 100 men 78
women were enrolled. And according to very positive education statistics of 2011-12
in “the total male enrolment in the universities is 0.677 million (51%), whereas, the
female enrolment is 0.642 million (49%)” (Pakistan Education Statistics 2011-12, p.
36). Nevertheless, the rate of enrolment in higher education coincides with the rapid
increase in the technological intervention in education, and resulting use of computer
technology in higher education institutions in particular (Amjad & Ahmed, 2003).
The continual increase in the enrolment at tertiary level of education depicts a
revolutionized picture of women in Pakistan beyond existing social fences in two
ways: one in terms of access to higher education and second in terms of access to
technology. It divulges not only in their equal social position as teacher but also
endorses their pedagogical liberty. So, today there are almost as many highly educated
women as men although, this discussion is just a fragment of the social mosaic of
Pakistan, viz. access to higher education in percentage to men; and this piece
determines the future social paradigm of Pakistan. It is hypothesized that this
technological environment in and around higher education sector influence female
ESL teachers of Pakistan to attain autonomy which is reflected in pursuing higher
educational qualification and professional development through computer education.
Noreen & Khalid 2012; Noreen & Awan, 2011; Jabeen, 2010; Rana, 2006; Choudhry,
2005; Easterly, 2001; Mumtaz & Shaheed, 1995; and Weiss, 1998 describe the
6
educated women of Pakistan surpassing all odds of the society, especially the ones
which had traditionally left women behind men.
This situation gives rise to the question whether it is sheer accidental or a
manifestation of the technological determinism on the women teaching in higher
education institutions of Pakistan. It is observed that computers have been
increasingly used from past two decades in Pakistani academic institutions. And from
previous decade tertiary level teachers of ESL in the country were introduced to a
field of computer assisted language learning (CALL), through HEC competence
development programme. Thus, this study foregrounds the significance of the
technological determinism in the feminist pedagogical perspective of female tertiary
level ESL teachers. In this way, it provides a reason to explore the impact of
technology on the tertiary level Pakistani women ESL teachers which influence their
role as teachers in development of learner autonomy. Given that this study proposes
that the use of technology not only has a positive impact on the women ESL teachers
to develop learner autonomy in the institutions of higher education; but it also helps
the female ESL teachers improve professional competence that determines their
autonomy which is binding to foster learner autonomy.
1.1 Background of the Study
The research reported in this thesis has its origin in an English language
pedagogical practice, which had spanned two decades of rapid technological and
educational changes in Pakistani higher education institutions with particular
reference to the impact on women teachers. From the beginning of this millennium,
the education at the higher education institutions has been marked by profound
changes, promoting English language teaching and learning. These changes were
largely initiated owing to the widespread use of technology for the academic and non-
7
academic purposes. Moreover, technological facilities have been introduced into the
public institutions of higher education especially compared to the private and more
expensive educational institutions (Amjad & Ahmed, 2003).The teaching and learning
scenario demanded the teachers in higher education institutions to spend a
considerable time using technology either to make assessment sheets or work sheets;
prepare power point slides; browse teaching aids etc.
Simultaneously, the Government of Pakistan, in the universities and other
higher education institutions throughout Pakistan, has heavily invested in technology
to support teaching and to enhance students’ learning experience through up-to-date
computing facilities and digital libraries. The Higher Education Commission (HEC)
Pakistan has particularly set up self- access centres at few of the universities in
Pakistan, whose mission is to support the teaching and learning of languages by
providing self-access facilities to students. Moreover, HEC Pakistan’s “The
Continuous Development Programme” for ESL tertiary level teachers included CALL
workshops to enhance teachers’ competence in making effective use of the state-of-
the-art computer technology. Due to these steps, the use of technology has been
enhanced in ESL pedagogical spheres of higher education. As an ESL teacher (i.e.
teaching BS levels ESL university students at The Islamia University of Bahawalpur),
I have found that my curriculum design and teaching activities have been influenced
by the use of technology. In relation to this Benson (2007b) finds that making
independent use of technology for pedagogical planning and design is the core of
technology-based learner autonomy. This autonomy as a woman ESL teacher further
motivated me to integrate technology to enable students to become autonomous
learners of English. This autonomy works two ways firstly it takes into account the
teaching learning independence, and secondly as socio-political autonomy through
8
English language. Here, the classroom is a symbolic microcosm of Pakistani society.
And such volition, in turn, strengthens learners’ performance as it enables the learners
to perform better not only academically but later professionally, as English is the key
skill of literate adults to compete for job opportunities in Pakistani socio-political
perspective. Moreover, some complexities are also observed, such as female
superiority in language learning and male learner dominance in co-education
institutions (Butler, 1990). Therefore, I undertook this study to investigate the impact
of the use of technology on my female colleagues’ pedagogical practices of ESL in
the higher education institutions of Pakistan. In this way, the impact of the use of
technology and the development of ESL learner autonomy has become the focus of
this research from the feminist pedagogical perspective in Pakistani social landscape.
1.1.1 Feminist Pedagogical Perspective of higher Education
Patriarchy is a fundamental imbalance underlying society. And, it’s one we
rarely address because it’s so universal…[and] peace is a product of
balance...You can’t start with imbalance and end with peace, be that in your
own body, in an ecosystem or between a government and its people. What we
need to strive for is not perfection, but balance. (Ani DiFranco)
In this relation, if we have a look at balance in Pakistani society, it is endeavouring
towards it persistently. Although, male dominance is still the part of Pakistani social
hierarchy, government of Pakistan encourages gender parity in the provision of basic
facilities of life like health, food and education as per constitution. Moreover, the
accessibility to technological tools grants women ESL teachers the latitude to defy the
patriarchal practices in her domain, i.e. the classroom of higher education institutions.
Therefore, this study is taken up on the assumption that technology enables Pakistani
9
women to find a way out of this patriarchal imbalance in the field of higher education
particularly.
In order to realize this feminist perspective in the socio-political landscape of
Pakistan, the view on the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (1973) is
crucial that promised to its citizens in Article 37 (b) & (c) that “the State shall remove
illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within the minimum
possible period; make technical and professional education generally available and
higher education equally accessible by all on the basis of merit”. This policy promises
to bring balance in the education sector through gender parity, and particularly
providing the men and women the equal accessibility to the higher education.
The Government of Pakistan is also committed towards the achievement of
gender parity in education, as the United Nation’s (UN) Millennium Development
Goal 3 (MDG) focuses women education. MDG 3 focuses upon the main three
challenges that women of Pakistan face. These major areas are education,
employment and socio-political participation. However, Maqsood, Maqsood & Raza
(2012) have found lingering gender disparities:
Although Pakistan is a signatory of the UN Education for All (EFA)
Framework for Action (2000) Document, which places considerable emphasis
on women’s education, particularly the elimination of gender disparities in
primary, secondary and higher education, but the target of achieving
Education for All in Pakistan is still far from satisfactory. (p. 352)
Later EFA (2015) policies and plans were also influenced largely by “various national
and international commitments to provide quality education to children irrespective of
their gender, class or religion”. These commitments have, in fact, privileged many
oppressed and unprivileged sectors or communities of Pakistan, and become a strong
10
beacon of hope for the educational reforms and better opportunities for the women’s
education in Pakistan. Keeping in with above mentioned commitments EFA (2015)
included six major objectives including “improvement in adult and youth literacy
rates, provision of vocational and technical education, eradicating gender
discrimination and enhancing the overall quality of education”. Gender parity index
(GPI) show some improvement over the years but still pronounced gaps between male
and female level of literacy (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Targets and Achievement- GPI Youth Literacy
Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2014-15________________________________
These figures reflect on the achievements which are less than the set targets
from the year 2008 in the levels of ‘Adults Literacy Rate’ by the year 2015, especially
for women in Pakistan. This scenario sets the objective of improving adult literacy
with special emphasis on providing equal teaching-learning opportunities to all adults,
especially females. Nonetheless, this analysis reveals that the actual progress made till
2015 is not very discouraging for realizing gender parity in higher education in
Pakistan. But the situation is alarming if it is compared to the other countries of the
11
world. In such context, a report published by Pakistan District Education Rankings
2014 that is cited in Pakistan Education Chapter (2014) gives striking statistics:
Among the South Asian countries, Pakistan has some of the largest gender
disparities in education. According to the Global Gender Gap report 2014,
Pakistan ranks second to last (141) in terms of gender equality worldwide,
narrowly beating out Yemen. ( p. 15)
Keeping in with these statistics and development graphs, the Government of Pakistan
announced “The Pakistan Vision 2025”. It is a blue print of the long-term
development of the country to create a globally competitive and prosperous Pakistan
by providing a high quality of life for all citizens of Pakistan including higher
education. This situation is not altogether discouraging for the women pursuing higher
education in Pakistan, as if on one end it shows the fences to attain higher education;
on the other side it shows a promising future through higher education so creates
space of teaching-learning autonomy for women.
[Because] educated women’s can manoeuvre things in a way before men or
portray things in a way before men that they make them men to agree with
their decisions...Education definitely changes status of women in the family as
well as in society. (Noureen & Awan, 2011, p. 85).
Therefore, the higher educational qualification with ESL as an acquired skill, gives
the educated women an edge over the other, in fact, the other value the opinion of an
educated woman. The prevailing situation of higher education sector marks that
undoubtedly in Pakistan “women have to face socio-cultural hurdles to acquire
education” but also in imparting the knowledge. In such situation, equal right to
higher education is a weapon against the “hidden fences” and “Pakistani women are
struggling hard to get their rights” (Noureen & Awan, 2011, p. 86). So, in relation to
12
this, her class room becomes a space of her subjugated terrain to exercise her
autonomy in picking, choosing, making, and developing classroom activities in ESL
context through technological tools.
The Government of Pakistan has focused attention to elevate higher education
in Pakistan, and gender parity is only the tip of the iceberg. However, Pakistan still
faces “the dearth of human resources within the broader education system” largely
due to “a lack of meaningful professional development opportunities that improve
administrative oversight and teaching practice, enhance morale, and sustain change at
the classroom level” (Ministry of Education, nd., pp. 3-4).One of the significant
aspects of teaching learning autonomy of women in Pakistan is related to the teacher
education policies for ESL teachers’ competence development in terms of the
National Education Policy 2009, which fundamentally focuses to empower higher
education faculty across the board. The National Education Policy, 2009 of Pakistan
included faculty development in its strategic plan, with the notion that faculty at the
university is the part and parcel of the pedagogical scenario, and “without an active
and well qualified faculty it will not be possible to have meaningful development in
this sector” (p.48). Therefore, the significant steps have been taken to improve the
competence of teachers, through indigenous and foreign scholarship programmes for
higher education i.e. M.Phil and PhD. Along with these; another important step was
taken to ensure retention of qualified faculty in the country, by providing them with
better job opportunities and fringe benefits. In this way, HEC Pakistan has taken the
steps for the issue of ‘brain drain’ which is called as the daunting problem to Pakistan
in the Pakistan National Education Policy 2009; however, mobility is essential and it
is “a source of intellectual enrichment, measures are to be introduced to encourage
Pakistanis to return to their country of origin and to participate in its economic, social
13
and cultural development” (p. 49). The Table 1.1 illustrates the report published by
HEC describing the summary of HRD Scheme for PhD scholarships awards and
completion in the year 2014-15, and also the number of PhD graduates’ placement in
the institutions of higher education.
Table 1.1: HRD Scheme during 2014-15
Moreover, this study explores the role of teachers’ training workshops on
teacher autonomy as HEC Pakistan has launched programmes for both in-service and
pre-service professional development. Particularly, the steps have been taken for ESL
teachers in the institutions of higher education, which are significant for ESL
teachers’ empowerment. ELTR Committee is working under the umbrella of HEC
Pakistan with the purpose to develop English faculty in the higher education
institutions of Pakistan. This committee is working on various areas from PhD
scholarship programmes to continuous professional development programmes
exclusively for ESL tertiary level teachers. The teacher competence programmes
include workshops on technology integration, like CALL workshops (see Chapter
2.3). My intention here is to explore the impact of technology related facilities in the
higher education institutions, as the future plans of development in this area are more
revolutionary, thus promising a more autonomous pedagogical scenario for ESL
teachers and learners.
14
1.1.2 Focusing Women’s Use of Technology for ESL Teaching in Pakistan
The proposition of this study rests on the argument that the presence of
technology is an enabling and facilitating factor leading to potential opportunities
which may or may not be taken up in particular societies or periods or “that its
absence is a constraint” (Finnegan 1988, p. 38). Therefore, I have selected the theory
of weak or soft technological determinism to study and explain the impact of
technology on pedagogical practices of women ESL teachers of Pakistan. Weak
technological determinism entails social change and practice in educational sphere
and grounds teaching-learning evolution in society. In this context, the historian Lynn
White’s stance, “a new device merely opens a door; it does not compel one to enter”
(White 1978, p. 28), sums up the philosophy of soft technological determinism.
These new inventions open up vistas of outlook for ESL women teachers in
the institutions of higher education in Pakistan. As the discussion above reveals, the
government of Pakistan is making a sustained attempt at providing up-to-date
technological facilities to ESL teachers and learners inside and outside higher
education institutions, thus creating possibility for women teachers to achieve
autonomy and foster learner autonomy. The technology development is (a)
evolutionary, (b) fast and (c) sustained, which is both extraordinary and surprising
(Levy, 1997). This technological advancement correlates its usage; and thus, it has
brought about a social change in Pakistan. This change is not only written in the social
hierarchy of educational centres but also in the female teachers teaching paradigm.
However, it is significant to elaborate that the development of technology had
revolutionized the educational setup by giving birth to computer assisted instruction
(CAI) historically. Later, in the mid of the twentieth century the field of applied
15
linguistics adopted technology in the second language acquisition (SLA) pedagogy as
computer assisted language learning (CALL). The use of technology for language
teaching became popular around the globe as it offers the teachers to explore those
applications of technology that can be employed as a solution to the problems of SLA
pedagogy (Levy, 1997; Chapelle, 2001). I argue that gender parity has always been at
the heart of these related issues. The women teachers use technology as it fosters
autonomy and helps to foster learner autonomy and this use promotes self-efficacy
learning. Moreover, such learning setting, whereby computers allow the learners to
learn on their own; using structured or unstructured interactive lessons (Chapelle,
2004; Irshad, 2008; Irshad & Ghani, 2011, 2015), carries two important features:
bidirectional learning2 and individualized learning3. It is anticipated that these features
of technology allow the women teachers in Pakistan to use technology. This usage
facilitates ESL teaching paradigm in terms of fostering learner autonomy as
reconciling aspect of their social disagreement to patriarchy.
The in-service tertiary level teachers training workshops on technology
support the proposition that integration of technology in education is inevitable in
Pakistan to resolve the social with educational issue. The key point to note is that on
one hand the use of technology facilitates educational endeavour and all the same it is
that facility which is accessible to the female learners while staying home and
following the prevailing norms of Pakistani society. The use of technology provides
them chance and prospect as ESL teachers to integrate their social identity in their
teaching profession. The problem is obvious: that connotes, women in Pakistan are
not as free as men to get access to every source and resource for receiving education.
2Bidirectional or interactive means that feedbacks are given after learners’ inputs are assessed by the
system to help learners improve their language competency. 3Individualized learning or autonomous learning is seen as learner’s development into an individual
with the capacity of doing an action without any outside intervention.
16
Explicating problems that surround even educated urbane Pakistani women, Rana
(2006) identifies “mobility restriction” as imposed by “social, cultural, and religious”
domains, and “there are even fewer opportunities to become involved in the society
outside the sanctuary of their homes” (p.2). Pakistan confronts many issues on even
more rigid grounds like, in some parts of the country girls and women are suppressed
and are denied their right to education; and even punished and abused if any violation
is written. In such scenario, all the meagre attempts of government of Pakistan to
bring gender equity in education sector hold no firm ground. However, the use of
technology allows female teachers and learners to come at par with the men since
technology is not gender biased. The impact of technology on women in developing
countries such as Pakistan has been documented to show a positive impact (COL,
1998; Hafkin, 2002; Hafkin & Taggart, 2001; Kazmi, 2005; Marcelle, 2000).
Therefore, in reality the most encouraging factor is the positive side of the use of
technology in Pakistani ESL context for female teachers and learners in higher
education. Substantiating this, Rana (2006) has also found in her study on women
teachers and students in higher education in Pakistan, “the positive effect of the
introduction of technology into the educational system” (p. 15).
Moreover, Pakistani language teachers often show reluctance towards new
technology based approaches to language teaching and learning either due to lack of
resources or lack of knowledge. Corroborating this in my earlier work (Irshad, 2008),
I viewed the following:
Lack of technical and theoretical knowledge … hinders the ESL teachers and
educationists in adopting modern technology. The teachers’ training
institutions in the country did not provide any technical and theoretical
assistance to ESL teachers by the end of previous century; however, National
17
Education Policy 1998-2010 included steps to revise the curriculum and
methods of instruction in teachers training institutes to bring them in line with
the requirements of prevailing trends. (p. 10).
Despite these difficulties, it is observed that many female language teachers continue
to develop materials which are integrated into everyday teaching practice because use
of technology enhances teacher autonomy. Therefore, this study addresses the
question whether the female ESL teachers’ use of technology in pedagogical practices
is the result of in-service teacher’s training courses in Pakistan. Ashraf & Farha,
(2007) drawing upon Khan and Mohammad (2003), elucidate this point in the context
of teachers’ education that brings for women a “critical condition for ... empowerment
– enabling them to gain greater access and control over material and knowledge
resources in order to improve their lives and challenge the ideologies of
discrimination and subordination” (p. 16). Moreover, nothing can detract from the
central fact that the use of computers in language learning is linked, explicitly or
implicitly, to the development and exercise of learner and teacher autonomy. Thus,
need is of a research that can bring to limelight the effectiveness of technology to
develop autonomous teaching and learning trends, in turn, it would strengthen the
education sector of Pakistan.
1.1.3 Teaching-Learning Autonomy and ESL Pedagogy in Pakistan
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2016), autonomy is “the
ability to act and make decisions without being controlled by anyone else”, viz.
“autonomy is the capacity to make one’s own laws and to obey them” (Blin, 2005, p.
5). In other words, autonomy grants political personal freedom to individuals. In this
study, the conception of autonomy is taken in terms of female teacher’s self-
sufficiency and as a capacity for action without intervention from others in her
18
pedagogical regime: the classroom, a miniature site of Pakistani society. However, in
second language pedagogy, autonomy has been claimed to be an ultimate goal for a
long time (Benson, 2008; 2011; Dang, 2010) to inculcate desired language
competence in ESL learners via fostering learner autonomy. In Pakistani social
stratum the educated women recognize this autonomy on Jejeebhoy (as cited in
Robinson-Pant, 2004) five levels of autonomy: knowledge autonomy, decision
making autonomy, physical autonomy, emotional autonomy, economic and social
autonomy (self-reliance). I argue that these levels of autonomy give the female
teachers freedom to exercise their pedagogical control in their realm: their classrooms.
In classroom teachers identify students’ active participation in learning
activities as learner autonomy (Benson, 2007a). At the conceptual level, learner
autonomy is described as a very ‘complicated’ (Little, 2003) or ‘multifaceted’
construct (Smith & Ushioda, 2009). The point I want to focus in my study, however,
is the teachers’ growing interest in autonomy in language teaching and learning,
which is situated within a context of classroom in a technology rich environment. In
other words, the autonomy of a teacher grants means to learners to transcend the
barriers of learning and teaching that have been a major preoccupation of educational
paradigm (see, e.g. Barnes, 1976; Rogers, 1983).This autonomy actually helps the
educated women contest their social position. For in the case of ESL language
teaching at tertiary level the whole point of developing learner autonomy is to enable
learners to be efficient in English language skills; however, this autonomy in
teaching-learning offers and widens the social space the teacher as women occupies
and grants professional empowerment. Associated with language learning autonomy,
Little (1995) notes “two distinct dimensions, one pedagogical and the other
communicative” (p. 176), of learner autonomy whereas I argue of a third dimension
19
that female teachers explore through technology. It is their social autonomy as female
teachers in Pakistani institutes at advance level. Little (1995), thus, describes:
There is a sense in which pedagogical autonomy clearly precedes
communicative autonomy: we may successfully practice pedagogical
autonomy from the first language lesson onwards, but it will be some time
before our learners can venture forth as autonomous language users in the
target language community. We must be careful, however, not to allow this
obvious fact to mislead us into erecting false barriers between language
learning and language use. ( p.176)
Little’s idea of pedagogical and communicative autonomy enables me associate the
aspect of pedagogical and communicative ability with the women teaching and
learning by using technology; and to install it in the classroom: a the microcosm of
society. Such autonomy provides women ESL teachers the confidence in pedagogical
practices; and learners a communicative confidence. Little (1995) identifies that “this
confidence to use the target language in a personally appropriate way is a necessary
precondition for, but also the outcome of, the kind of communicative activity that
gradually but ineluctably promotes second language development” (p. 176) and
women’s learner autonomy in Pakistan. According to my observation, it is a single
most important reason why ESL tertiary level autonomous teachers attempt to
develop autonomy as the attempt to foster autonomy begins with her autonomy. She
acquires it in relation to her pedagogical endeavour and then practices in her
miniature society: her classroom. This autonomy gives her critical awareness of the
Pakistani social context, whereby competence in English is associated with better job
opportunities, better social status, elitism and power. Rana (2006) elucidates the latter
two in the following way:
20
…the status of English as a language of power and elitism reflects not only the
current global attitude toward the language, but also the complex paradoxical
relationship between the colonizer and the colonized (Sidhwa, 1996). “…if
their wealth did not set them apart, their ability to converse in English
certainly did” (p. 273). This statement from The Crow Eaters by Sidhwa sums
up the general attitude toward English in Pakistan. (p.30).
This status of English demands for such education policies that can address the
pedagogical needs of women and men pursuing tertiary level education in this modern
technologically tuned epoch.
On the whole the technological development and educational policies have
developed Pakistani women teacher’s creative space and practical setting for
teaching-learning strategies. In the promotion of learner autonomy, the role of the
teacher “is to bring learners to the point where they accept equal responsibility for this
coproduction, not only at the affective level but in terms of their readiness to
undertake organizational (hence also discourse) initiatives” (Little, 1995, p. 178).
Therefore, a big part of fostering autonomy in the learners is teacher autonomy which
enables a teacher to make students use technology that best offer the learning
prospects. The teachers have to be provided with the tools they need to become more
self-sufficient and independent and then offer the same to the learners. The Pakistan
Ministry of Education is exceedingly clear to foster learner autonomy and learner
independence as it notes in the National Education Policy 2009 that in the
contemporary world the focus in the teaching-learning scenario has been shifted from
teacher to learner. It stipulates that practice in teaching is a solid part of language
learning and should be facilitated with modern technological tools. Thus, the role of
the teacher in fostering learner autonomy with the use of technology has been in focus
21
(Little, 1995; Benson, 2007a; 2011a). In consonance to this view there has been a
growing interest among researchers to explore role of the teacher in fostering learner
autonomy with reference to the dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy
(Little, 1995; Benson, 2008, 2011a, 2011 b; Lamb & Reinders, 2008; Godwin-Jones,
2011).
At the tertiary level ESL lecture room teachers do not play the role of
imparters of information or sources of facts. Their role is more than that of a
facilitator (Voller, 1997 and Benson, 2007a). Teachers act as managers and directors,
and thus make the learners plan their learning both inside and outside the classroom.
Nonetheless, the teacher has to be able to establish a close collaboration with the
learners and make sure that all learners know what is expected of them at all times
(Lowes & Target, 1999). The teachers at higher education level also adopt the role of
counsellors. They need to inform learners and make them capable of choosing the best
learning cites and technological gadgets. Presenting this stance, Nunan (2003)
identifies that the development of learner autonomy involves providing learners with
“opportunities to make significant choices and decisions about their learning” in an
informed way (Nunan, 2003, p. 290). In this way, students may work confidently
outside the classroom without getting help from the teacher. To be precise, teachers
should not transfer knowledge to students; instead they should teach them ‘learning to
learn’ (Godwin-Jones, 2011, p.1). According to the traditional view, the role of the
teacher is to exercise complete control over the whole pedagogical process, where a
‘pin drop silenced classroom’ marks teachers’ control and success in the classroom.
For the teachers and the administrators who perceive the language pedagogy this way
the concept of learner autonomy is arguably synonymous to bringing chaos in the
classroom. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of learner autonomy has nothing to do with
22
it. In Lacey’s (2007) view teachers can successfully make the choice of relinquishing
control and sharing it with the learners. It is obvious that people want to enjoy
learning. What they learn should be meaningful and contain useful knowledge that
can be used in real life. In other words, language teachers should understand what
their students need to know, want to learn, and their future goals in order to encourage
the students to enjoy learning both the new content and the target language.
The concept that technology may potentially replace language instructors, and
therefore humans, within the classroom is a frightening and intriguing idea,
nevertheless, an exaggerated one too. It is quite true that this debate can advocate
both; many positive and negative facets of the use of technology for pedagogical
purposes at higher education level. In other words, in Pakistani ESL perspective the
curriculum in teacher education institutions and teacher development programmes
both in-service and pre-service are making a contribution to develop female teacher
autonomy and strengthening teachers’ competence in technology. Moreover, this
study assumes that the use of technology in itself compels the women users to make
use of it beyond ordinary day to day applications. Thus, the question arises whether
the teacher’s professional development results in sticking to the traditional approaches
to teaching ESL, or to introduce modern technology. Therefore, the study makes an
inquiry into ESL women teachers’ teaching practices and education to evaluate the
impact of technology on the present status of teachers’ professional competencies and
their reflection on to the development of learner autonomy in the institutions of higher
education.
1.2 Statement of Purpose
The use of technology is becoming an important element of higher education
in Pakistan (Haider, 2013; Adil, Masood & Ahmed, 2013; Majoka, Fazal & Khan,
23
2012; Mahmood, Iqbal, Nadeem, Javed, & Hassan, 2014; Jamil, Topping, & Tariq,
2012; Irshad, 2008;Rana, 2006); for gender equity (Rana 2006; Hafkin & Taggart,
2001; Marcelle, 2000) as well as for development of learner autonomy (Jamieson &
Chapelle, 1989; Levy, 1997; Chapelle, 2001; Warschauer, 1995; 1996; 2000; 2004;
Blin, 2005; Benson, 2007a; 2011a). Therefore, in the present study the impact of the
use of technology on female teachers in terms of their pedagogical proclivity towards
development of ESL learner autonomy might reflect on the modern pedagogical
trends in the institutions of higher education in Pakistan. Moreover, the study embarks
on the implications and impacts of integration of theory and practice of technological
determinism for tertiary level ESL feminist pedagogy in Pakistan. It is expected that,
the women teachers exercise their autonomy in the classroom. The teacher autonomy
is realized on one level through formal education, that is higher academic
qualification beyond sixteen years of education and in-service/ pre-service
professional training; and on the other level technology aided self-growth or in-formal
education. Moreover, the study addresses women teachers’ use of technology for ESL
pedagogical practice as a means to socio-political autonomy; and their role in the
development of learner autonomy rejects the notion of conformist stereotype
pedagogues.
1.3 Research Objectives
This research aims to analyze the use of technology for the development of ESL
learner autonomy and to study its impact on Pakistani women teachers in the
institution of higher education. It also aims to study the impact of technology on the
women ESL teachers working on the development of learner autonomy in the
institutions of higher education. In order to conceptualize and contextualize the role of
technology, this study aims to explore as to what extent the female ESL teachers in
24
the Pakistani institutions of higher education professionally trained so as to be
autonomously engaged in the development of learner autonomy.
The evaluation of the impact of technology on the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education is also under investigation with particular focus onto
the role of the women teaching in the institutions of higher education in the
development of learner autonomy. This study, thus, addresses how the impact of
technology coincides with the development of ESL learner autonomy and how it
coincides with the women empowerment in higher education in Pakistan. In such
way, the research aims to investigate the current pedagogical scenario for the
evaluation of the effects of the use of modern technological aids in ESL on the
education of women at tertiary level to study the impact of use of technology to create
autonomous learning environment on the female teachers in the institutions of higher
education and scrutinizes the role of technology in facilitating women teaching in the
institutions of higher education to be autonomous and thus develop autonomy in ESL
learners of Pakistan.
1.4 Research Questions
In order to achieve above mentioned research objectives the present study aims to
analyze the use of technology for the development of ESL learner autonomy and to
study its impact on Pakistani women teachers in the institution of higher education.
For this purpose the fundamental study question poses the query of:
What is the impact of technology on the women ESL teacher autonomy, a
prerequisite to the development of learner autonomy, in Pakistani higher
education institutions?
25
This basic research question is explored to conceptualize and contextualize this study
on three scales which are addressed in the three sub-questions:
1. To what extent, are the female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of
higher education professionally trained so as to be autonomously engaged in
the development of learner autonomy?
2. What is the impact of technology on the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education?
3. What is the role of the women teaching in the institutions of higher education
in the development of learner autonomy?
1.5 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are developed in order to test the framed research
questions:
H1 The use of technology has a positive impact on the Pakistani women
ESL tertiary level teachers.
H2 Teacher autonomy is a prerequisite to the teachers’ pedagogical
proclivity to develop ESL learner autonomy.
H3 The female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of higher
education are professionally trained to the extent that they attain
autonomy and foster learner autonomy.
H4 The female teachers make frequent use of technology in ESL
pedagogical practices to facilitate learner autonomy in the institutions
of higher education.
H5 The women teaching in the institutions of higher education play a
facilitative and positive role in the development of learner autonomy.
26
1.6 Theoretical Framework
The impact of the use of technology for the development of ESL learner
autonomy on the Pakistani women teachers and their pedagogical practices in the
institution of higher education will be analyzed within four theoretical perspectives.
Firstly, the focus of this study being women, it is imperative that the framework
begins with a feminist perspective. Since the aim of this study is the tertiary level
women teachers of Pakistan, who may not necessarily share the perspectives of the
traditional feminists, particularly those addressing rural women or women in absolute
seclusion in Pakistan. Therefore, it is imperative that in order to understand the reality
of these women, a framework that acknowledges their identity and their realities as
educated women pedagogues should be used. That is why, for this study the
theoretical foundation of feminist pedagogy is opted. Feminist pedagogy is grounded
in the critical theories of learning and teaching such as Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (2005) and bell hooks Teaching to Transgress (1994) (see Chapter 3.2 for
detail). Feminist pedagogy rests on Friere’s conception of critical pedagogy which
combines theory with praxis. It is a theory based on an engaged process facilitated by
problem solving classroom learning as opposed to banking concept in which
members: teacher and learners, learn to respect each other’s differences, accomplish
mutual goals, and help each other reach individual goals. This process facilitates
participatory learning, validation of personal experience, and encouragement of social
understanding (Hoffmann & Stake, 1998).
This theoretical predisposition also rests on hooks (1994) ‘radical pedagogy’
that she used for critical or feminist pedagogy (p. 9). The revolutionary approach of
this feminist pedagogue is an effort to develop a teaching approach opposing to “the
serious crisis in education”; and she celebrates “teaching that enables transgression- a
27
movement against and beyond” (hooks, 1994, p. 12). Like hooks, I find the classroom
most radical space of possibility for the female ESL teachers in higher education
institution. It is a place where with the use of technology female ESL teachers make
education the practice of teacher autonomy, which is a prerequisite to foster learner
autonomy.
Second, as this study intends to address the impact of the use of technology on
women ESL tertiary level teachers’ education and pedagogical practices with
particular reference to development of learner autonomy, the philosophy of
technological determinism as propagated by Andrew Feenberg (2002) and later
addressed in ESL research (Warschauer, 2004; ) is chosen (see Chapter 3.2 for detail).
It is used to interpret the data, obtained to answer whether the female ESL teachers in
the Pakistani institutions of higher education are using technology as a source of their
pedagogical training so as to attain autonomy. Banking upon Karl Marx’s legacy, the
proponents of this theory argue about the inevitable association between the changes
in technology and their primary influence on human social relations and
organizational structure. I foreground Marxist theory in the social perspective of
Pakistan. According to Smith et al. (1994), Marx’s this point of view is grounded in
contemporary society whereby it is a widely pervading idea that fast-changing
technologies alter human lives. Thus, the impact of technology on the female teachers
in Pakistani social landscape cannot be ignored. The philosophy of technological
determinism has two diverse theoretical underpinnings: the hard determinism that is
based on famous slogan of McLuhan (1964) ‘the medium is the message’; and soft
determinism that claims technology is the guiding force in our evolution (Feenberg,
2002), but would maintain that we have a chance to make decisions regarding the
28
outcomes of a situation. Feenberg’s (2002) philosophy of technological determinism
challenges the notion:
...that technological society is condemned to authoritarian management,
mindless work, and equally mindless consumption... by reconceptualising the
relation of technology, rationality, and democracy... I argue that the
degradation of labour, education, and the environment is rooted not in
technology per se but in the antidemocratic values that govern technological
development. ( p.3)
This notion that couples the theory that advocates human freedom to influence the
direction of technology is adopted to study the women teachers’ response to the use of
technology for ESL teaching practices at tertiary level. Therefore, I reflected upon
Feenberg on theorizing deterministic aspect of technology for female ESL teachers;
and theory of soft or weak determining force of technology for ESL pedagogy based
on Warschauer (2004); and John and Wheeler, (2008). Moreover, the technology-led
phenomenon with the focus on the pedagogical practices of women is addressed in
social perspective of higher educational institutions (Lawley, 1993).
Thirdly, since this study aims to address the end of ESL pedagogical practices
in terms of development of learner autonomy as an impact of the use of technology on
women ESL tertiary level teachers, Phil Benson’s (2011) two of the six approaches to
learner autonomy: technology-based approach and teacher-based approach are
selected. It aims to interpret if the female teachers make frequent use of technology in
ESL pedagogical practices; it facilitates fostering ESL learner autonomy in the
institutions of higher education. Benson’s model provided a holistic framework to
study teachers’ role in fostering ESL learner autonomy in language learning with and
without technology assistance.
29
Lastly, to put these epistemological assumptions on the proposed problem of
the impact of technology on the women teaching in the institutions of the higher
education, a feminist methodological framework is designed to develop a survey as
the research instrument. The rationale behind the selection of feminist methodology
for the present research is twofold. Firstly, the feminist research methodology being
grounded in feminist theory (Park, 2009) helps to understand the perceptions of
desired population under consideration for this study- the Pakistani women teaching
ESL at tertiary level. Secondly, such methodology provides pragmatic, reflexive, and
situated research (Franks, 2002; Harding, 1987) in the field of feminist pedagogy.
Moreover, feminist researchers advocate that feminist research should be not just on
women, but for women and, where possible, with women (DeVault, 1990, 1996;
Edwards, 1990; Fonow & Cook 1991, 2005; Ramazanoglu, & Holland 2002).
Therefore, the multiplicity, fragmentation, and differences in my dissertation have
been strongly supported by the characteristics of feminist research methodology.
1.7 Delimitations of the study
The present study aims to discover the impact of the use of technology, which
is making progress in leaps and bounds, on women English language learning and
teaching in Pakistan. The study, however, is delimited to assess the impacts on
women teachers of the use of technology and their role in the development of learner
autonomy. For the purpose of study the feminist research methodology is selected to
understand the perceptions of women teachers to provide pragmatic, reflexive, and
situated knowledge (Park, 2009; Franks, 2002; Harding, 1987) of their own
pedagogical praxis in the technology-tuned ESL environment with particular
reference to the development of learner autonomy. The data is collected through on-
line Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey, specifically
30
developed for this study, from the Pakistani women teaching ESL in the institutions of
higher education only.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
The limitation of this study resides in its sample: the female teachers who have
at least completed sixteen years of education and are appointed as ESL teachers in the
institutions of higher education of Pakistan. Moreover, they have voluntarily decided
to participate in this study by filling the on-line Technology and Development of ESL
Learner Autonomy Survey this might indicate a bias, as I identify it an indicator of
women teacher autonomy. The feminist research methodology respects diversity and
difference of opinion and allows me to interpret respondents’ opinions objectively
through the generated data and subjectively by mingling my own experiences into
interpretations with those of the respondents might be a source of biasness to this
study. Working with this research methodology, it is impossible to have a definitive
measure of the outcome.
1.9 Significance of the study
The findings of this study gave me the critical tools to reflect on, and
understand, the process through which I come to know what it means for women to be
at the periphery of the intimate yet fragile relationship between the colonizer and the
colonized. Pakistani society reflects this impact through male domination even in the
miniature of the society- the higher education institutions. Therefore, significance of
this study is in its primary intention to assess the impact of the use of technology on
the women teachers and development of ESL learner autonomy at tertiary level
education. Thus, it aims to provide a perspective for the pedagogues, researchers and
administers, through a review of the specialized literature, an overview of the recent
development, current implications and future potentials of technology in ESL
31
pedagogy in Pakistan for fostering teacher autonomy and learner autonomy. This
study embarks on the relevance of use of technology to English language education
and its impact on the development of learner autonomy through a feminist
pedagogical perspective to analyse women teachers’ critical awareness. Moreover,
this study will embark on the issues of gender differences realized by the women
teachers in the context of higher education sector in Pakistan. The benefits of
technology for women in the present will be guiding the implications of technology
for ESL pedagogy in the institutions of higher education. The knowledge gained from
this study is applicable for pedagogical praxis in higher education involving
technology. This study will add an enlightening perspective to Pakistani feminism,
since it focuses on women ESL teachers working in the institutions of higher
education; and also includes the role of technology that determines the progress of
women as individuals and integral entities for the prosperity of Pakistan in the current
millennium.
1.10 Definition of Terms
Technology: This term relates to all those technological gadgets which are used today in
Pakistani pedagogical spheres including computer hard ware, software and internet
technology. This also includes multi-media projectors and handheld devices.
Learner Autonomy: Learner autonomy is defined as learner’s willingness to learn,
ability to make decisions, capacity to take responsibility of one’s own learning and a
skill to critically evaluate one’s own progress defines. It is reflected through ESL
learning and considered as an achievement within classroom setting under the
guidance of teacher and in collaboration with peers through a teacher led pedagogical
process.
32
Teacher Autonomy: Teacher autonomy is a teachers’ professional attribute, which I
define in terms of teacher education and teacher identity; and in such context, it
predestines teachers proclivity for the development of learner autonomy.
Technological Determinism: Technology is a determiner to an extent: its presence
connotes its use, and it seems to be guiding human social and political development.
However, women and men have a chance to make decisions regarding the use and
outcomes of their encounter with the technology. In addition, technology may lead the
ESL pedagogical practices of women in social perspective of higher educational
institutions; and presumes autonomy of its users.
Feminist Pedagogy: Feminist pedagogy is an engaged process that is facilitated by
concrete classroom goals in which teacher as a participant in knowledge builds such
environment, where members learn to respect each other’s differences, accomplish
mutual goals, and help each other reach individual goals. This process facilitates
participatory learning, validation of personal experience, encouragement of social
understanding.
Feminism: It is defined in terms of educated woman’s critical awareness of gender
discrimination within the microcosm of her social stratum, the higher education
institution. It also relates to conscious action by women to change this situation and it
also goes beyond movements of equality and emancipation for autonomy.
Higher education or Tertiary education: These terms refer to the third stage, third
level, or post-secondary education in Pakistan. It is the educational level following the
completion of a school providing a secondary education. The World Bank (2008), for
example, defines tertiary education as including universities as well as institutions that
teach specific capacities of higher learning such as colleges, technical training
institutes, community colleges, nursing schools, research laboratories, centres of
33
excellence, and distance learning centres. In Pakistan, higher education refers to
education above grade 12, which generally corresponds to the age bracket of 17 to 23
years. The higher education system in Pakistan is made up of two main sectors: the
university/Degree Awarding Institutes (DAI) sector and the affiliated Colleges sector.
The Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan defines it in terms of “all
degree granting universities and institutions, public and private, including degree
granting colleges” (HEC, 2006).
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): I take CALL as Davies et.al. (2009)
asserts “an approach to language teaching and learning in which the computer is used
as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned,
usually including a substantial interactive element.”And also as Levy (1997) describes
practice of CALL as “the search for and study of applications on the computer in
language teaching and learning” (p.1).
1.11 Thesis Outline
Chapter 2 discusses the women of Pakistan in ESL feminist pedagogical framework.
It also highlights how the use of technology in the pedagogical scenario determines its
impact on women teacher autonomy and how it relates to development of learner
autonomy in the specialized literature. It emphasizes the individual and social
dimensions of learner autonomy and argues that teacher autonomy affects the
pedagogical process that influences learning process in ESL classrooms of Pakistan at
tertiary level education. It further discusses the role of a female teacher and the factors
that influence the pedagogical practices. Learner autonomy research paradigms and
models are then assessed in terms of their potential to study the relationship between
the use of technology and learner autonomy. In particular, the strengths and
weaknesses of the models for the development of learner autonomy are discussed.
34
In response to the limitations of the models discussed, Chapter 3 presents the
epistemological and methodological framework of the study. The epistemology of the
study rests on the triangulated theoretical framework, where feminist pedagogy based
on the feminist critical theory addresses the Pakistani feministic educational
perspective of higher education. Following a summary of some of the main tenets of
Friere’s (2005) theories, it explicates the principles of hooks (1994) philosophy of
feminist pedagogy. On the other level, this framework includes soft technological
determinism (Feenberg, 2002) based on Marx’s legacy to study the impact of
technology for the development of learner autonomy as used by Second Language
Acquisition researchers (Warschauer, 2004; John & Wheeler, 2008). The expanded
technology-led theory concepts enunciated by Lawley (1987) are then discussed and
integrated into a theoretical framework. Benson’s (2011) teacher-led approach and
technology-led approaches are also integrated. These three theoretical perspectives,
together with feminist theory, provide the grounding for the feminist methodological
framework of the study to develop a survey to conduct study. The chapter discusses
why this research design was chosen to study the impact of technology on female ESL
teachers for the development of learner autonomy in the context of Pakistani social
milieu. Chapter 3 proposes a theoretical model to represent the role of the Pakistani
female teacher in the development of learner autonomy under the influence of
technology. Secondly, a three-phase research design shows the implementation of
feminist research methodology. The phase I and phase II of the study elaborated the
development of survey and pilot study followed by the procedure for data collection
and analysis.
The analyses reported in Chapter 4 aims to understand the impact of
technology on Pakistani female ESL tertiary level teachers pedagogical practices
35
particularly the development of learner autonomy. The details of the analysis of the
yielded data through Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey
are presented in this chapter. This chapter presents the results of the statistical
analyses of the yielded data in three sections. The first section focuses the teachers’
professional competence. The second section of the survey analysis looks at the ways
in which women teachers incorporate technology in their classrooms and how
technology becomes part of teaching decisions and choices. In the third section, the
women teachers’ role in the development of ESL learner autonomy and its
development is conceptualized both independently and in relation to the use of
technology. The complexity of the development of language learner autonomy is
unravelled through theoretical interpretation of the results of data yielded from female
tertiary level teachers. The dynamics of the epistemological and methodological
framework are explored to study the impact of technology on women teachers’
pedagogical practices and their role in the development of ESL learner autonomy.
Finally, Chapter 5 put together the theoretical interpretation of the empirical findings
of the survey and discusses the emergent themes and philosophies. The chapter thus,
delineates the themes emergent from the empirical data report, on the impact of
technology shows diversity of phenomena and philosophies, describing impact of
technology on teacher autonomy; and thus, women teachers’ role in ESL tertiary level
education in Pakistan. Through the lens of pyramid of techno-feminist pedagogy,
these philosophies reconciled with theory and praxis of the field of this study. And the
study concluded with implications, strengths and limitations of the proposed
framework for further research.
36
CHAPTER 2
Pakistani Women, Technology and Learner Autonomy:
A Critical Appraisal of Related Literature
The core notion of learner autonomy, a skill “to take charge of one’s own
learning” (Holec, 1981), has been the focus of discussion, interest and research in the
realm of applied linguistics and technology practices (Blin, 2008). Although, it has its
roots in the former, it became a popular subject of research only in concordance with
the incessant intervention of digital media into pedagogy. The present literature
review aims to critically examine this intervention of technology in ESL education in
Pakistan; which then, in turn foregrounds and reasons out the conceptual framework
of technology in feminist perspective. This phase of the study tracks down the
importance of technology in the second language pedagogy in general and in
development of Pakistani ESL learner autonomy in particular. Consequently, this
review of literature locates the gaps and spaces to strengthen the proposition of the
present study.
Firstly, the status of Pakistani women in higher education is studied with a
historical perspective on feminism, especially, the impact of colonialism on higher
education for women. Secondly, the literature on teaching and learning of ESL in
Pakistan is critically reviewed to elucidate the space for feminist pedagogical
practices. In addition, the literature on the use of technology in second language or
ESL education is scrutinized to endow the contextual evidence to the present
proposition. In this way, it critically evaluates the features and issues pertaining to the
application of technology by reviewing the research in the field of technology in ESL
context. Lastly, the development and functioning of technology in Pakistan is
37
critically reviewed with reference to the foundation laid in the past for its feasibility,
its present status in the country to compete the technologically tuned earthlings
worldwide and its future prospects. This critical appraisal is helpful in the present
research to contextualize as well as put forward the underpinning logic of the present
study. It brings to surface the significance of the use of technology in Pakistani ESL
pedagogy for the women of the country. Moreover, the related literature on learner
autonomy as a discipline and in relation to technology has been critically reviewed to
embark on the theoretical and epistemological considerations of the field of Applied
Linguistics. The narrative thread that ties this review together is growth of interest in
autonomy of Pakistani women ESL teachers that resulted in review of the plethora of
specialist literature. Particular concerns include: the ways in which conceptions of
women autonomy are changing within ESL pedagogy; and the ways in which new
conceptions of autonomy fit in SLA theory, educational practice and social thought in
the Pakistani context. The sheer quantity of work on autonomy published since the
turn of century calls for a selective approach. Consequently, the review of selected
literature defines learner autonomy beyond the footings established in the classic
concept of above mentioned definition. It also defines the link between teacher
autonomy and learner autonomy in technology aided teaching-learning practices.
2.1 Pakistani Women and Higher Education: A Historical Perspective on
Feminism
Gender discrimination in education from primary to tertiary education in
Pakistan is questioned by feminist movement in Pakistan. Tariq Rahman (2005)
argues that gender discrimination in education is a main reason that hinders women’s
contribution. At micro level she cannot effectively participate in the progress and
prosperity of family; and at macro level she cannot be a partner to men in the
38
advancement of the country. This concern is one of the evidences of active feminist
activities in Pakistan. However, its roots can be traced back in the colonial era, which
I will discuss in this section with the focus on studies carried out in Pakistani higher
education context of ESL pedagogy (Rahman, 2005, 2006; Rana, 2006; and Shah,
2015). It is also found from the study of related literature that gender disparity
decreases as the education level increases. Inevitably, it coincides with the presence of
technology that determines its use and empowers Pakistani educated women. In order
to, envisage the concept of educated women of Pakistan, it is important to view and
review the history of this part of the world with respect to women’s part in teaching
and ESL in higher education institutions.
2.1.1 The Impact of Colonialism
British colonizers had indeed altered the course of the educational history of
subcontinent, called as India. However, whether it can be linked to modernization and
development of the colonized in terms of their education yet the opinions are divided.
For example Sabina Shah (2015) referring to colonialism, considers it unfair to call
colonial impact ‘all bad’. And she links the positive impacts to democratic system,
weaponry, technology upgradation and commerce that benefited pre-partitioned India
to some extent. On the similar note, Rana (2006) has linked it to the opportunities for
women to receive education which is also elaborated in the same section. But
categorically stated reservations claim that these changes would also have transpired
had there been no colonizers.
On the other hand, Rahman’s (2006) argument rests on the result of
colonialism in terms of a psychological damage, which led to an inferiority complex
which compelled the Indians to question and criticise their own social, political,
linguistic and educational culture. Substantiating this view, the following striking
39
comparison between conquerors and colonizers helps to elucidate this damage done to
India further:
The tragedy lies in the difference between conquerors and colonialists.
Conquerors develop the territory as part of their country, and colonialists only
exploit according to their own interests. (Saleem & Rizvi, 2011, p. 402)
Therefore, the following discussion will elucidate this impact of colonialism firstly on
Pakistani women’s higher education which is a source of women ESL teacher
autonomy, secondly on ESL teaching and learning; thirdly on modernization of
education through technology.
2.1.1.1 Women’s Higher Education and Colonialism
Metaphoric reminiscences of the tragedy of colonial past have led to affect the
meta-structure of society, culturally, linguistically, economically, educationally,
technologically and socially. Narrowing this debate, I will address the feminist
movements that serve the miniature of Pakistani society present in the realm of higher
educational institutions. In this context, Rana (2006) embarks at the history of this
colonial past of Pakistan to contextualize higher education for women and its relation
to “the current situation of the feminist movement in Pakistan” (p. 22). Drawing upon
Asghar Ali (2000), she explicates that in pre-partitioned Pakistan, which was called as
India, women of early twentieth century realized that higher education would enable
them to enter the job market and to brighten their chances in the marriage market. In
order to fulfill the need “a university for women was set up in 1916 at the Shreemati
Nathibhai Damodher Thackersay (S.N. D. T.)University” and “the curriculum was a
combination of traditional and modern subjects” (Rana, 2006, p. 22).Incidentally
English language teaching learning became the part of it as learning of English
became mandatory for teaching-learning modern subjects. This was proved to be a
40
revolutionary doorway to higher education for the women of this region and gave way
to the erection of later universities. However, the social strata did not change much as
“on the one hand parents wanted their daughters to get a good education, but on the
other, they feared that too much education might change the social structure
irrevocably” (Rana, 2006, p. 23). This was evident that society in large was not in
favour of women’s higher education as it feared women’s autonomy; ignoring that an
educated woman being a teacher might exercise her autonomy to teach a nation. The
situation has not changed much even today. This was not the only problem facing the
women access to education, the review of literature helps to identify other social
fences too, for Muslim women of this part of the world, including pardah (seclusion),
a mindset “labelled as Mullaism4”that opposes women’s learning and education”
(Noreen & Khalid, 2012, p. 54). Similarly, Irum, Bhatti, & Parveen, (2015), in a study
conducted on women in higher education institutes of Sindh have found, that “the
major hindrance in the access of higher education to women was [is] the domination
of male in the society” (p. 173).
However, the higher education had been and will be the gateway for the
women teachers to gain autonomy, so as to maximise teaching-learning gains by
developing autonomous learners. In such context, the history reflects that the
importance of women education remained an area of concern for a group of modern,
educated men and women even in colonial India. Elucidating this Rana (2006)
presents Khan’s (2001) view that in “the early decades of the twentieth century
Muslim men and women ... focused ... women‘s education to promote women’s rights
in society”; and the steps Sir Syed Ahmad Khan taken to organize “the Mohammedan
4A person serves usually as an imam in mosques having superficial religious knowledge who usually
opposes women’s learning and education.
41
Educational Conference in the 1870s”and later founded “the Muhammadan Anglo-
Oriental College”.
The participants of this conference, who were mostly male, proposed
education as a way of improving the social status for women. The traditional
education system for women focused mainly on religious education at
Maktabs, schools attached to mosques, but this was limited because of the
restrictions of purdah , the veiling of women... But progress in women’s
literacy was slow. (Rana, 2006, pp 24-25)
This was an evident reason that limited women’s participation in education; and
resultantly few women had an access to higher education; and even few could choose
teaching, in the institutions of higher education, as a profession. However, the
education of women was proved to be a preliminary step to move beyond the social
fences like seclusion and pardah. Beyond this context of seclusion, Malik (2002) also
finds that higher education for women in Pakistan “is generally regarded as
achievement of colonial or neo-colonial west” (p. 21). But she emphasises at the
paradox: the education for women in Asia and Africa is linked to Western
imperialism, while in the west it is linked to the ‘feminist movement’ in Europe.
However, the women’s education has always been linked to their empowerment
which is associated with the larger issues of development of a country.
Ali (2000) connected the autonomy of Pakistani women through education to
the independence of Pakistan. He elucidates that Jinnah, the founder of the country,
stressed in his speeches the importance of women being involved with men in all
spheres of life. After 1947, both women and men in Pakistan continued to advocate
women’s political empowerment through legal reforms and establishment of
42
educational institutions. Eventually the development of women’s political liberty
created the space of the educational and particularly teaching-learning autonomy.
2.1.2 Reforms by Government of Pakistan for Women’s Higher Education
After independence, many government level reforms aimed at women’s
education through Pakistani Educational policies: the Education Conference, 1947,
The Commission on National Education, 1959, The New Education Policy, 1970, The
Education Policy, 1972, The National Education Policy, 1979, The National
Educational Policy, 1992, The National Education Policy, 1998-2010, Education
Sector Reforms: Strategic Plan 2001-2004, The National Educational Policy, 2009,
and Pakistan Vision 2025. However, these reforms primarily focused adult literacy
levels and primary education for girls, and did not focus on tertiary education; a seat
of learning for women’s greater contribution in society. Rana (2006) argues that
within Pakistani patriarchal society the women representation is limited to a few in
the policy making system; therefore
Women have to be involved in policy making to transform the system. Since
the system does not seem to be working for women, it has to be transformed to
allow the success of women. They have to speak out and become contributors
in the dialogue of policy and decision making. And this can only be possible if
women are empowered in academies of higher education. (p. 20)
As explicated in Chapter 1.2 UN’s Education for All (EFA) (1990) compelled the
developing countries to achieve the target of education for all boys and girls as well as
to decrease the illiteracy rate, unfortunately, “doing so has remained difficult”, even at
primary level of education (Shah, 2015). Corroborating the same Maqsood, Maqsood,
& Raza (2012) commented that even if Pakistan is a “signatory of the UN Education
for All (EFA)” to eliminate gender disparities in primary, secondary and higher
43
education, yet the efforts made in this context could not yield favourable results (p.
352). However, from past few years the positive situation of gender parity in higher
education is reported by Pakistan Education Statistics, 2011-12 (see Chapter 1.1); and
substantiating this Maqsood, Maqsood & Raza (2012) have found:
In the recent decades it has been observed that a significant proportion of girls
are getting education at higher level despite cultural barriers. Even in some
cases, girls outnumber boys at high educational level. This trend seems to be
good for development of Pakistani society because a significant proportion of
population is coming out and taking part in academic activities. (p. 355)
This observation strengthens the proposition of my study that targets the women
population working in the institutions of higher education. This study links their
autonomy to the impact of the use of technology as pedagogues and learners of
English in the institutions of higher education.
In the light of the findings of these studies, it is significant to include Rana’s
(2006) review of Pakistan’s government education policies and infrastructure for
higher education. In Pakistan “all degree granting universities and institutions, both
public and private, are directly or indirectly supervised by HEC, which is responsible
for coordinating reviews and evaluations of all academic programs”. In the same
connection, Sedgwick (2005) reports that HEC Pakistan also administers the planning,
development, and chartering of both public and private institutions of higher
education. In Pakistan the colleges are also “the institutions of higher education...
[and] are controlled by the provincial or the federal governments unlike the
universities which are called autonomous” (Rahman, 2004, p. 106). But the higher
educational system in Pakistan is affected by the policies (referred above) that have
44
affected education in the last sixty years (Rahman, 2004; Sedgwick, 2005; Rana,
2006; Shah, 2015).
On the other hand Rahman (2004) finds a strong impact of colonization on
higher educational institutions of Pakistan. He argues that the universities in Pakistan
“still exist in the middle of the nineteenth century almost when they were established
first in 18575” (p. 109). I believe, this is partly due to the intention with which they
were established. For riffling through the pages of history, it is revealed that these
institutions were established only to westernize and educate the locals enough to
educate a lower level of bureaucracy of locals, means the purpose and structure of
such “institutions were not supposed to equal the academics of Oxford or Cambridge”
(Rana, 2006, p. 35). This system of education was based on Thomas Macaulay’s
attempt to open doors to western education in India. It aimed “to create a nation of
clerks, half westernized, half native, who could economically man the offices of the
British Raj” (Saleem & Rizvi, 2011, p. 403). It is this view which of Macaulay which
laid the foundation of higher education institutions in India:
We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters
between us and the millions we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and
colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. (Macaulay
1835 in Rahman, 2010, p. 152).
Therefore, “the colonial state had produced a colonial university-one which did not
have the psychological, economic, social, or legal potential to confront the powers
that be” (Rahman, 2004, p. 113). Later some other universities were also established
following the same pattern. During all this time, women’s participation in education
had been ignored; secondly, local languages were ignored too. Although, the students
5Rahman (2004) refers to the University of Calcutta that was established in 1857.
45
in British India had “the right to choose to be educated in English or a vernacular
language”, higher education, especially science and technology”, was in English
(Rahman, 2010, p. 14).Therefore, teaching and learning of English in higher
education institutions had always been in focus. Criticising Macaulay’s reforms,
Hussain (1997) blames the weakness of the education system in Pakistan as a result of
this westernization. During all this time the women were not considered as active
“participants in higher education” (Rana, 2006, p. 35). This deprivation or
marginalized access to higher education is evident in the following statistics:
The fact that in 1917 only thirty female Muslim students in India were
enrolled in college or university and ten years the number increased to 537
shows the extent of interest in higher education, and by 1946 the number had
increased to 651. The progress still seems fairly slow, but the fact that some of
these women were even going to Europe to continue with their education is
dramatic for the time when most women in South Asia were not even allowed
to the leave the boundaries of their homes. (Rana, 2006, p. 36)
This status of women’s education; and the fact that at the time of
independence Pakistan had only one university (University of the Punjab) were the
major reasons for less representation of women in higher education institutions.
However, from one University to 139 by 2012 with79 public universities and 60
private universities (Pakistan Education Statistics, 2011-12, p. 15); the higher
education sector is growing from strength to strength. Unfortunately, same is not true
for women. Even today daughters do not get as much opportunities of higher
education as sons. “The women who did get the opportunity of higher education” are
either teachers or doctors, though a few adopt some other professions too (Rana,
2006, p. 36). Rana portrays this, although only the beginning of the movement for
46
women’s higher education, yet a step towards teaching learning autonomy. It is
expected to gain momentum over the years. Moreover, many NGOs are also working
for women’s right to higher education. In addition, a study compiled by NIPA
( National Institute of Public Administration), states that “there should be equitable
representation of women in the corridors of power and policy making in the higher
educational institutions” (Malik, 2003, p. 7). It also emphasizes the correlation
between “economy of the country and higher education”. Therefore, the equitable
opportunities of higher education for women had never been an ignored area in the
government educational policies; however, the slow progress in this area is mainly
due to social barriers. Such barriers limit women’s participation in teaching learning
English at tertiary level; and even hinder access to modern gadgets and tools of
learning. However, global spread and ease of access to technology is determining new
norms and values for Pakistani women. Despite this hopeful note and the efforts of
the government of Pakistan at eradication of gender disparity in education, the “higher
level education could not be improved” (Shah, 2015, p. 95) due to five factors
identified by Shah (2015): (a)‘religion’, (b) ‘gender roles’, (c) ‘economic growth’, (d)
‘socio-cultural values’ and (e) ‘supply-side factors that include facilities for
education’. In addition, the research shows that traditionally the role of women in
Pakistan is limited to domestic affairs. The following discussion includes the review
of related literature to explicate the impact of socio-cultural traditions of Pakistan on
women’s access to higher education- an opportunity to teaching and learning
autonomy.
47
2.1.3 Traditionally Situated Status of Women in Pakistani Society and its
Impact on Access to Higher Education
Traditionally the concept of higher education in English for women is rejected,
as it connotes their freedom, modernization and liberty: threats to male chauvinistic
society. In addition, Pakistani women have always been linked to submissiveness and
often considered as silent entities. Drawing upon Gani, Shah (2015) associated
women with three typical roles: (a) as a daughter: ‘she is obliged to submit to her
father’; (b) as a wife ‘she must not look beyond the four walls of her house, and must
clean, cook and wash for her husband and children without complaining’; and (c) as
an old woman she is “dependent on her children, with no desire except the happiness
of her immediate family” (Shah, 2015, p. 13).
Even today the opportunities for further education are restricted, even for the
educated women working in the institutions of higher education. Apparently it has its
roots in Pakistani culture of honour, and social hierarchy, which are the organizing
principles defining gender roles. These principles nourish those patriarchal values,
which are deeply embedded in the society. This system creates ideology of ‘division
of labour’ that places “women in reproductive roles” at homes and “men in a
productive role as breadwinners in the public arena” (Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza,
2012, p. 354). Therefore, more attention is paid to men’s education and skill
development than women. To fulfil these societal parameters female members of the
family face gender-based criterion of education accessibility and resource allocation.
But still these women struggle to come out of that restricted domain, where they are
only taught domestic skills—how to be good mothers and wives (Khan, 2007).
Therefore, till last decade much literature was not available about the role of women
in institutions of higher education in Pakistan due to extremely controlled academic
48
environment, and pardah restrictions as Rahman (2004) analysed the responses of
female respondents (teachers and students) of institutions of higher education in
Pakistan:
The major shortcoming is that females are represented in very low numbers.
First, they are less represented in the universities than males. Secondly, they
are more reluctant to fill in questionnaires and also more difficult to access
than their male colleagues. (p. 69)
Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza (2012) argue that major problem facing the
women access to the doorways of higher education are preference to sons’ education
than daughters, due to family ties (Baradari System), mobility restrictions, financial
hierarchy. Therefore, in a focus group discussion and in-depth interviews, they have
found the challenges, which Pakistani women had to face to overcome the cultural
obstructions to get higher education. They located (a) ‘stereotype gender roles’; and
(b) ‘family resentment for getting admission in university’. They situate the gender
specific barriers in
... allocation of more household responsibilities to girls...lack of importance
attached to girls education and giving preferential treatment to boys in terms
of investing family resources...[and]Baradari system. In this system various
other relatives might take key position when it came to decide about girls’
future... Debarring girls from their right to education, could be an example of
family effort to show solidarity with Baradari. (Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza,
2012, p. 355)
Added to this, another problem is distance of the institutions of higher
education from a girls’ home. Being tied in Pakistani patriarchy, Pakistani women are
denied access to education due to mobility restrictions. HEC Pakistan has taken steps
49
to establish institutions of higher education all across Pakistan. Resultantly, the
picture is not all too bleak; the women who get an access to education bring some
positive implications for others in their families. Therefore, a positive change in this
direction can be seen in the increased number of enrolment of girls in the institutions
of higher education and an increased number of female teachers in degree awarding
institutions. This change in one way or the other can be linked to increased access to
ICTs and the rising number of the institutions of higher education, which has provided
the women an opportunity to cope with the mobility restriction by joining the
university in their own city or nearby city (Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza, 2012).
Evidence of this is visible in the results of the present study, which was conducted
with the assumption that women teachers in Pakistani higher education institutions are
highly educated. Secondly, they are teaching ESL in the institutions of higher
education. Subsequently, the women teachers are benefitted from the presence of
technology and gain a social interdependence in their pedagogical paradigms.
However, Pakistani feminist perspective of education is diverse and unique. On one
end Malala Yousufzai’s achievement of world Nobel Peace Award for being secular
young human right activist writes a success story from a secular feminist worldview.
On the other end, women like Amina Jamal advocate the religious Islamic higher
education for women. This conflict is embarked upon in the discussion that follows.
2.1.4 Feminist Movement and Higher Education: Secular Vs Religious
This debate in feminist movements on higher education in Pakistan rests upon
the conflict between secular modern English education in modern universities; and
religious or Islamic education in Jamias (Islamic Universities). Explicating this
conflict, Mumtaz and Shaheed (1987, 1990) present the feminist movement in
Pakistan. It reflects pressures and disputations. They document pre-colonial religious
50
argument against women’s education and modernity and post-colonial secular aspects
of women’s rights. This secular perspective rejects a religious intervention assuming
that it denies women’s right to higher education.
Globally the schools of thought in secular feminism range from Marxist
socialist perspective “to those who believe that women’s human rights can be
achieved within a liberal state” (Bradley & Saigol, 2012, p. 677). The secular view in
Pakistan defines religion essentially patriarchal, as well as limiting women’s access to
modern education, particularly teaching-learning of English. On the other hand,
Islamic feminist in Pakistan favours women participation in higher education, that too
in religious institutions. Documenting the importance of religious higher education for
women in Pakistan, Amina Jamal (2005), an Islamic feminist, asserts that women gain
independence even in Islamic institutions. Religious feminist perceives the modernity
of their own accord. Bradley and Saigol, (2012) documented that while Pervez
Musharraf (1999-2008) was president of Pakistan the Islamic institutions of higher
education gained extra attention in 2007, especially when in the same year the
restrictions were imposed on the leading institution, “the Jamia Hafsa in Islamabad”,
an higher education institute for women, because of the anti-government activities and
traditionalism (p. 678). In interviews with secular informants in Lahore, Pakistan,
Bradley and Saigol (2012) have identified the respondents’ contribution to the
feminist movement in Pakistan. Their concern about curriculum in religious
institutions has not been sufficient to label them as secular modernist educationists.
Nevertheless, they linked religious higher education to hindrance for female progress
in the country. This female progress is often linked to her empowerment and
autonomy. Unfortunately, the slogan for women autonomy and liberation is almost a
taboo in patriarchal domain, as it connotes women’s freedom and liberty which makes
51
them rebellious to the set religious and social norms. This connotation is critically
evaluated in the following discourse to create space in favour of women’s teaching
and learning of English in the institutions of higher education.
2.1.5 Women’s Educational Autonomy in Higher education in Pakistan
In Pakistani society, the concept of higher education for women is often linked
to negative connotation of autonomy and liberation of women. Therefore, they face
family opposition in access to the institutions of higher education. In addition,
Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza (2012) concluded that if the educational institution is at a
greater distance from a girl’s house, she is denied of her right to education. Firstly, it
raises the question of security of daughters; second, the option of staying in a hostel of
a distant educational institution is denied as “parents might have fears about their
freedom and autonomy” (Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza, 2012, p. 356). So these fears
become social fences for women’s access to the institutions of higher education, as
education is a perceived tool for women to get autonomy and power for themselves. I
interpolate this stance as evidence that education grants women the autonomy to self-
actualize, to know their being and to know that they have achieved a status: equal to
men in the patriarchal society. Therefore, women were either not granted the right to
education or else many restrictions are imposed, if this right is bestowed at all, like a
forced marriage or attending university following veil tradition. Substantiating this
Maqsood, Maqsood, & Raza (2012) concluded that the families believed that higher
education would grant women the autonomy; and
Families feared that this autonomy might lead to challenging the status quo of
family or power relations with in the family...Though girls had been given
permission to get education, but families seemed not to let them have
education to decide about their life [sic]. (p. 358)
52
However, National Policy for Development and Empowerment of Women (2002)
focused the empowerment of Pakistani women as one of its goals to elevate the role
of the women in all spheres of life. And it considers education as an important means
towards women’s social autonomy in Pakistan. In addition, this policy recognizes
education as crucial for ensuring women’s participation in mainstream social,
economic and political fields. Explicating the same, Khan and Mohammad (2003)
have found that higher education grants autonomy to women as it enables them to
gain greater access and control over material and knowledge resources in order to
improve their lives and challenge the ideologies of discrimination and subordination.
In a study of field-based teacher training programme in northern Pakistan,
Sales (1996) finds that it was accessible to a large number of village women teachers
because it had adapted itself to village norms. It had a schedule that allowed women
to fulfil their everyday domestic responsibilities and did not require frequent
travelling away from families. In the context of this case study, women were able to
enter the teaching profession and gain access to training, as long as their activities
remained within the commonly accepted female domain. This is circumscribed both
geographically, by the expectation that they will not travel outside their village, away
from their families, agricultural commitments and communal scrutiny; and socially, in
the sense that they must not take on an autonomous role beyond the control of men or
indeed in authority over them. Consequently, Sales (1996) did not find enough
evidence to support the theory: education led to women teacher autonomy in the
patriarchal communities of Pakistan.
Similarly, Kim Thomas (1990) describes that although higher education is
generally regarded as liberal social institution which allows women to enter and be
successful, this liberalism is ultimately illusory as gender division is maintained and
53
in some cases renewed. Achievement differences are tied to conventional beliefs
about women and men.
Higher education does not reproduce inequality by actively discriminating
against women. What it does is make use of culturally available ideas of
masculinity and femininity in such a way that women are marginalized and, to
some extent, alienated. (Thomas, 1990, n.p.)
Hence, the philosophy of the women autonomy through higher education into
the mainstream remains the same. Nevertheless, today technology has written new
chapters for the modern educated women even in a developing country like Pakistan.
This technological advancement has strong impact on teaching and learning of
English, as English is the dominant language of the Internet. But in order to
contextualize the trends of English language teaching and learning by Pakistani
women at the tertiary level institutions, it is significant to envisage the status of
English through the lens of colonialism.
2.2 Impact of Colonialism on Teaching and Learning of English in Pakistan
The present status of English as a Second Language in teaching and learning in higher
education institutions of Pakistan is the evidence of strong linguistic impact of the
colonialism; in other words, linguistic imperialism. Shah (2015) describes that in
Pakistan “English as a lingua franca is forming a new culture, which shows the social
and cultural imprints of colonisation” (p.36). These imprints can be seen
predominantly in higher education sector of Pakistan, where teaching and learning of
English is compulsory to study almost all the modern subjects. Studying the status of
teaching English in Africa and Asia Loomba (1998) points out that “English
education...became a double edged sword because the colonized did not simply accept
54
the superiority of English institutions but also used English education to undermine
that superiority, foster nationalism, and demand equality and freedom”( pp. 89–90).
Rahman (2010) explicates the present status of English in Pakistan being “the
language of wider communication (LWC)”; and a language of globalization. Drawing
upon Crystal (1997), he favours the global demand for English as “it is the language
of international trade, media, services, science and technology and entertainment”.
However, this global demand of English is not only due to colonisation. Therefore,
the following section embarks upon this world-wide diffusion of English.
2.2.1 World-wide Diffusion of English
English being the LWC has attained this status due to different factors. The
linguists scholars like Crystal (1997); Baraj Kachru (1985; 1992); and Yamuna
Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson (2006) discusses the world-wide diffusion of English.
However, this discussion includes Kachru and Nelson’s (2006) theoretical disposition
banking upon Baraj Kachru’s ‘two diasporas’ and ‘three concentric circles’ (Kachru,
1985; 1992). This discussion is included as it also helps me to locate the status of
English as a second language in higher education in Pakistan: under the influence of
colonialism. They describe the spread of English as a result of two diasporas:
The first arose as consequence of the migration of English speaking people
from Great Britain to Australia, North America and New Zealand. The second
resulted primarily from the diffusion of English among speakers of diverse
group of people and languages as a result of colonialism. (Kachru & Nelson,
2006, p. 9)
They view the field of English studies in pedagogical context “whether in the first or
the second diaspora,” as “fraught with debate and controversies” (ibid, p.
10).Therefore, in order to study teaching and learning of English in any of these
55
contexts it is significant to look at the English using world in terms of three concentric
circles as B. Kachru (1985) suggests. Inner circle comprises ‘mother country’:
England and British Isles and those countries where Britishers migrated during first
diaspora, as mentioned above. The next is the outer circle, which includes ex-colonies
like India, Pakistan, Singapore, Nigeria, and the Philippines. In these countries
English was introduced and infused by some colonial administrators, businessmen,
educators and missionaries. Today it is nurtured by the vast majority of indigenous
multilingual users as a second language (ESL). The expanding circle countries like
China, Japan, and South Korea use English as an international medium for business
and commerce. In these countries English is considered as a foreign language
(EFL).In this elaborated book on world Englishes, the authors focused on teaching
and learning of English in the context of South Asian countries. Particularly making
English a native language due to indigenous efforts is explicated in the outer circle
countries with the focus on research in second language acquisition and acculturation.
However, Shah (2015) criticises that Kachru and Nelson (2006) did not discuss the
impact of English on “change in the traditional cultures, as well as the effect of English
on relations between males and females” (p. 39). I have also found this gap. Unlike
Shah, I have found a need to address the impact of technology that determines new
ways for women to teach and learn English beyond the impact of colonisation.
Additionally, in the context of Pakistan, the linguists find English imperialism caught
up in the dichotomy of love-hate, which is the focus of following discussion.
2.2.2 Rejection versus Acceptance of English in Pakistan
English teaching and learning in Pakistan has always been received with
disdain on one end, and admiration on the other. Evidently, the roots of this conflict
lie in the colonial past. This impact of colonialism on the teaching and learning of
56
English is the field of interest in Rahman’s works (2004; 2005; 2006; 2010). Rahman
(2010) in his seminal work, research, which rests on the notion of ‘linguistic capital’
as defined by Pierre Bourdieu6, concludes that at the moment, English is the language
of globalization with the following consequences:
1. The weakening and death of the smaller (weaker) languages of the world has
increased pace (Crystal 2000; Nettle & Romaine 2000).
2. English has emerged as the language of wider intra-and inter- cultural
communication (Crystal 2003).
3. English, therefore, has more linguistic capital than most other languages in
the global context.
4. In ex-colonies of English-speaking power (like Pakistan) English continues to
consolidate, and even increase, its linguistic capital as it opens doors to
lucrative employment in the corporate sector and advantage in the higher
echelons of the state sector (Rahman, 2007).
5. English, therefore, is the most powerful language of our times. (Rahman,
2010, pp 11-12)
Therefore, this linguistic capital haunts the realm of higher education institutions,
firstly due to the impact of colonialism as reflected in the language policies of
Pakistan, secondly being the language of globalization, and technology, which is the
most powerful tool of education today.
In his earlier work Rahman (2006, p. 74) referred to ‘overt policy’ of
education, ‘which was enshrined in the 1973 constitution’; and Rahman (2010) finds
the root of this language dilemma thus:
6a French sociologist
57
English was supposed to continue as the official language of Pakistan until the
time that the national language(s) replaced it. However, this date came and
went, as did many other dates before it and English is as firmly entrenched in
the domains of power in Pakistan today as it was in 1947. ( p. 25)
This policy of proposed and not executed abandonment of English is one of the
reasons of resulting conflict of resistance and acceptance. Moreover, criticising "the
state’s covert support to English in the education sector”, Rahman (2010, p. 54)
argues that the government of Pakistan actually spends public funds on promoting
education in English to create a class of administrators.
If Pakistan adopts “a policy of complete rejection, the ‘ostrich’ approach,” it is
suicidal for “it would cut off Pakistan from the advantages of globalization” (Rahman,
2010, p. 15). So, in order to reap the benefits and to produce competent professionals,
English remained a medium of education at tertiary level education, and a compulsory
subject from kindergarten level. Although, Rahman (2010) criticises this policy for
becoming “the elite’s patronage of English in the name of efficiency and
modernization” (p. 25), it cannot be excluded from the education system owing to the
strong impact of technology.
In addition, elucidating the three Muslim responses to teaching and learning of
English, Rahman (2010) traces its roots back in British India. He firstly describes,
rejection and resistance either due to “a reaction to their political defeat at the hands
of the English” or “part of their boundary-marking (Othering) on religious grounds”
(p. 153). Secondly, acceptance and assimilation of English by secular and
Westernized Muslims, who claimed that from the pragmatic point of view, it was
foolish to resist English especially when others were getting British employment.
Hence, the modernizing reformers: ‘Abdul Latif (1828-93) and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
58
(1817-99)’ compelled “Muslims to learn English and take their due share in power
under the British” (ibid, p. 154).Thirdly, the pragmatic utilization approach, which
allows selective adoption for tactical reasons and
...it is common to the Islamists all over the world even now. Fanatical groups,
inspired by Islamist thought, such as the al-Qaeda of Osama Bin Laden are
always ready to use modern technology and learn English to acquire it though
they remain averse to the Western world view. (Rahman, 2010, p. 155)
In short, the status of English from British Indian to Pakistani Muslim society has
always suspected the teaching and learning of English for its association with alien
values. Therefore, women being secluded household figures have always been kept
away from this English (ferangi) cultural tool. However, for pragmatic reasons some
Muslims want to teach and learn English so as to gain autonomy and empowerment
(Rahman, 2010). Elucidating this, in a survey of 488 students from different
educational institutions, teaching no English to using English almost as a first
language, he has found that because of the normative content of the discourses one is
exposed to; the concept of rights of women get internalized in the students of elitist
English medium schools. Although, Rahman has not addressed the impact of
technology on teaching and learning of English on women, it helps to locate the
elevated status of women in Islamist institutions, which favours modern education
with religious restrictions. Thus, it gives me the space to evaluate the technological
determinism on women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education.
2.2.3 The Challenges to ESL Feminist Pedagogy in Higher Education
The above discussion reveals that until recently, education for women and
therefore by the women was considered unnecessary in many parts of Pakistan;
although some Islamist institutions and secular world view say otherwise. Such a
59
view favours involvement of women in pedagogical practices in the realm of higher
education. I propose that the educated female ESL teachers in higher education
institutions are feminist pedagogues, as the use of technology makes the teachers
create supportive environment not only for female but also for male learners.
Although, women access to the tertiary level institutions in Pakistan for English
language teaching and learning is not equally facilitative and accommodating, yet a
number of women are the part of faculty of English Departments in most of the
institutions of higher education in Pakistan.
2.2.3.1 Women’s Learning of English and Socio-cultural Issues in Pakistan
Exploring different worlds of Pakistani women of Mansehra region, Shah
(2015) finds that Pakistani society makes the learning of English for women quite
difficult at higher level of education. Investigating the social attitudes to female
English literacy and its impact on traditional values, her argument rests on
‘Bourdieu’s (1979, 1984) notion of inequity as the result of ineffective and non-
sustainable language policies’ in Pakistan; and Sadiqi (2003) model of Islamic
feminism. She studies various factors hindering women’s learning of English in
Pakistani social context of urban and rural areas, by studying attitudes through
questionnaires, interviews and participatory observation. The solution to these
problems can be proposed through the feminist pedagogical practices for fostering
ESL learner autonomy (see Chapter 3.2).
Shah (2015) maintains that the urban class is confused due to their exposure
towards traditional culture as well as modernization. In contrast, the rural class
showed rejection for women learning English. Moreover, she identifies “the men’s
attitudes as the most important factor that affect women’s English language learning”
(Shah, 2015, p. 251). Although, Shah agrees that learning English is important in
60
modern age as it leads the way to many fields of knowledge and higher education,
especially those of science and technology. She focuses women’s learning of English
with the objective to place mother’s influence on child’s learning “due to frequent
child contact with the mother in the medium of English” (ibid, p. 88). In this way,
Shah’s study is limited to learning of English; and it has not addressed the impact of
technology on women teachers’ pedagogical practices.
2.2.3.2 The Limitations of ELT Reforms in Higher Education in Pakistan
On the other hand investigating the efforts of government for higher education
by HEC Pakistan, Shamim (2011), criticises the deficiencies of the English Language
Teaching Reforms (ELTR) project Phase I and II started in 2004 as Faculty
Development Programme. She maintains that reason behind it is not in the policies, as
each new government targets “teaching English to the masses as a way of achieving
its democratic ideals of equality of opportunity” (Shamim, 2011, p. 4). These steps
ensued are ideal, but implementations cannot be found in the public at large due to
practical constraints. However, the faculty development projects of ELTR committee
have focused objectives as:
(a) to review and evaluate the English language teaching capacity of a national
sample of general and professional universities in Pakistan; and (b) to make
recommendations for the reorganisation of English language teaching
departments in public sector institutions of higher education. (Shamim, 2011,
p. 7)
The findings of her project show that the socioeconomic profiles of Pakistani English
teachers and learners are almost the same. Most of the teachers are not qualified
specifically in English language teaching. The teachers who participate in
conferences, workshops and professional development programmes are very few in
61
number. English language teaching programmes in universities are offered at
undergraduate as well as postgraduate levels. Although, in her research the teachers
and learners rated currently available English language courses highly in terms of
their future needs and challenges, the ESL pedagogical scenario demands more focus
in this area.
Table 2.1: Faculty Benefitted through CPD Courses: Phase I and II
Region
Phase I - No. of Participants Trained - Phase II TOTA
L 2004
-05
2005
-06
2006
-07
2007
-08
2008
-09
2010
-11
2011
-12
2012
-13
2013
-14
AJK
30 30
Balochistan 20 0 0 31 48 46 18 163
Federal
Area 51 65 20 32 20 18 24 17 247
Khyber
Pakhtunkhw
a
19 82 86 22 61 41 58 99 20 488
Punjab 63 132 100 55 88 52 77 80 36 683
Sindh 84 109 133 1 26 22 51 74 500
TOTAL 237 388 339 141 175 213 199 254 165 2136
Source: Higher Education Commission, 2016
According to HEC website the faculty members are given short term CPD trainings
in the following areas:
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Testing& Evaluation
Research Methodology& Skills
Andragogical /Pedagogical Skills (Teaching Practicum, Communication Skills)
Open& Customized Programs in ELT related areas (EAP, ESP, ESL, ELT)
The positive point of departure is the statistical data that shows a good number of
English tertiary level teachers benefitted through CPD courses in Phase I and II. It
62
shows a constant effort of the government of Pakistan to train women and men ESL
teachers (see Table 2.1).
2.3 Use of Technology in ESL Teaching in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective
Technology is a gift of God. After the gift of life it is perhaps the greatest of
God’s gifts. It is the mother of civilizations, of arts and of sciences. (Dyson,
1988, p. 270)
Language pedagogy owes a lot to this modern technology from its crude tools to
the most modern technological gadget—the state of the art, computers. The early
history of technology in language education globally is well documented elsewhere7.
However, this discussion focuses conceptualization of technology aided ESL
teaching-learning with reference to its practice in Pakistani institutions of higher
education. Technology assisted second language acquisition is “assumed to be
informed by a philosophy of language teaching and learning” (Levy, 1997, p.1).
Nevertheless, the research in applied linguistics supports technology integration in
second language acquisition to some extent, and less still provide information of the
teachers’ use of technology for developing learner autonomy. Moreover, researchers
identify technology-aided instruction and centrality of theoretical implications of
learner autonomy for language learning a common thread (Chambers & O'Sullivan,
2004). Till to date, different disciplines including applied linguistics and particularly
research in the field of SLA provides theoretical background to the studies on
technology facilitated language learning. Nevertheless, Levy’s (1997) conclusion
finds field of instructional technology rich for being a multidisciplinary discipline (see
Figure I). The proposition that research on SLA should process research in the field of
7 A useful discussion on technology-aided language teaching-learning with specific reference to CALL
is given in Chapter 1 of Levy’s (1997) book. A short history of CALL from 1965-1985 is given by
Ahmed, Corbett, Rogers & Sussex (1985) in Chapter 3 of their book.
63
instructional technology is supported by researchers and practitioners (Levy, 1997).
From B.F Skinners behaviourist theory to the theories and models of learner
autonomy there are about three score diverse phenomenon and specialist frameworks.
My purpose here is to review these models, theories and approaches to use technology
with specific reference to second language teaching. This would give space to the
argument of impact of technology on the female teachers teaching ESL in higher
education institutions of Pakistan; and its manifestation as the development of learner
autonomy.
In the 1950s and early 1960s the empiricist theory of language teaching
emerged, “a theory described by Stern (1983, p. 169) as ‘pedagogically
audiolingualism, psychologically behaviourism, linguistically structuralism” (Levy,
1997, p.14). These all three schools of thought supported language teaching and
learning. Audiolingualism emphasized the use of the target language in spoken form
and students were expected to learn the language through a process of habit
formation, that is, practice (Levy, 1997, p. 14). Watson’s, Pavlov’s and Skinner’s
theories of behaviourism in learning haunted the realms of language pedagogy
globally. According to them learning is the result of positive or negative
reinforcement in “response to an external stimulus” (Duffy, Mc.Donald, & Mizell,
2005, p. 14). The audio-lingual approach to language teaching with the aid of
technology emerged when Skinner (1954) advocated the use of teaching machines for
individualized learning and instruction followed by establishment of language
laboratories with audio-lingual drill and practice based programmes in specific
globally. Although, this audioligual approach did not directly focus the learner and
learner autonomy, however, use of technology allowed individualized and self-paced
learning. In Pakistan such language laboratories marked the pioneering use of
64
technology into the ESL curriculum (Irshad, 2008). These laboratories were limited to
a few elite public schools and language teaching institution and Universities, but they
were the source of integration of technology in the ESL pedagogy and a step towards
fostering learner autonomy in Pakistan.
Later, with the development of computers, the software developers have found
the audio-lingual approach, particularly drill and practice exercises suitable to create
language learning software. This gave way to PLATO (Programmed Logic for
Automatic Teaching) that started at the University of Illlinois in 1960 and TICCIT
(Time- Shared, Interactive, Computer Controlled Information Television) project
started in 1971 at Brigham Young University: the initial computer assisted language
learning programmes that conceptualized CALL (Levy,1997).Even at this time the
role of the teacher was focused as PLATO allowed TUTOR authoring language,
which directly involved language teachers rather than researchers in authoring CALL
courseware, and extensive efforts were made to ensure that TUTOR was easy to use
for the non-programmers: teachers (Hart, 1995). Elucidating this first phase of
technology intrusion into language pedagogy Warschauer (1996) calls it as
behaviouristic phase of CALL; and opines that programs of this phase constituted
language drills and can be referred to as “drill and practice” (or, more pejoratively as,
“drill and kill”).Although, the teachers and researchers did not focus on the learner
autonomy, the computer allowed learners to decide their path and allowed self-paced
individualized learning which corroborates autonomous learning. This aspect of the
technology attracted the teachers to incorporate technology for enhancing language
learning outcomes.
This increasing educational propensity towards technology gave way to the
gradual induction of computer laboratories in educational institutions world-wide,
65
which indeed was a positive step towards development of educational technology and
development of computer technology underpinning technology in ESL perspectives in
Pakistan. The Government of Pakistan (1999) reported that by the year 1985 forty-
eight mainframe computers and fifty minicomputers were installed in public sector;
and in private sector eleven mainframe computers and fifty nine mini computers were
installed including educational and non educational sector Meanwhile, institutions of
Higher Education also established computer departments. Moreover, Quaid-i-Azam
University Islamabad (2000) established department of Computer Science in 1976;
and the computer centre was inducted in the university four years back, that is in
1972. This was by no means unique in that era. However, in late 1980s The Punjab
University Lahore and Agha Khan University Karachi included computer
departments.
In that age of late 1970s new humanistic approaches to language teaching and
learning emerged. Notable methods were Community Language Learning (Curran,
1976) and Total Physical Response (Asher, 1977). These models focused the
individual as a whole, including emotions, feelings and affective dimensions
(Moskowitz, 1978). But Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) affected the
technology intrusion into language teaching the most. The adoption of these theories
into technology-assisted language learning compelled Warshauer (1996) to call it
Communicative CALL phase. In that era the invention of microcomputers led to the
increased interest in integrating this technology into language education, “and much
software was produced, but without a unified theory supporting its structure and
content” (Levy, 1997, p. 22).The role of the teacher was crucial in this age of
technology, as material developers, and users; and teachers’ autonomous use of
technology was one of the main reasons for integration of technology into classroom
66
practices. Jones (1986) stresses the importance of teachers’ role in this way it is not so
much the program, more what the teacher do with it. Another important use of
technology in language teaching was emerged with the development of word
processor (Wresch, 1984). Despite the fact that in 1980s microcomputers were
quickly becoming the part of higher education worldwide and was incorporated in
ESL, in that era National Education Policies and Five Year Development Plans for
education in Pakistan did not include computer literacy (Irshad, 2008). It resulted in
delayed wide spread use of technology for facilitating language teaching and learning.
In 1990s the technological developments in “the Internet has produced another
leap forward in terms of greater access to material, people, and learning
environments” (Levy, 1997, pp. 31,32) and a further breakthrough was made in 1992
with the World Wide Web (WWW). Internet is continually evolving and it allows
passing great quantity and quality of digital information to pass and also integration of
multiple media that enables language teachers to incorporate diverse applications of
technology. This Internet technology was proved to be important vehicle for
developing learner autonomy through activities which enable students to study
without getting help from teachers (Joshi, 2012). Considering this global popularity
and use of technology in education, the Government of Pakistan paid attention to the
importance of computer in education sector by introducing some ground-breaking
steps in National Education Policy 1992. The use of computer technology across
subject areas including ESL in educational institutions was accentuated in the
following words:
Computer literacy and computer education will be emphasized and a part of
curricula at all levels. All training programmes of teachers, and education
administrators will include computer education as a compulsory component.
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Computer-aided instruction will be used as an important tool to enrich the
teaching-learning process. (National Education Policy, 1992, p.67)
This policy, unlike the previous polices conceptualized the technology aided
education and framed the scenario for technological development of educational
institutions. Therefore, the educational institutions across the country were equipped
with computer centres, internet connections; moreover, the vocational institutes
included computer literacy training programmes for teachers and administrators.
Irshad (2008) describes the strategic importance of this policy:
It announced the introduction of computer education from primary level to the
degree level and also in the vocational colleges that lead to the indirect
learning of ESL through computers for the reason that the medium of
instruction and available literature for teaching computer is primarily in
English in Pakistan. Consequently, the educational institutions were equipped
with the computer laboratories that gradually allowed the ESL learners at all
levels at least to be acquainted with the technology and computer as mode for
learning since inception of computer laboratories was without qualified
teachers. However, the scenario changed progressively when university
graduates in computer science were employed in educational institutions.
Later this was proved to be an important step in the development of computer
technology to facilitate ESL pedagogy in public and private educational
institutions. (pp. 44-45).
From late 1990s and the start of new millennium saw a boom in technological
advancement due to extraordinary developments in internet and gradual evolution in
multimedia technology. Warschauer (2004) refers this phase of technology as
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integrative phase as through multimedia technology users can access a variety of
media for example text graphics, sound, animation and video, on a single computer
that was introduced in TICCIT. But these modern multimedia resources allowed
teachers to create programmes integrating multiple media in one courseware: which is
called as hypermedia. This enabled language learners to navigate their path simply by
pointing and clicking the mouse. The internet introduced Computer Mediated
Communication (CMC), which opened new dimensions for pedagogues and
administrators. This period of technological evolutions with its incessant intervention
in language pedagogy, determined new paths for language teaching in Pakistan too.
Throughout these developmental phases of technology “theories of language and
language learning have influenced the way in which the current technology has been
used, while technology has also had an impact on the theory underlying the
pedagogical techniques employed” (Littlemore & Oakey, 2004, p. 95).
The National Education Policy 1998-2010 offered pedestal for implementation
of locally developed technology programs to suit the needs of ESL pedagogy in the
country. Kronstadt (2004) illustrates that in Pakistan “in July 2004 government
agreements were announced with private companies for providing computer
education at all of the country’s public schools” (p.3).
2.3.1 Technological Determinism and ESL Pedagogy
Underpinning the theory of technological determinism in language pedagogy,
Warschauer (2004), has described ten recent and future technological developments
that will take place. Some of them are already taking place in this age of technology,
and he discussed the five types of changes these developments may enable in the field
of language pedagogy. These developments in technology provide more opportunities
for the teachers to use technology in ESL teaching practices. According to
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Warschauer (2004), firstly, technology has influenced the context in which English is
taught due to its increased use on media around the world. The growth of media has
increased the number of English speakers on the globe. Under such influence, he
predicts, in future there will be no distinction between native English speaker, ESL
speaker, and EFL. English teachers involved in CALL in the developed world
commonly stated:
A computer is just a tool; it is not an end in itself but a means for learning English.
Yet recently one EFL teacher in Egypt noted English is not an end in itself; it’s
just a tool for being able to use computers and get information on the Internet.
(Warschauer, 2004, p. 8).
Secondly, this scenario has given rise to new ‘literacies’ (see discussion in
Warschauer, 1999, 2003). Previously, the reader used to make an attempt to
understand the meaning of a single author; conversely, today reading has become an
attempt to interpret information and create knowledge from a variety of on-line
sources. According to him, on-line research demands a lot of critical decision making
even on the first step that is only reading. In such context, he speculates, in the online
future, virtually all literacy will necessitate critical judgment, where only a few
decades ago critical literacy was presented as a special category of language
education. Thirdly, the new genres like web page development and e-mail writing
skills will be focused instead of traditional essay writing. Fourthly, the increased
importance of online communication is also contributing to new identities. For
example, people create web pages with new identities or even at times fake or false.
Fifthly, the development of technology and CALL has given rise to new pedagogies.
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Table 2.2: The Three Stages of CALL
Stage
1970s-1980s:
Structural CALL
1980s-1990s:
Communicative
CALL
21st Century:
Integrative CALL
Technology Mainframe PCs Multimedia and
Internet
English-Teaching
Paradigm
Grammar-
Translation &
Audio-
Lingual
Communicate
Language Teaching
Content-Based,
ESP/EAP
View of Language
Structural
(a formal structural
system)
Cognitive
(a mentally
constructed
system)
Socio-cognitive
(developed in
social
interaction)
Principal Use of
Computers
Drill and Practice Communicative
Exercises
Authentic
Discourse
Principal Objective Accuracy Fluency Agency
Source: Based on Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer,
2000a, as cited in
The development in technology with reference to language teaching, in the earlier
work of Warschauer (2001), has been described as a shift from structural to
communicative and finally to integrative phase of CALL (see Table 2.2). He claims
that each phase focuses on principal teaching objectives of that particular
contemporary pedagogical practice: accuracy, fluency and agency respectively. The
concept of agency is in focus as a principal teaching objective in contemporary ESL
feminist pedagogical practices, in which technology tied use of language determines
power relationships of ESL teachers and learners’ world.
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2.3.2 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Use of Technology
Use of technology inherent language learning gains in autonomous or
individualized or bidirectional pedagogical scenario. So far, the specialized literature
on the use of technology for English as second language teaching is replete with
examples of positive learning outcomes (see for example Warschauer, 2000; Blin,
2005; Irshad, 2008, 2011). The incentive of language learning gains is the first and
foremost reason which compels the teacher to integrate technology in their everyday
teaching plans.
Table 2.3: Summarized from Lee (2000)
Contribution to Learning Learner Autonomy potential of
technology
Experiential learning Learn from a huge amount of human
experience by browsing WWW.
Motivation Learn from multiple media and variety of
activities on-line.
Enhance student achievement Learn from self –instruction and self-
confidence through specific CALL
programmes
Authentic material for study Learning from a variety of e-reading
material is accessible 24 hours.
Greater interaction Learn by interacting via email, and social
networking cites.
Individualization Learn by working on one’s own pace on
word processor etc.
Independence from single source of
learning
Learn through wider on-line access
beyond classroom
Global understanding Learn by becoming a part of the global
village via internet.
The Table 2.3 above shows Lee’s (2000) elucidation of learning gains by
using technology. Though, she does not address learner autonomy as an outcome of
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language learning, yet I argue that the descriptive potentiality of technology implies
it. The ESL tertiary level teachers own encounter with the technology gives the
realization of its potential; secondly, today the learners are familiar to this
technology and use it both inside and outside the classroom. Hence, ESL learner
extrinsic motivation for the use of computer can be conditioned to obtain enhanced
language learning gains. To Lee instruction techniques with the use of computers
help ESL learner reinforce linguistic skills and positively affect learning attitude
and grant learner autonomy. The Internet allows the ESL learners to use various
resources of authentic reading materials that can be accessed 24 hours a day at a
relatively low cost inside and outside the class. Substantiating this Lee (2000) has
found:
In a world where the use of the Internet becomes more and more
widespread, an English Language teacher’s duty is to facilitate students’
access to the web and make them feel citizens of a global classroom,
practicing communication on a global level. (n.p.)
But, doing so requires Pakistani tertiary level teachers to be competent enough, in
the use of technology, so as to incorporate it in her everyday pedagogical practices
effectively.
2.3.3 ESL Teachers’ Competence in Technology
Competence in the use of technology for pedagogical practices commonly
refers to computer literacy or computer proficiency; this competence in the context of
my study, means the effective use of computers, internet, and other digital
technological resources like cell phone for teaching English. In the specialized
literature, on the use of technology for the pedagogical process, the term computer
proficiency and computer competence is used to refer to the use of technology for
73
academic purposes. Computer competency entails the “basic knowledge of how to
operate a computer and what the computer can do, familiarity with some computer
terminology and some knowledge of dealing with commonly encountered problems”
(Lee, 2001, p. 4). Moreover, computer competence is not limited to teachers’
computer knowledge but also “the skills and experience necessary for putting them
into use”.
The researchers have commonly found competence in the use of technology
imperative for the adult education especially the necessary computer knowledge and
skills so as to be able to teach their classes with computers (Levy, 1997; Haider,
2013) supports this idea by stating that teachers “who have more experience in
teaching and in technology use, especially in practice, are more likely to integrate
technology in their classrooms” (p.113). According to these ideas, it can be concluded
that computer competent and experienced teachers are better implementers of
computers in their lessons. Hertz (1987, 183; as cited in Levy, 1997) defines four
levels of computer competence for language teachers. These levels are as follows:
Level 1: the computer using teacher
Level 2: the non-programming author of courseware content
Level 3: the user of authoring systems;
Level 4: the teacher as programmer. (p. 106).
Level 1 includes teachers who have basic computer skills and can use computers in
their lessons. At the second level, teachers can use CALL materials, but they cannot
create their own programs. At the third level, teachers can use authoring systems and
can make their own materials. The last level involves teachers who can program their
own materials easily. Lee (2001) also describes a number of features for teachers’
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effective use of software and the first property is teachers’ having “a certain level of
computer competency in the use of computers” (p. 4). Additionally, investigating the
reasons of teachers’ reluctance to use technology in their lessons, Lam (2000) found
two of the reasons related to their computer competence. One of them was the lack of
knowledge about teaching L2 with computers and the other one was lack of
confidence in computers skills. In the light of these, to be a competent teacher is
really important so; most of the researchers indicated the training need of teachers
who lack computer competence before using computers in their lessons successfully
(Lee, 2001). In other studies it was concluded that computer competence and use of
computers are related with each other (Haider, 2013). These studies also conclude that
teachers having moderate competence level have also positive attitudes towards
information technology. In this continuously developing technology age, teachers’
using computers effectively has great importance. Duffy, McDonald & Mizell (2005)
underline this importance by stating that “using a computer will become as essential
as reading” (p. 400) and they additionally indicate that teachers will try to improve
their computer competence level in order to use the new technology in a proper and
effective way.
Haider (2013) in a descriptive research study, conducted with ten ESL
Pakistani teachers working at different Intermediate Colleges and using computers in
their lessons, have found teachers’ level of computer competence varies between little
and moderate. He has also found that the teachers
...have no or little competence in handling some computer functions such as
installing a new software, operating a presentation program, solving simple
problems in operating computers, selecting, evaluating and using an
educational software, teaching their students with CALL materials and
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creating or developing and maintaining their own CALL materials. (Haider,
2013, p.231)
Training teachers in the use of technology is a way to combat the problems of
conventional system of ESL education i.e. the large number of students and little
material resources to educate them all (Hubbard & Levy 2006; Jung 2001; Park &
Son 2009; Irshad, 2008; 2015). In this context, Hubbard and Levy (2006) argue
Along with the growing influence of technology in language teaching and
learning, there has been parallel growth in the development of course work to
prepare language teachers to use the technology. Such preparation ranges from
reading a single chapter within a comprehensive methodology textbook...or
participating in a one-time in-service workshop, through dedicated courses and
seminars, CALL course series, CALL certificates, and even CALL graduate
degrees. (p.15)
Training of the teachers can be based on one-to-one or small group tutoring so that
teachers can practice computer literacy skills and can be competent in CALL in their
own contexts (Park & Son, 2009). In addition, such courses should allow teachers to
connect their knowledge and skills for use of technology with actual classroom
teaching practices. In Pakistani higher education context some steps are proved to be
ground breaking in teacher technology education, nonetheless, such efforts are
limited.
2.3.3.1 Limitations of CALL Subcommittee
Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan has taken an important
initiative by establishing a CALL subcommittee, realizing the need to promote
modern instructional technology for ESL pedagogy in Pakistan. According to Rana
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(n.d.), the CALL subcommittee has been working with national and international
experts to promote integration of technology in ESL pedagogy with the aim to
provide training courses and workshops to the computer literate and illiterate teachers,
so that computer technology may be adopted to facilitate ESL pedagogy. CALL
subcommittee, as per its plan has established Self Access Centres (SAC) in four
universities with computers and internet facilities in model Departments/Centres in
higher education institutions. In addition, it is conducting on-line English teachers’
training courses; and an access to distance/on-line ESL teaching-learning and testing
via authentic language learning websites (Rana, n.d.). However, the aims and targets
set by CALL subcommittee are not accomplished as per the planned time line even
after a decade of establishment, though, for such grand tasks this period is not long.
Still, the importance of HEC CALL subcommittee cannot be denied, as it is indeed a
first formal plunge into the pool of instructional technology for higher education. In
Pakistan, Rana (2006) finds there
…is a common perception about computer technology in educational
institutions in Pakistan. Computer technology is primarily connected with the
computer science departments. Rather than considering it as an educational
tool to be used throughout the system, it is delegated its place in the science. It
is generally not utilized as a tool in the humanities and social sciences. (p.
102)
In such context, it seems illusory to expect the effective use of technology in ESL
higher education and that too by women ESL teachers to gain autonomy and grant
autonomy to their students. However, some documented researches have addressed
this issue at a preliminary level (for example, Rana, 2006). In this qualitative research
with five participants, both ESL teachers and learners, from higher education
77
institution Rana finds a positive impact of technology on these women. However, she
finds lack of computer and internet facilities a hindrance to higher education. I will
address this obstacle as a barrier to gain ESL teaching learning autonomy. The study
of the literature reveals that a few serious efforts have been made for promoting use of
technology in Pakistani tertiary level ESL teaching-learning from Audio-lingual
Method to CAI/CALL. The steps taken by the government strengthen the fact that the
use of technology is an important field in ESL pedagogy and research in Pakistan.
Moreover, the information and communication technologies, and facilities for
instructional technologies have entered a phase of progress to the extent to be
integrated in the ESL pedagogy for optimal learning gains through development of
learner autonomy.
2.4 Learner Autonomy in English as Second Language Pedagogy: A
Historical Perspective
A critical review of related literature on learner autonomy in ESL/EFL leads to
the conclusion that defining learner autonomy is both simple and complex. It is simple
as the very term learner autonomy is self-explanatory, i.e. a learner learning at his
own pace and is making decisions for his own progress. However, the abundant work
on theory and philosophy of learner autonomy provides diverse explanations making
it a complex pedagogical phenomenon.
The practice, theory and philosophy of learner autonomy has been researched,
explored and implemented in the spheres of pedagogy (and this history is documented
in detail in Gremmo & Riley 1995; Little 1991; Benson 2011; Holec 2008;Benson,
2007a). This study aims to address the studies carried out particularly in language
pedagogy, which can assist me to address the population of my study- the Pakistani
female ESL tertiary level teachers, in the past four decades. Nevertheless, the interest
78
in learner autonomy like any other humanistic theory has its roots in social, cultural,
political, philosophical and psychological domain. The world political shift and
economic growth that resulted from industrialization brought the concept of social
progress; therein man is identified as an individual important entity (Holec, 1981).
This ideological shift gave birth to the concept of independent and free individuals in
socio-cultural and socio-political sectors. The responsibility to train, groom and
nurture thirst for independence and freedom ultimately lies with education sector.
Whereby, the purpose of education is modified, from producing literate individuals to
responsible autonomous individuals.
Benson (2007a) reports that the concept of learner autonomy in language
learning has its origin in the Council of Europe’s Modern Languages Project formed
in 1971, which led to the publication of Holec’s (1981) influential report, in which he
defines autonomy as ‘the ability to take charge of one’s own learning’ (p. 3). The
initial focus was on self-directed learning and self-access centres due to the wide
spread influence of technological revolutions. Holec (1981) has described autonomy
as an attribute of the learner, the term was also used to describe learning situations, as
Dickinson (1987) describes autonomy as ‘the situation in which the learner is totally
responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his learning and the
implementation of those decisions’ (p.11). The other revolutionary concepts
associated with it included: learner-centred classroom, rejection of traditional
pedagogical practices and ‘a radical restructuring of language pedagogy’ (Allwright,
1988, p. 35).
The second wave of interest in autonomy, according to Benson (2007a), in
1990s included some important theoretical implications. Some studies, of that decade,
included the concept of independence, for example, Dickinson (1992) elucidated
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learners’ cognitive and behavioural independence in the classroom, while Dam (1995)
reflected on the principles of autonomy and their possible integration into secondary
school classrooms without self-access or formal learner training. The concept of
independent learning is of interest and value in many studies. However, it was often
criticized for being too ambitious and utopian. It often connotes teachers’ presence in
the class as a passive teacher. The studies in this decade also included the theme of
interdependence instead of independence (Little, 1991); and that the learner autonomy
did not imply any particular mode of practice, but was instead dependent upon the
quality of the ‘pedagogical dialogue’ between teachers and learners (Little, 1995).
The third context of growing interest in the development of learner autonomy is in the
...deconstruction of conventional language learning classrooms and courses in
many parts of the world” and “the tendency has been towards a blurring of the
distinction between ‘classroom’ and ‘out-of-class’ applications, leading to new
and often complex understandings of the role of autonomy in language
teaching and learning. (Benson, 2007a, p. 22)
This brief discussion on learner autonomy brings forth numerous concepts and
theories underlying the philosophy of learner autonomy. However, my conception of
learner autonomy is limited. It is based on ESL tertiary level context of feminist
pedagogues.
2.4.1 Defining Learner Autonomy
As discussed earlier, learner autonomy is difficult and often complex to define
(Little & Dam, 1998; Little, 2002; Finch, 2002; Blin, 2008) owing to the diverse and
multiple interpretations of the term. Oxford (2003) elucidates that this complexity has
diminished the importance of learner autonomy for the language teachers. Therefore,
it becomes difficult for teachers to implement it in pedagogical process (Reinders,
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2010). However, the real scenario does not support this view, whereby teachers,
researchers and pedagogues are often found exploring and implementing learner
autonomy in classroom. Therefore, the present part of the dissertation will embark on
the specialized literature to simplify the complexity of learner autonomy by
elaborating on what learner autonomy is not.
The complexity of the philosophies, associated with theory and practice of
learner autonomy, are inherent in the misinterpretations and misconceptions pointed
out by practitioners and researchers (Little, 1990). These misinterpretations are
generated owing to the abundant and diverse definitions and explanations of learner
autonomy. The five false perceptions highlighted by Little (1990) are presented in
Figure 2.1 and are elaborated here:
Firstly, autonomy is not synonymous to ‘self-instruction’; thus, an
autonomous learner needs a teacher as an instructor. Benson & Voller (1997) concede
to this point and note that research provides little evidence about those self-
instructional modes of learning to lead to greater autonomy or independence.
Secondly, in the pedagogical practice autonomy is not ‘abdication of responsibility on
the part of the teacher’. It is a reciprocal process that involves both ‘letting go’ and
‘taking hold’ (Little & Dam, 1998). It involves intrapersonal initiation and
interpersonal collaboration. Thus, a learner in an autonomous learning environment is
not left unattended to pursue learning in a manner that best suits an individual.
Thirdly, autonomous learning-teaching scenario does not entail a teaching method.
Fourthly, autonomy is not a ‘single observable behaviour’ that is expected to be
observed during or at the end of some treatment period, rather it entails number of
observable and unobservable behaviours that lead to make a learner autonomous.
Fifthly, ‘autonomy is not a steady state achieved by learners’. Lastly, according to
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Crabbe (1993) autonomy is not a radical alternative to classroom-based learning. It
actually ensures the quality of learning that can be prompted through cognition via
classroom teaching-learning practices.
Figure 2.1: Five Nots to learner Autonomy Summarized from Little (1990)
The above detailed negatives undoubtedly cater to better conceptualize and
theorize the phenomenon of learner autonomy in general. This generalization would
enable to put forward the practice of development of learner autonomy in English as a
Second Language pedagogy underpinning the theoretical and epistemological
assumptions from the principles of learner autonomy. This leads to the subsequent
query: what learner autonomy is.
What Learner Autonomy is
The critical appraisal of the related literature brings to term with the following
defining traits of learner autonomy in psychology and second language teaching:
willingness to learn, ability to make decisions, capacity to take responsibility of one’s
own learning and a skill to critically evaluate one’s own progress. These defining
abdication of teachers' role
a single observable behaviour
a steady state a learner achieves
a teaching method
Self-instruction Learner
Autonomy is
not
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terms have long been adding complexity to the theoretical models of learner
autonomy, where some practitioners have replaced ability with capacity (for example,
Little, 1990) and some have replaced ‘take responsibility’ with ‘take control’ (for
example, Dam, 1995), while Little (1996) defines it as an ability to be detached, that
is learning independently without a teacher. Wenden (1991) defines it as an ability of
knowing how to learn. Contrarily, Littlewood (1995) stresses that ‘willingness to
learn’ is the definition of learner autonomy believing that nothing can be achieved if
the learner does not have desire to learn. In other words the learner has to be
intrinsically motivated8, that is learner must have a strong instinctive urge9 to pursue
the learning process. The above definition also includes ‘skill to evaluate one’s own
progress’ to elaborate that an autonomous learner achieves a degree of proficiency in
controlling his learning process. Not only this, autonomy enables learner to evaluate
his own learning achievements or failures, without which the learning endeavor
becomes stagnant.
Learner autonomy, in other words, is a stage in learning process that a learner
gains by becoming totally capable of and responsible for taking decisions for his own
learning and implementing those decisions in his learning endeavour (Dickenson,
1991). So I conceive it as women teachers’ freedom, in terms of choice of method,
medium, and even curriculum of ESL tertiary level course. Littlewood (1995) further
defines the core notion of autonomy as the learners’ ability and willingness to make
choices independently. However, the classic definition by Holec (1981) is the starting
point of the most of the research projects in the domain of learner autonomy (Benson,
2009; Dang, 2010), so does in the present research. Moreover, learner autonomy is
described further as the active participation of students in learning process (Benson,
8 the motivation that arises from within 9 a natural desire to do something
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2007a).This discussion leads to one fact that learner autonomy is a subject of growing
interest in education and is on the way of development. To give a holistic
phenomenology, Sinclair (2000) gives the following thirteen defining constructs of
autonomy:
1. Autonomy is a construct of capacity.
2. Autonomy involves a willingness on the part of the learner to take
responsibility for their own learning.
3. The capacity and willingness of learners to take such responsibility is not
necessarily innate.
4. Complete autonomy is an idealistic goal.
5. There are degrees of autonomy.
6. The degrees of autonomy are unstable and variable.
7. Autonomy is not simply a matter of placing learners in situations where they
have to be independent.
8. Developing autonomy requires conscious awareness of the learning process –
i.e. conscious reflection and decision-making.
9. Promoting autonomy is not simply a matter of teaching strategies.
10. Autonomy can take place both inside and outside the classroom.
11. Autonomy has a social as well as an individual dimension.
12. The promotion of autonomy has a political as well as psychological
dimension.
13. Autonomy is interpreted differently by different cultures.
However, even with this much research the notion of complexity and
versatility of learner autonomy cannot be dismissed (Smith and Ushioda, 2009). So
far, the discussion leads to a point: being a multi-disciplinary constituent, the
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definition or description of learner autonomy seems far from obvious to be agreed
upon. These differences are reflected in the realm of five different domains:
Philosophical, political, socio-cultural, and technical or educational (Benson, 1997,
2001, 2006; Dang, 2010; Healy, 2007; Oxford, 2003; Sinclair, 2000). The
philosophical perspective defines autonomy as independence of learner; psychological
perspective values the personal attributes of the learners; the technical perspective
values the factors contributing to favourable learning environment; the socio-cultural
perspective relies on the interaction patterns between learners and their environment,
and interaction with other members of the group; and the political perspective focuses
on learner’s control, power, independence and ideology as an autonomous member of
the community.
To date, the literature on learner autonomy is rich with such diverse
definitions that it is considered as ‘orthodoxy’ 10 of language education. These
complexities are inherent in the misconceptions around the very concept of learner
autonomy (Little 1991). Describing this point, Benson (2009) argues that one of the
misconceptions identified by Little (1991) continues to haunt the realm of learner
autonomy in education. The notion that ‘autonomy is synonymous to self-instruction’
is still a widely held belief of the researchers and teachers working on autonomy.
They consider if a teacher intervenes in the process of acquisition of knowledge it is
‘detrimental to autonomy’.
In the domain of philosophy, autonomy is linked closely to independence,
whereby an individual is expected to be capable of acting as a responsible ‘member of
society’. In the domain of education, autonomy and independence are coupled in
forming the ‘individual as the core of a democratic society’ (Benson & Voller, 1997).
10 “an idea that learners and teachers ignore at their peril” (Benson, 2009)
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In this connection, it is evident that concept of autonomy in society caters to a socio-
political concept, where an individual is expected to have a responsible outlook to
make decisions to operate in harmony with social, political and philosophical
concepts of the community. According to the widely held belief of psychologists,
learning takes place by assimilating new set of knowledge into the existing and
already gained knowledge. Little (1990) puts forward it further by describing the most
efficient learner as the one who is capable of assimilation, which indicates that the
learner has achieved a degree of psychological autonomy.
However, the argument of Benson and Voller (1997) that the political
autonomy- that is to take independent decision- is a ‘right not capacity’ and does not
depend on an individual being responsible. This stance gives yet another direction to
the concept of political autonomy. This political autonomy is ultimately associated
with the autonomy gained in the educational institutions, where the core purpose of
education is to develop responsible independent individuals who can take decisions
for the welfare of their society in general and for themselves in particular. This
concept of individual capacity to develop autonomy has psychological implications
too. Moreover, the individuals’ reflection on his surrounding depicts him as a
responsible, accountable, moral and unselfish citizen in democratic society (Blin,
2008). The individual, who can take responsible decisions and can critically reflect on
the society, thus undoubtedly, has achieved a degree of social and political autonomy.
I perceive that this discussion gives forth the idea: learner being an individual
learns not only through cognition, but also reflection. Cognition falls in the domain of
psychology where an individual constructs the meanings for herself by assimilation.
Latter demands the learner to construct knowledge by interacting with philosophies of
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society inherent in its culture and politics. This philosophy of learner autonomy is
widely studied in the domain of education.
2.4.2 Development of Autonomy through Education
The above discussion emphasizes the implications of the concept of learner
autonomy in education, precisely formal education. In classroom learning pattern
there is twofold interaction: the psychological interaction, that is in the mind of the
learner between new and existing knowledge; and social interaction that is how the
new knowledge is mediated and learner explores new meanings and directions of the
existing knowledge (Little, 1990). The pedagogical practices, including teaching
methods and learner adopted learning strategies promote autonomous learning in
psychological domain.
In politics, the concept of learner autonomy is linked to the idea of making
responsible and free individuals who can operate effectively in the society.
Substantiating this view, Benson (2007a) demarcates this concept of individuals in a
society prevalent today according to European and North American political
philosophy. In my study, I focus on the women teaching and learning autonomy that if
practiced for ESL educational gains may empower women, as this is the one of the
aims of education too. This in turn makes a society politically stable with self-directed
and responsible citizens.
2.4.3 Development of Learner Autonomy in Second Language Teaching
In order to understand the concept of learner autonomy in the domain of
second language teaching it is imperative to understand what an autonomous language
learner achieves. According to Holec (1981) ‘the autonomous language learner takes
responsibility for the totality of his learning situation.’ Holec (1981) further defines
that an autonomous language learner
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determines his own objectives
defines the contents to be learned
decides the track of the progression of the course
selects methods and techniques to be used
monitors the procedure of learning
evaluates what he has acquired
This pioneering holistic theoretical concept by Holec (1981) is the foundation
for all research and practice in the field of second language teaching-learning for the
development of learner autonomy. Thus, beginning with this Holecian ideology the
present research brings to limelight the theories of learner autonomy in second
language learning context. According to Holec (1981) objectives of second language
acquisition are ‘specific to the learner’. Though the learner in the classroom situation
is bound to follow the specific objectives which a teacher presents through a language
paradigm, an autonomous learning situation is flexible enough to entertain learner
specific objectives. Holecian concept entails that the learning objectives are of
learner’s choice and are applicable to ‘internal and external constraints’. The learner
follows her progress in learning the language on the directions decided by
achievement of her ‘set objectives’. This concept of autonomous learning then
requires learner to determine and redefine knowledge from “an objective universal to
a subjective individual knowledge” determined by the learner (Holec, 1981). The
above mentioned, six Holecian steps of determining learner autonomy characterize
self-directed learners. In this context, Benson (2011) presents learner autonomy as
“capacity to take charge of one’s own learning” and a “natural product of the practice
of self-directed learning” or in other words a learning situation where the learner
determines her learning objectives and evaluates her own progress.
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On this language pedagogical context, Holec (1981) notes that the learner’s
communicative needs determine the verbal elements chosen. Learning, thus, proceeds
from ideas to correct grammatical, lexical, and phonological form. The self-directed
learner chooses the methods of instruction through trial-and-error. The development
of autonomy in language learning is governed by three basic pedagogical principles:
learner involvement, learner reflection and appropriate target language use (Little,
2006; Najeeb, 2012). Here learner involvement entails engaging learners to share
responsibility for the learning process. In other words, it is learning on the affective
and the meta-cognitive dimensions. For Benson (2011), meta-cognitive knowledge is
required to organise and manage the language learning process which is largely meta-
linguistic in nature.
Learner reflection refers to helping learners to think critically when they plan,
monitor and evaluate their learning. This reflection of learner into second language
learning deals with the meta-cognitive dimensions. According to Benson (2011),
reflection is an important component of autonomous learning at a number of levels.
He elaborates:
It may even be legitimate to state that the autonomous learner is essentially
one who is capable of reflection at appropriate moments in the learning
process and of acting upon the results. (Benson, 2011, p.95)
Elucidating the development of learner autonomy in second language learning,
Benson (2011) identifies that reflection can take three different forms: reflection on
the target language, on the learning process itself, and finally, “on learning habits or
ways of thinking about learning that are inimical to autonomy” (p.94). Appropriate
target language use establishes the concept of using the target language as the
principal medium of language learning, which works on the communicative and the
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meta-cognitive dimensions. These three basic pedagogical principles are drawn upon
Holec (1981), Allwright (1990) and Little (1991) who theorize learners as those who
are able to reflect on their own learning through knowledge about learning and who
are willing to learn in collaboration with others. The learners, in this way, understand
the purpose of their learning programme, explicitly accept responsibility for their
learning, share in the setting of learning goals, take initiatives in planning and
executing learning activities, and regularly review their learning and evaluate its
effectiveness. In other words, there is a consensus that the practice of learner
autonomy requires insight, a positive attitude, a capacity for reflection, and a
readiness to be proactive in self-management and in interaction with others (Dang,
2010). Nonetheless, the teacher is central to the dialogue on the development of
learning, therefore, the present thesis addresses the role of the teacher in the
development of learner autonomy.
2.4.4 Development of ESL Learner Autonomy in Pakistani Social Landscape
The context of my thesis is to study the development of ESL learner autonomy
in Pakistani social context; especially the context of women in higher education.
Therefore, it is imperative to critically review the literature from this angle.
Nevertheless, the studies conducted globally on this subject provide an insight from
diverse philosophies which help me to conceptualize this phenomenon in my study
context. The following narrative is therefore selective to pinpoint the themes and
concepts relevant to my dissertation. Pakistan is a developing country; therefore, the
education sector is not very much strong. However, the women who reach the higher
education as learners and teachers find better opportunities of education to exercise
autonomy. One reason for it is the part of curriculum of higher education for example,
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Applied Linguistics, TEFL Degree course. Secondly, the path of obtaining tertiary
level education itself is a professional development of a learner or teacher.
On the other hand, the debate which is in focus in this context is on the
autonomy being Western or global. It is often argued that the concept of autonomy is
Western and is inapplicable or inappropriate in non-western context, for example,
Sonaiya (2002) has found it in her study in the African context. To take this concept
further, Holliday (2003; 2005), for example, discusses the idea of autonomy as central
to dominant ELT discourses which counter pose the active Western student to the
passive non-Western ‘Other’. This concept of autonomy is not very well supported in
theory and practice. Debating on this Benson (2007a) argues that this conception of
autonomy and its critique is “somewhat vaguely formulated and inadequately
motivated in both theoretical and empirical terms” (p. 25). However, development of
learner autonomy depends on the teacher, or the way Little (1995) puts it, “the
development of autonomy in learners presupposes the development of autonomy in
teacher” (p. 175).
2.4.5 Teacher Autonomy in ESL Classroom
The philosophy of teacher autonomy in ESL teaching or ELT is not old. It
can be spotted at first in language teaching studies in Allwright (1990) and further
developed by Little (1995) where she linked it to ‘teacher education’ and ‘a
pedagogical dialogue’. In such context, teacher autonomy has come to be regarded as
inevitable for the development of learner autonomy (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1995;
Benson, 2011a; Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012). Nonetheless, teacher autonomy is not only
a significant but also a problematic concept that has emerged in the field of
development of learner autonomy. A detailed critical review of literature on teacher
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autonomy is presented by Benson (2007 a), which identifies the diversification of the
factors contributing to it and thus states:
Teacher autonomy appears to be understood somewhat differently in language
teaching and broader educational contexts, where it primarily refers to
teachers’ freedom to exercise discretion in curriculum implementation. In the
language teaching literature, there is a much greater emphasis on teacher
autonomy as a professional attribute and the link between teacher autonomy
and learner autonomy. Early work on autonomy discussed changing teacher
roles in new modes of practice. ( p. 30)
This Bensonian idea of teacher autonomy encompasses three domains: teachers’
freedom in curriculum implementation, a professional attribute, and changing teacher
roles. These three ideas support my hypothesis of this study in that teacher autonomy
is a professional attribute means it is inculcated through teacher education
programmes. In such a context, Benson notes that much of the specialized literature
on the development of learner autonomy through teacher autonomy involves a
capacity for self-directed professional development (Thavenius 1999; McGrath 2000;
Smith 2001, 2003; Aoki 2002). In this relation researchers and experts on teacher
autonomy has dismissed the idea of teachers willingness or capacity, thus, puts it in a
way where teachers have both the capacity and willingness and the only next step is
availing opportunities to exercise this autonomy construct in their ESL or ELT
pedagogical practices. Secondly, teacher autonomy demands changing teachers’ roles
as mediator between administration and learners. Benson (2000) argued that for
fostering learner autonomy a teacher should have a self-critical approach to the ways
to mediate the constraints in the classroom, this mediation is crucial to teacher
autonomy. Teachers make many attempts to foster autonomy in the classroom but
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these attempts are typically constrained by factors that are only variably subject to
their control (Benson 2000). However, an idea of teacher autonomy that is related
more to classroom contexts is addressed in Little (1995), as she explains in her article
the idea of development of learner autonomy through pedagogical dialogues in which
teachers exercise their own autonomy. This philosophy is one of the grounded
philosophies of my research on women teachers’ autonomy in Pakistani socio-
educational set up and is elaborated in detail in the next chapter.
Thirdly, teachers in higher educational institution exercise freedom when they
implement the curriculum. Benson (2007a) notes that in the literature of present
millennium a lot of attention has been paid to ‘teacher freedom as a component of
teacher autonomy’ (p. 31), where freedom is considered as an outcome of self-
directed professional development. It also defines teachers’ willingness to influence
the processes of institutional change with respect to curriculum and strategies
(Barfield et al, 2002; Mackenzie 2002). To elaborate on this concept Barfield et al.
(2002) defines teacher autonomy thus:
Characterized by recognition that teaching is always contextually situated,
teacher autonomy is a continual process of inquiry into how teaching can best
promote autonomous learning for learners. It involves understanding and
making explicit the different constraints that a teacher may face, so that
teachers can work collaboratively towards confronting constraints and
transforming them into opportunities for change. (Barfield et al., 2002, p. 218)
This shift in the concept of autonomy, from the classroom contexts to the broader
institutional context, has raised many complicated issues. Nonetheless, sharing the
ideas of Barfield et al. on the dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy,
McGrath (2000) describes that the first step to be an autonomous teacher is “an
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evaluative stance towards elements of the teaching and learning context over which
she has a degree of control”(as cited in Benson, 2011a, p. 174). McGrath (2000) notes
a union between the idea of teacher autonomy as ‘self-directed professional
development’ and ‘teacher research’, ‘reflective practice’, ‘action research’, and
‘teacher development’. The notion of teacher autonomy is not studied in isolation it
has always been the part of the literature on learner autonomy. Johnson (2006) refers
to a socio-cultural turn in second language teaching education, where he identifies the
need for such education to sustain ‘a teaching force of transformative intellectuals
who can navigate their professional worlds in ways that enable them to create
educationally sound, contextually appropriate, and socially equitable learning
opportunities for the students they teach (as cited in Benson, 2008 p. 31). This entails
a wider prospective scope for interaction between work on teacher autonomy and new
conceptions of teachers and teaching in the ESL pedagogy globally.
To sum up, I will summarize Smith’s (2001) categorization of three different
dimensions to teacher autonomy: a capacity for self-directed professional action; a
capacity for self-directed professional development; and freedom from control of
others in the professional action and development. These dimensions guide the field
of ESL teaching for the development of learner autonomy in Pakistani institutions of
higher education. Thus, I hypothesize that female teachers avail the opportunities to
act, develop and control to bring optimal language learning gains for the tertiary level
learners.
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2.4.6 The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy
I believe that all truly effective learning entails the growth of autonomy in the
learner as regards both the process and the content of learning; but I also
believe that for most learners the growth of autonomy requires the stimulus,
insight and guidance of a good teacher. (Little, 2000, np)
In moving the focus from teaching to learning, and that too on the growth of
learner autonomy doesn’t mean that the teacher becomes obsolete or redundant.
Although, teachers’ roles for autonomous learners have received a lot of attention
recently, there is a dearth of research investigating how language teachers perceive
their roles in ESL pedagogical practices. Nevertheless, the role of the teacher in the
development of learner autonomy has been studied and discussed in diverse socio-
cultural backgrounds (see for example, Little, 1995, 1997; Voller, 1997; Nunan, 2003;
Chiu, 2005). Furthermore, the studies have also explored the role of the teacher to
show various conflicting demands on the teacher that result in role conflict (Braga,
1972). The critical appraisal of these studies shows that these researches have
addressed the role of the teacher on development or fostering learner autonomy from
various angles;
To start with, Gardener & Miller (1999) suggest that the introduction of
autonomy in language learning requires changes in the roles of both teachers and
learners. Nevertheless, it is the teacher who decides to develop learner autonomy in
language learning, therefore, the promotion of autonomy depends to a great extent on
teacher’s redefinition of her own role (Hill, 1994). All the same a re-examination of
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teacher roles is essential if the learners are to become more autonomous (Crabbe,
1999).
Voller (1997) discusses the role of the teacher as perceived in Barnes (1976).
Barnes (1976) describes the potential roles of the teacher on a continuum from
transmission at one end to interpretation at the other. According to him a teacher
transmits knowledge to learners and she is always ready to evaluate and correct the
performance of learners to make sure the knowledge is successfully transmitted;
contrarily, another teacher considered it important to help learners interpret
knowledge by themselves. Thus, such teachers who perform the roles in setting up
dialogues with learners and to help them reorganize their knowledge are following the
philosophy of autonomous learning. Voller (1997) builds his argument of the role of
the teachers on this distinction and emphasizes that teacher who works to foster
autonomous language learning is an interpretation teacher. This distinction also works
in my study, although, my context of discussion follows a social paradigm of teaching
in gender dichotomy. Voller (1997) reviews role of the teacher described in the other
authors and defines that the interpretation “teachers perform their role as helper
(Tough, 1971), facilitator (Knowles, 1975), knower (Curran, 1976), resource (Breen
& Candlin, 1980), consultant (Gremmo & Abe, 1985), counsellor (Knowles, 1986),
coordinator (Hammond & Collins, 1991), and adviser (Sturtridge, 1992)”. However,
he classifies these roles of the teacher into three categories: teacher as facilitator,
teacher as counsellor and teacher as resource. However, I argue that the role of the
teacher is not limited to these defined set of categories, it involves how the teacher
teaches and how teacher interacts with the learners, content of teaching and with the
administrative staff and aspects of teaching within an institution.
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Nevertheless, Voller’s (1997) identification of teacher as facilitator, is within
the scope of my study, therefore, the following discourse address his debate.
Facilitator is a term widely applied for the teacher who is working on the autonomy of
a learner. In my study, one of the traits of the teacher’s personality, which emerges in
a classroom for fostering autonomy, is that of a facilitator. In his attempt to
characterize the role of a facilitator, Voller uses Holec’s (1985) two complementary
roles of a teacher, a provider of technical support and a provider of psycho-social
support. On describing technical support provided by a facilitator, Voller (1997) adds:
firstly, to help learners in planning and to carry out language learning independently
by means of needs analysis, objective setting, work planning, selecting materials, and
organizing interactions; secondly, helping learners evaluate themselves; and thirdly,
helping learners to acquire the skills and knowledge needed to implement the above.
On the other hand, when a teacher provides a psycho-social support it is identified in
terms of: being caring, supportive, patient, empathic, open, non-judgemental;
secondly, motivating learners by encouraging commitment, helping learners to
overcome learning hurdles, preparing to enter into a conversation with peers; thirdly,
raising learners’ awareness by redefining the conceptions about learner and teacher
roles, helping them understand the necessity for developing independent learning
habits (Voller, 1997).
Voller (1997) describes teacher as counsellor in the discussions of autonomous
language learning although “little research has been done to determine exactly how
counsellors counsel” (p. 104). He argues that as a counsellor teacher is an adviser,
who works in more individualized learning contexts such as the staff in self-access
language learning centres; and that counselling implies a one-to-one interaction.
However, such description of a teacher puts her in a more supervisory role of a
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teacher whereas in autonomous learning class the learners are more self-directed.
However, Voller has adopted this term to equate his study on the language learners as
this term appeared for communicative language learning approach in the work of
Richards and Rodgers (1986) and community language learning in the work of
Curran (1976).
However, to Voller the role of the teacher as a counsellor is as it is studied by
Regent (1993). She compares the discourse of a teacher in a traditional French
conversation class with that of a counsellor in a self-directed learning centre by
selecting one extract from a traditional teacher and two extracts from the counsellor to
investigate how discourse influences the development of learner autonomy. After the
short survey of teacher and counsellor discourse, Regent jumps to a conclusion by
making a list of role categories that distinguish teaching from counselling. It is not
clear how she develops these categories from the three extracts. In her list, there are
19 categories in teaching and 20 categories in counselling (see Table 2.4). Chiu
(2005) criticises that some of the categories in Regent work do not pair well for
instance determining time, place, pace in teaching are not a counterpart of suggesting
materials in counselling.
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Table 2.4: Teacher as a Counsellor
Teaching Counselling
Setting objectives Eliciting information about aims, needs
and wishes
Determining course content Why, what for,
how, how long
Selecting materials Giving information,
clarifying
Determining time, place, pace Suggesting materials
Determining learning tasks Suggesting methodology
Determining use of L1/L2 Suggesting other sources
Managing class interaction, Listening,
responding
Managing class interaction, Listening,
responding
Initiating Helping self monitoring
Monitoring learning situation Interpreting information
Keeping records Giving feedback, reformulating
Suggesting organization procedures Suggesting organization procedures
Presenting vocabulary and grammar Presenting materials
Explaining Analyzing techniques
Answering questions Answering questions Answering queries
Marking, grading Suggesting self-assessment tools
Testing Giving feedback on self-assessment
Motivating Being positive
Rewarding, punishing Supporting
Counselling Putting into perspective
Source: Regent, O. (1993). Communication, strategy and language learning.
In the Table 2.4 above Regent (1993) indicates teachers as a knower of the
language whereas counsellors are experts on language learning, however, she
describes it is not necessary to master the language in order to be a good counsellor.
In her work, Regent has described a traditional teacher as motivating while counsellor
as positive, I perceive that a motivating teacher is positive and a motivating teacher
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can create autonomous learners because teacher working to foster autonomy requires
assisting and guiding learners. Moreover, as Camilleri (1997) puts it that in the learner
autonomy classroom the teacher becomes more of a manager, a resource person and a
counsellor. Based on Regent’s (1993) categorization, Riley (1997) discusses the
speech acts and functions that realize the roles of teacher and counsellor. He re-
organizes Regent’s list into 15 sets of role categories in teaching and counselling (see
Riley, 1997 for details). Riley presents the roles of teacher and counsellor in
correspondence with each other.
The role of teacher as a resource is much less distinguished and explored in
the literature; and Voller (1997) notes this role as comparable to that of teacher as
knower, with a similar emphasis on the expertise of the teacher. Whereas teacher as
knower often refers to classroom settings, teacher as resource is generally used in self-
access technology assisted learning contexts. However, he argues that defining a
teacher role in terms of expertise in knowledge can imply an unequal power
relationship between teachers and learners, while, the later studies shows that the
teacher working on autonomy is outside this power imbalance (see for example,
Little, 1995; Benson, 2008).
David Nunan (2003) has presented a classroom data approach to study the role
of the teacher. However, I have adopted a teacher reflection approach, where teacher
respond to research queries by reflecting on her own classroom practices. The
theoretical rationale for a curriculum grounded in notions of learner-centeredness and
learner autonomy are presented with illustration from the classroom data. Nunan
(2003) discusses the role of the teacher in a nine step procedure for moving learners
along the continuum from dependence to autonomy through a classroom based
research. In my study, I have identified the role of the teacher in terms of teaching
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roles to foster learner autonomy (see Chapter 4.3). Nunan (2003) has based the
rationale of this study on his previous work:
...the key difference between learner-centred and traditional curriculum
development is that, in the former, the curriculum is a collaborative effort
between teachers and learners, since learners are closely involved in the
decision-making process regarding the content of the curriculum and how it is
taught.(Nunan, 1988, p. 2)
Nunan (2003) in this language learning context argues that philosophically,
learner-centeredness and autonomy are rooted in humanism and experiential
psychology. He further defines these two from Kohen’s (1992) description: in
experiential learning students are placed in the learning process so as to learn from
immediate personal experiences while ‘humanism facilitates personal growth, helps
learners adapt to social change, takes into account differences in learning ability, and
is responsive both to learner needs and practical pedagogical considerations’ (p.194)
Nunan (2003) identifies first step of the teachers role in the classroom is
‘giving learners a voice’ and “to make instructional goals clear to the students
themselves” (p. 196). He describes from the classroom data that the learners can make
decisions about what to learn and how to learn; regardless of their aptitude or ability
learners are also “positive in accepting responsibility for their own learning” (p. 196).
The second step is also closely linked to the first; therefore, Nunan foretold the
possibility of overlapping in the teaching steps. Evidently, the language teachers
know that classroom practices are never straight forward step of procedures. Every
day is a new day and every teaching discourse is a new experience, therefore no two
classrooms or no two periods of interaction with learners are similar. Teacher,
working to foster learner autonomy, in collaboration with learners bring novelty.
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According to Nunan (2003) in the second step the teacher should allow
learners ‘to create their own goals and content’ (p. 197) and he quotes Parkinson and
O’Sullivan (1990) who practically involved learners on the notion of the ‘action
meeting’ to modify course content. In the third step the teacher perform her role
inactivating learners’ language by assigning tasks that require the use of language
outside the classroom. In my study, I have also focused attention on evaluating role of
the teacher on both: activating learning inside and outside the classroom, on the
account that learners spend their most of the time outside the classrooms. It is
noteworthy that the teachers’ role in an autonomous language classroom is to help
learners learn by exposing them to the language and providing opportunities for them
to practice the new language in class as well as at home (Lowes & Target, 1999). A
teacher aiming to foster learner autonomy in her classroom also has to be aware of the
importance of differentiation. Differentiating instruction is the idea of accommodating
different ways learners learn; to design the lessons according to learners’ needs and
differences in the classroom. In a differentiated classroom it should be taken into
consideration that learners have different abilities, skills and backgrounds. All of this
affects the way they learn (Tomlinson, 2003).
The next two steps also overlap each other, as Nunan (2003) describes
teachers role in raising ‘awareness of learning processes’ by creating familiarity with
the learning strategies underlying classroom tasks; and in the next step, suggests
teachers to help the learners to decide their own learning styles and strategies.
Analogues to this conception, I found Dam (2008) expressing the same phenomenon
as:
Let me first of all mention the fact that learners do not necessarily learn what
we believe ourselves to be teaching… What we can do is give our learners an
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awareness of how they think and how they learn – an awareness which
hopefully will help them come to an understanding of themselves and thus
increase their self-esteem. ( p. 18)
Developing awareness of learning styles and strategies is also a widely
researched are in ESL classroom teaching both in Pakistan and other countries in the
East and West (see for example Oxford, 1990). Nonetheless, these steps are similar to
the first step, where the attention has been drawn on what and how to learn. He
describes that this identification by the learners of their own preferred styles and
strategies is followed by a choice given to them to select from a range of options.
However, he contested the argument raised by some commentators against this choice
and also on the notion that the concept of choice is a Western one, which doesn’t
work in Eastern educational contexts by giving examples of his own experience with
the learners in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Moreover, he also gives reference of the study
conducted by Widdows and Voller (1991) with Japanese learners where they report:
Students do not like classes in which they sit passively, reading or translating.
They do not like classes where the teacher controls everything. They do not
like reading English literature much, even when they are literature majors.
Thus it is clear that the great majority of university English classes are failing
to satisfy learner needs in anyway. Radical changes in the content of courses,
and especially in the types of courses that are offered, and the systematic
retraining of EFL teachers in learner-centred classroom procedures are steps
that must be taken, if teachers and administrators are seriously interested in
addressing their students’ needs. (as Cited in Nunan, 2003, p.200)
Thus, this elucidation points that in a second or foreign language contexts learner
choice may be a ‘relatively unfamiliar or even alien one’ in that case the teacher may
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prefer engaging the learners in a ‘relatively modest level of decision-making’ initially
and he gives an example of allowing students to decide between reading the text or
listening to the same text. Whether the decision making authority should be a teacher,
a learner or collaborative work, is an area of interest in my dissertation. Nunan’s
phenomenology has, nonetheless, helped me in deciding this aspect as one of the
concepts underlying my survey based study on the role of the teacher. Such starters to
autonomy are, although minor steps, may prove beneficial in the later classroom
practices. This notion of choice is an excellent idea not only for the beginners even
for the advanced level learners, and I have experienced that it always works whenever
I make a start with a class at the start of the academic year.
At the next step of the classroom practice, Nunan (2003) describes that the
teachers may allow the learners to create their own tasks and ‘to provide them with
opportunities to modify and adapt classroom tasks’ (p. 201). In order to counter the
possible criticism to this step he describes that this process does not involve
unrealistic technical designing of materials and gives example of asking students,
either in groups or individually, to design their own questions on the given text. I also,
propose in my study that it is an important role of the teacher to decide how much a
teacher should intervene and how much freedom to be granted to the learners.
Therefore, this study proposes that a degree of independence in creating learning tasks
and also providing opportunities to the learners to work in collaboration with peers
enhances learner autonomy. Louis (2006) has found that teachers should encourage
learners to work independently helping them how to make decisions about their
learning process because directing and participating their learning process actively
can help students develop awareness of the responsibilities that they should fulfil
during the process.
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The last two roles of the teachers are not comparable to any of the traditional
methods of teaching, therefore, are really helpful in enhancing learner autonomy.
Nunan (2003) suggests that encouraging learners to become teachers and researchers
provide optimal learning opportunities to learners. In the former case, it is in the
common experience of the teachers that peer teaching helps in learning. To elaborate
on this point Nunan (2003) quotes Assinder’s (1991) positive experience with the peer
teaching programme where learners “being ‘experts’ on a topic noticeably increased
self-esteem, and getting more confident week by week gave [the learners] a feeling of
genuine progress”(as cited in Nunan, 2003, p. 202). All the same when the teachers
encourage the learners to be researchers, it entails the teachers playing their part in
designing the task, in a manner that provides them the opportunity to learn or
encounter language beyond classroom. In my study, I aim to address this notion of
research in pedagogical practices by asking the teachers how often they assign such
tasks that provide them direct contact with the second language beyond classroom.
Nunan’s study has helped me to probe into my own research queries. Nonetheless, his
study is limited for it does not address the social paradigm in teaching, and it is based
on random experiences of teacher, therefore, it gives me space to carry out this survey
study on the female ESL teachers in Pakistani institutions of higher education.
Chiu (2005) argues that in the last two decades, increasing attention has been
drawn to the importance of autonomy to language learning and the teachers of
autonomous language learners are portrayed as helper, facilitator, resource,
consultant, counsellor, coordinator, and adviser. Chiu (2005) investigated the
relationship of the role of the teacher and learner autonomy in a cyber pedagogical
context, a context where the teacher and the learners were L2 users of English with
diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds and experiences. Data consisted of 362
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email messages generated in a twenty-month period of the cyber English class on
English for Internet (EFI), a free English school on the Internet. This study provides a
chance to review the roles of the teacher in the development of learner autonomy with
the help of technology. Nonetheless, the study provides limited information on the
social context of the interaction with the learners. Moreover, the results obtained from
a study of a cyber class are inequitable to a formal education system of higher
education and that too in the developing country like Pakistan. However, it informs
that the teacher’s teaching roles became less active as the course progressed whereas
the counselling roles remained active throughout the instructional period. This
qualitative study involved a content analysis that identified the teaching and
counselling roles of the teacher in 90 email messages, spread equally among the
beginning, and middle and end phases of the instructional period. Moreover, the study
called into question the universality of established categories of the roles of the
teachers, suggesting that cultural context and experience need to be taken into
consideration. This point of departure of this study is relevant to my study, as I
consider these traits while studying the data retrieved from female ESL Pakistani
teachers working in the institutions of higher education.
2.4.7 Factors Influencing the Role of the Teacher
2.4.7.1 Individual Learner Differences
Although, the factors affecting the role of the teacher in the development of
learner autonomy are numerous, the basic factor is individual learner differences.
Other less influential factors include institutional constraints related to curriculum and
teaching resources. Nonetheless, the latter is also significant, when the purpose is to
explore the impact of the use of technology, as in this study. During 1980s and 1990s
some researchers focused the effects of individual differences on the development of
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learner autonomy (Holec, 1981; Dörnyei, 2003). This research trend has emphasised
the contribution of learner differences in the domain of language teaching. These
differences not only affect the learners performance but the teacher’s teaching
methods and strategies, in other words, these differences often determine the role of
the teacher. Benson (2007a), in his review of the literature on learner autonomy
describes:
Although there is a clear conceptual link between autonomy and individual
difference – the idea of autonomy responds to the fact that individual learners
differ from each other and may seek to develop their individuality through
divergent learning processes –there has been relatively little interaction
between the two areas of research. This is in part because discussions of
individual differences often work with taxonomies of psychological and social
variables (such as age, affect, aptitude, cognitive style, personality, gender,
ethnicity, social class and setting for learning) which tend to suppress, rather
than highlight, individuality. ( p. 29)
This description throws light on psychological and social nature of individual
learner differences, and how these factors influence learning processes and outcomes.
In this context the most significant factor is the role of affect, or the willingness to
assume responsibility for one’s own learning, and autonomy. The teacher identifies
willingness to learn central to development of learner autonomy since “a person may
have the ability to make independent choices but feel no willingness to do so”
(Littlewood, 1996, p.428). It is also argued that, “one of the greatest barriers to the
development of learner autonomy is a negative attitude on the part of the learner
towards making decisions about their own learning” (Sinclair, 2000, p.7). Moreover,
language learners’ attitude can have an effect to acquire a second language, especially
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beyond adolescence. Therefore, it is hypothesised that it is important for the teacher to
identify that learners’ willingness to learn is a significant affective factor to learning
ESL, where learning of English is important for the learner to become successful. In
Pakistan the tertiary level language learners learn English in partially immersion
situation, as teachers deliver the course contents in English, the course books are in
English, the available learning resources across almost all subject areas is in English.
Thus, this scenario not only affects learning choices but attitudes too. The love-hate
relationship with English even today, results both ways. In other words, learners’
attitude and motivation both have a profound effect on the language learner
autonomy.
Therefore, learners’ motivation is also a significant factor, which influences
the role of an ESL teacher in the higher education institutions of Pakistan.
Comparable to this, Finegan (2004) describes while acquiring second language,
learners’ efforts are mediated by what Stephen Krashen has described the ‘affective
filter’: a ‘psychological disposition’ that either facilitates or inhibits a learner’s
language learning capacities. He further describes Krashen’s conceptualization of an
adult second language learner, who if surrounded by ‘a comprehensible language use’
will proceed as effortlessly and efficiently as in the case of first language acquisition,
provided that the affective filter is not blocking the operation of these capacities
(Finegan, 2004, p. 562). This disposition takes into consideration those social factors
in an educational institution that contribute to extrinsic motivation. This motivation
that sprung due to some outside factors, may be teaching-learning strategy or use of
some resources, either has facilitative effect that results in enhanced language learning
gains or debilitative effect that inhibits the language learners from utilizing their
capacities. However, Benson (2007a) notes a paradoxical link between motivation and
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autonomy and describes “both are centrally concerned with learners’ active
involvement in learning”. Nonetheless, the role of the teacher in learners’ motivation
to be autonomous language learners is explored in ESL pedagogy due to the
Gardner’s ‘socio-psychological’ paradigm in L2motivation research (D¨ornyei
2001b). Therefore, second language learning is not only an educational but also social
and psychological phenomenon.
This socio-psychological domain of second language learning is explored in
Dickinson’s (1995) and Ushioda’s (1996) studies; both embark at links between
autonomy and motivation based on self-determination and attribution theory, which
emphasised the importance of learners’ determination to be autonomous. On the other
side of the motivation philosophy in development of learner autonomy Spratt,
Humphrey & Chan (2002), have conducted a survey on university students in Hong
Kong and have found that it is motivation that precedes autonomy. they studied the
correlation between autonomy and motivation; and evidence in their study suggest
that teachers should be watchful in assuming that if learners take responsibility for
learning it enhances motivation in language learning processes. This factor of
motivation is taken into consideration when the teachers consider the individual
learner differences on achievement tests and teacher decide their next course of action
based on such learning differences. Later Deci &Ryan’s (2000) self-determination
theory emphasizes both the power of intrinsic motivation and the importance of a
‘sense of personal autonomy’. The former refers to the vitality, spontaneity,
genuineness, and curiosity which is intrinsic to the person’s nature while latter relates
to a feeling that ‘their behaviour is truly chosen by them rather than imposed by some
external source’.
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2.4.7.2 Dependence, Independence and Interdependence
The role of the teacher on the development of learner autonomy also invites
the debate over idea of dependence, independence and interdependence in the class.
This argument generates another debate that surrounds the idea of intervention, that is,
how much or to what extent teacher should/ would/ could intervene in the pedagogical
practices aimed at the development of learner autonomy. Benson (2011), in this
context, indicates that the terms autonomy and independence are when used
interchangeably create difficulties in discussing autonomy:
When independence is used as a synonym of autonomy, its opposite is
dependence, which implies excessive reliance on the direction of teachers or
teaching materials. One problem with the use of this term, however, is that it
can also be understood as the opposite of interdependence, which implies
working together with teachers and other learners towards shared goals. Many
researchers would argue that autonomy does imply interdependence. (Benson,
2011, p.14)
Generally, in such language teaching context, it is assumed that the learner is
independent and is capable of working individually without help or direction from the
teacher or tutor. In such context, the language learning is contextualized in either self-
access language learning laboratories or technology mediated learning paradigm,
which in turn brings us to the concept of individualisation of the learning process.
And the specialized literature is evidently advocates the implementation of learner-
centred as opposed to teacher-centred methodologies (see Tudor, 1992 & 1996). In
such context, I concede to the argument that teaching ESL is often described as either
“teacher-centred or learner-centred” (Killen, 2013, p.94). These two methodologies
raise a critical question for the ESL teachers: Which of these two methodologies
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brings optimal ESL learning outcomes? To start with, teachers realize the differences
between the two. The research shows a number of important differences (see Table
2.5), including what the teacher does, how the lessons are organised, how much the
learners are actively involved in learning and how much learners control their own
learning. There is no doubt that teacher-centred teaching places the teacher as the
focus of the process. Therefore, the teacher plays a crucial role and has great control
in the class. In contrast, the learner-centred approach emphasises the learner as the
focus. This does not mean that teacher’s role is lost or superfluous but the role of the
teacher is equally crucial as the facilitator of the learning process.
Table 2.5: Comparison between Teacher-centred and Learner-centred
classrooms
Teacher-centred Learner-centred
Teacher is the sole leader. Leadership is shared.
Management is a form of oversight. Management is a form of guidance.
Teacher takes responsibility for all
paperwork and organization.
Students are facilitators for the operations
of the classroom.
Discipline comes from the teacher. Discipline comes from the self.
A few students are the teacher’s helpers. All students have the opportunity to
become an integral part of the management
of the classroom.
Teacher makes the rules and posts them for
all students.
Rules are developed by the teacher and
students in the form of a constitution or
compact.
Consequences are fixed for all students. Consequences reflect individual
differences.
Rewards are mostly extrinsic. Rewards are mostly intrinsic.
Students are allowed limited
responsibilities.
Students share classroom responsibilities.
Few members of the community enter the
classroom.
Partnerships are formed with business and
community groups to enrich and broaden
the learning opportunities for students.
Source: Rogers & Frieberg (1994)
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Learner-centred teaching approach is the main concept in the application of
feminist pedagogical approach, which helps the teacher to develop learner autonomy.
Taking this feminist pedagogical approach, I argue that teachers take into account the
learner’s knowledge and context, and then attempt to develop understanding on that
basis. This approach is at the heart of teaching strategies and presumes that
knowledge is developed in the process of negotiation between teachers and students
(Kember, 1998; Killen, 2013; Prosser & Trigwell, 1998; Rogers & Frieberg, 1994).
Accordingly, the learner independence is not equitable to isolation even in the learner
centred classroom scenario. To sum up, I argue that Little (1994) aptly describes
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of learning and development in the second language
context:
Learner autonomy is the product of interdependence rather than
independence…Learners will not develop their capacity for autonomous
learning within formal contexts by simply being told that they are
independent: they must be helped to achieve autonomy by processes of
interaction similar to those that underlie developmental and experiential
learning. (Little, 1994, p. 435)
2.4.8 The Challenges for Teachers to Use Technology and Foster Learner
Autonomy
This critical appraisal of past and contemporary models of development of learner
autonomy with particular reference to the use of technology is substantially helpful in
identifying the challenges and locating the spaces for implications of technology in
language pedagogy. Holecian’s (1981) conceptualization of learner autonomy (see
chapter 3.4) paves way for researchers in the fields of applied linguistics and
education, particularly language pedagogy to explore development of learner
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autonomy. A continuum of research thus follows, describing how levels of autonomy
in language pedagogy are achieved from primary to fundamental. The study of
literature reveals only limited research on the specific relationship between the wide-
range of technology available and learner autonomy. Benson (2011) argues that
‘‘claims made for the potential of new technologies in regard to autonomy need to be
evaluated against empirical evidence of the realisation of this potential in
practice’’(pp. 140–141). In addition, the relationship between computers and learner
autonomy is either discussed at a theoretical level or remains only a starting point on
which design principles or decisions are based (Blin, 2005). It shows that much of
research does not directly address the role of technology in language teaching yet it
provides a substantial knowledge on the stages or levels of autonomy in language
pedagogy. Today, technology has become inevitable in higher education, particularly,
owing to its widespread availability and usage. The comprehensive review of
researches on the levels of autonomy in relation to language teaching alone is
documented elsewhere11.
Nunan’s (1997) model of levels of autonomy is the one of the noted evident
specialized researches in language teaching. The model identifies five levels of
learner actions- awareness, involvement, intervention, creation and transcendence.
This progression informs the sequence of language learners’ development through
activities in the textbooks. The learner’s awareness of learning styles and strategies
helps the learner to be involved in learning process and through intervention and
creation learner reaches the level of transcendence which, then, enables the learner to
make links between the material taught in the classroom and ‘the world beyond’
(Nunan, 1997). This model has implications for classroom practices particularly;
11 Benson (2007a), in his State-of-the Art article Autonomy in language teaching and learning
reviewed the specialized literature on levels of autonomy
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however, it gives an insight to the theory of learner autonomy that is helpful for the
present study on women teachers’ role and I have seen six areas of teachers’ role for
the development of learner autonomy and the use of technology (see Chapter 4.3).
Contrary to Nunan, Littlewood (1997) relates development of learner
autonomy to language learning strategies in a three-stage model. Stage one involves
‘dimensions of language acquisition’ which enables learners to achieve ‘autonomy as
a communicator’. This process engages learners ‘ability to operate independently with
language and use it to communicate personal meanings in real, unpredictable
situations’. At stage two ‘autonomy as a learner’ is identified as learners’ ‘ability to
take responsibility for their own learning and to apply active personally relevant
strategies’. The next stage emphasizes the individualized learning, thus, attainment of
‘autonomy as a person’ (Littlewood, 1997). This three-staged model with the image of
independent and responsible learner is similar to my study, however, my study
evaluates women teachers’ role in developing individual learner autonomy with the
help of self paced individualized learning with the aid of technology. Nonetheless,
this model is limited as to address only the attainment of learner autonomy, but what
role a teacher plays in such process is not tackled.
In the same year Macro proposes a three-stage model, with emphasis on
language learning competence, unlike the previously discussed two models. The
model outlines: “autonomy of language competence, autonomy of learning
competence and autonomy of choice and action” (Macro, 1997). This competence and
performance sequence in language learning environment has implications for future
research in language pedagogy and it reflects on Chomskian conception of a language
learner. Nonetheless, like earlier models, Macro has also not viewed the role of the
teacher or the technology. Littlewood (1999) further contributes to learner autonomy
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in language learning by making a distinction between ‘proactive and reactive
autonomy’. Proactive autonomy deals with learner as individual who ‘sets up
directions’ which he himself has ‘partially created’. On the other hand learner with
reactive autonomy does not create his own directions. ‘Once a direction has been
initiated’, it allows the learner to organize directed resources autonomously to achieve
the desired goal (Littlewood, 1999). In this model, Littlewood identifies the role of the
teacher and technology in reactive autonomy, nonetheless, the model does not provide
how it works. In 2000, Scharle & Szabo discuss three phase model of learner
autonomy: ‘raising awareness, changing attitude and transferring roles’. This model is
quite close to Nunan’s (1997) five-stage model, starting from awareness to
transcendence in the form of transformed role of a learner. But like Nunan’s model it
does not address the role of the teacher or technology.
Control over language learning and teaching is the theory being discussed in
Benson (2001), proclaiming autonomy at the level of ‘learning management,
cognitive processing and the context of learning.’ The concept of ‘control’ is basic to
learner autonomy, one of the key concepts in formulating the survey of the present
research. Reinder’s (2010) eight –stage model of development of learner autonomy
describes learning stages in relation to teacher-directed environment and learner–
directed situation. The eight-stages start with the ‘identifying needs’ of learning which
enables the teacher and learners to ‘set goals’. ‘Planning of learning’ is carried out by
‘selecting resources’ and ‘learning strategies’ to put into ‘practice’ in the language
learning process. The ‘progress in learning’ is monitored by the teacher and learner
both; and at the last stage ‘assessment and revisions’ are undertaken (Reinder, 2010).
The cyclic nature of this model gives strength to the concept of the role of the teacher
as facilitator which is again one of the key concepts of the present study. The teacher
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facilitates the learners to identify the problem, decide the solution, facilitates practice
on decided remedial steps and then facilitates recapitulation of the learning endeavour
which again provides an insight into the new problems. Realizing this cyclic
procedure into pedagogy is one of the key practices that an ESL university teacher
may incorporate. Although, in Reinder’s study this model is not applied integrating
technology, yet it allows inclusion of technology as a learning tool and resource.
The above discussion of models of development of learner autonomy reveals
that they share some common features, which can address the role of Pakistani
women ESL teachers in the development of learner autonomy. Firstly, the common
theme is teachers’ contribution in development of learner autonomy. Secondly, all of
them imply a possible progression from ‘lower’ to ‘higher’ level of autonomy.
However, Kumaravadiveh (2003) criticizes, ‘it is a mistake to correlate the increased
level of autonomy with equally increased level of language proficiency’. Thirdly, at
the lower level of autonomy the spaces are needed to be identified to foster autonomy
within classroom practices and no radical educational reform is required (Benson,
2010). In such context, I argue that the use of technology is one potential determinant
of learner autonomy. However, Nunan (1997) argue that ‘autonomy can be a normal
everyday addition to regular instruction’, but whether it is as straightforward or not.
Nonetheless, it suggests that Pakistani women ESL teachers can bring a change into
the classroom practices from within. On the other hand, some researchers are of the
view that unless some radical educational reforms are not taken the classroom
practices cannot be transformed from passive to active.
2.5 Conclusion
The review of literature reveals that the positive impact of technology on
women ESL teacher autonomy in Pakistani higher education context is not well-
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researched. Various speculations are advanced towards explaining this positive trend
towards women teacher empowerment through education, and use of technology. My
own experience with the technology as a female ESL teacher and observation entail
that it is due to technological determinism, which is linked to consciousness amongst
women to feel autonomous in ESL class for even a classroom is the manifestation of a
Pakistani social scenario. This autonomy is a key feature in this regard as teacher
autonomy presupposes learner autonomy. However, very few sociological studies are
available that explain this propensity towards technology as the facilitative factor for
women’s autonomy. Present study is an effort towards understanding this
phenomenon.
Therefore, in the next chapter, I will put forward the theoretical predisposition
to my study underpinning an eclectic approach towards the theory of related
knowledge. The chapter, thus, explores the theory of technological determinism,
feminist pedagogy and Benson’s theoretical predisposition of approaches to learner
autonomy, particularly, role of the teacher and technology as the latter advocates the
radical educational reforms from within and some outside factors too. Moreover, I
will address the role of the state-of-the-art instructional technology in learning process
which is not directly addressed in the above mentioned studies. Nonetheless, these
grounding models help me to pin point the constructs for the development of ESL
learner autonomy. These constructs of classroom practice help in outlining the
concepts associated with the role of women ESL teachers working to foster learner
autonomy with advanced learners in Pakistani institutions of higher education.
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CHAPTER 3
Epistemological and Methodological Framework
The framework of this study is contextualized and conceptualized through a
scrutiny and critical analysis of the related literature (elaborated in the preceding
chapter) on the use of technology for the development of learner autonomy in the
Pakistani feminist ESL pedagogy. The critical appraisal of the literature has provided
the context to the present study; and leads to establish those underpinning concepts
which address the objectives of the present study. These concepts have helped to
inform key issues for understanding the trio of learner autonomy, educational
technology in ESL and Pakistani feminist perspective. Although, the information
present in the literature is fragmented as far as the present research problem is
concerned, yet the review of related literature provides a strong philosophical and
theoretical perspective to conceptualize the impact of technology in Pakistani feminist
ESL perspective. While for some projects that deal in isolation with either technology
or learner autonomy or feminist perspective, description in literature or other
documentary sources is both comprehensive and also in depth but no single
framework caters to interface my study. Therefore, to complement the findings from
studied literature, an elaborated and comprehensive theoretical framework is
designed.
I have adopted a technique of theoretical triangulation12, for this multi-faceted
study. Being multi-theoretical it protects from the weakness of only one approach
(Fred, 2005). This theoretical triangulation framework foregrounds epistemology: the
theory of knowledge (Harding, 1987; Leatherby 2003; Sprague, 2005), of my study.
Triangulation allows me to approach my research questions by interpreting the data
12Theoretical triangulation refers to the use of more than one theoretical position in interpreting data.
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from various theoretical standpoints to form a clear understanding of the concepts
under study.
Methodizing this dynamic theoretical underpinning into an empirical research
has been another challenge, which has been resolved by mediating the feminist
methodological framework. It has allowed me to choose women teaching in the
institutions of higher education for survey to get knowledge from the substantial
experience of the women teachers in ESL pedagogy and an insight to pedagogical
phenomenon from their expertise in the field. Thus, firstly this chapter delineates the
epistemological13 framework of my study, with feminist pedagogical lens of Paulo
Friere and a radical feminist pedagogue bell hooks; soft technological deterministic
view of Feenberg (2002) as applied by Warschauer (2004) and John and Wheeler
(2008); and lastly Benson’s (2011) approach to the role of teacher and technology
with Little’s model of interaction with information system for the development of
learner autonomy. From these complementary paradigms, I have attempted to build a
worldview that situates the design of this study. Moreover, the feminist
methodological framework with survey as research instrument covers the empiricism
of the study.
3.1 Epistemological Framework
The epistemological framework of this study takes insights from theory and
praxis of ESL pedagogy, in the feminist perspective, therein technological
intervention caters to the development of learner autonomy. This dimension will then
form the theoretical underpinning to woman’s social structure in Pakistani society and
13epistemology refers to understand the relationship between the knower and known and deals with
philosophical, ontological issues, what is self, what is knowledge, what can be known, who can know,
what is being, and what is truth” (Leatherby 2003, p. 5)
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substantiates her position as an entity dominated by male power. To subvert
masculine domination Pakistani educated and employed women in higher education
have discovered their autonomy in the classroom through the use of technology. In
order to take a step up towards better understanding of epistemology of the present
study, this section presents theoretical framework, which encapsulates the dimensions
of the philosophies of feminist pedagogy, technological determinism and learner
autonomy in Pakistani ESL context of higher education.
3.1.1 Towards implications of Feminist Pedagogy in ESL
The theory of feminist pedagogy is taken up to analyze the pedagogical
practices of women ESL tertiary level teachers of Pakistan for its epistemology is
grounded in critical theory of the autonomy of the participants and their praxis.
3.1.1.1 Frierean Praxis of Pedagogy
The praxis of pedagogy of the learners; and the contradiction between the
teacher and the learner, and how it awards liberation and autonomy is not a self-
achievement, but a mutual process. This conception of praxis is defined by Friere in
Pedagogy of the Oppressed14as “reflection and action directed upon the world in order
to transform it” (Friere, 2005). I argue that through praxis, the female teachers can
acquire a critical awareness of their own condition, and, especially it lends mimesis of
the condition of the Pakistani women in ESL context. To address the social order in
pedagogical domain Friere represents the unity of theory and praxis that “incarnates a
rediscovery of the humanizing vocation of the intellectual, and demonstrates the
power of thought to negate accepted limits and open the way to a new future”
(Macedo, in Fariere, 2005, p. 32). In this way Friere rejects the traditional restrictions
14
First published in 1968 and translated in 1970 by Myra Bergman Ramos and republished with an
Introduction by Donaldo Macedo-30th Anniversary ed. (2005).
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as imposed by the pedagogical system. I interpolate it as a space for female teachers
firstly to practice their autonomy in the classroom; secondly, to create a critical
awareness among ESL learners to transform their view of classroom teaching. In
modern age of technological intervention, the anti-elitist philosophies and
perspectives of education at tertiary level rely heavily on praxis, particularly as
influenced by Freire, nevertheless, I interpose that the highly educated and sentient
tertiary level female ESL teachers of Pakistan reject the traditional classroom
practices which limits and restrict them in their pedagogical realm. Moreover, the
pedagogical scenario allows them to practice their liberation beyond social bounds of
male domination. They practice this teaching autonomy in their classroom paradigms
and help the learners to find their autonomy and liberation.
Describing Friere’s conception of liberty of the oppressed, Macedo views
learners as those who “will not gain this liberation by chance but through the praxis of
their quest for it, through their recognition of the necessity to fight for it” (Macedo,
2005, p.45). This praxis of reflection on their own pedagogical practices allows the
female Pakistani teachers to no longer be the prey to the male dominance. It helps
them to not only emerge from it but also turn upon it. As Friere asserts: “Liberation is
a praxis: the action and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to
transform it” (Friere, 2005, p. 77). I take this concept of liberation as autonomy:
teachers’ teaching autonomy and learners’ learning autonomy. In addition, this offers
to me, and all of those who experience dominance and oppression in teaching learning
practices through an imposed educational paradigm, path through which women
teachers come to understand what it means to be autonomous. It helps the female
pedagogues to facilitate learners in learning through what Friere calls “acts of
cognition, not transferrals of information” (Friere, 2005, p. 79) which I claim acts as
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her personal mode of autonomy. His conception of education is beyond gender
dichotomy; nonetheless, it gives the theoretical framework to feminist pedagogy
through student-teacher and teacher-student relationship in the process of education as
androgynous pedagogy. He favours problem posing education that develops a dialogic
environment in the classroom and disdain of what he called the ‘banking’ concept of
education, in which a student is viewed as an empty account waiting to be filled by
the teacher. He argues in favour of student-centered learning thus:
Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher
cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers.
The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches...They become jointly
responsible for a process in which all grow. In this process, arguments based
on ‘authority’ are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on
the side of freedom, not against it. Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone
self-taught. People teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable
objects which in banking education are ‘owned’ by the teacher. (Friere, 2005,
p. 80)
Such argument gives forth the idea of learner autonomy, which begins with teacher
autonomy as a learner and learner’s autonomy as an independent entity. As such, to
Friere teacher as authority figure is almost an obsolete notion in pedagogical scenario.
In modern pedagogical landscape the technology opens the door for learning for
students and simultaneously this provides the teacher a liberal space to exercise her
pedagogical autonomy. For Pakistani women teachers I perceive this exercise of
autonomy as a means to operate beyond the oppression of male domination in their
pedagogical paradigm. Therefore, I agree with Friere’s argument that such way to
education is the practice of freedom, “as opposed to education as the practice of
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domination”. Frieredenies the existence of a human being “abstract, isolated,
independent, and unattached to the world”; he also denies “that the world exists as a
reality apart from people”(Friere, 2005, p. 81) agreeing to this I append Pakistani
women who practice her liberty in her teaching practice perceiving student as part of
society. To Friere this approach to teaching encourages women and men to reflect on
themselves and on the world, it thus increases “the scope of their perception, they
begin to direct their observations towards previously inconspicuous phenomena”
(Friere, 2005, p. 82) and if applied to Pakistani women teachers I claim that it serves
as their counter strategy to undermine their subjugation.
Another, important aspect that I have picked up in this debate is the
humanising role of science and technology in the women pedagogy that brings
positive change in teaching learning scenario so much so that it turns into a strategy to
undermine their oppression:
The inhumanity of the oppressors and revolutionary humanism both make use
of science. But science and technology at the service of the former are used to
reduce the oppressed to the status of ‘things’; at the service of the latter, they
are used to promote humanization. (Friere, 2005, p. 133)
Taking this revolutionary humanizing aspect of technology further, I argue that
women using technology in teaching ESL in Pakistani institutions find teaching
practices autonomous. This praxis of the learners with the revolutionary female
teachers, the users of technology, would develop a classroom scenario, where the
learner and the teacher will learn language through the use of technology by sharing
power.
Secondly, bell hooks’ feminist pedagogical standpoint is selected to interpret
the Pakistani women ESL teachers pedagogical practices. Taking threads of Paulo
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Feriere’s work and weaving it in to that version of feminist pedagogy which embodies
her work in Teaching to Transgress (hooks, 1994), she interprets pedagogy as
transgression. Like Feriere, she rejects traditional methods of teaching and favours the
teachers who “transgress the boundaries that would confine each pupil to rote,
assembly-line approach to learning” (hooks, 1994, p. 13).ESL teachers reject the
traditional approach to teaching and learning, in practicing the modern pedagogical
practices which lead to autonomy. The teachers and learner find education as an
endeavour to success. Therein, the feminist outlook and critical awareness as an
impact of using modern technological tools in ESL pedagogy is a source of libratory
education. hooks translates, Frierean conception of education as a means to practice
freedom, into her critical awareness and her active engagement in the classroom. I
interpose that such awareness grants a female teacher a space to practice her freedom
by means of technological tools comparable to women’s role in the class parallel to
man-women relation in Pakistani society. When she includes in her praxis a tool of
modernity- the technology, it embodies her autonomy as ESL teacher and learner. As
technology becomes a means and method to establish control over the class parallel to
overpower her weak social position in male dominant society. Therefore, hooks
rejects the denigration of the wholeness of education that support for the distinction
between practice of being a teacher and one’s role as a member of the academic
profession. This rejection is both pedagogically feministic and socially political:
Indeed, the objectification of the teacher within bourgeois educational
structures seemed to denigrate notions of wholeness and uphold the idea of a
mind/body split, one that promotes and supports compartmentalization.
(hooks, 1994, p.17)
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In Pakistani ESL pedagogical practices this idea of the compartments of mind, body,
and spirit connotes no connection between teachers’ ‘habits of being’ and ‘role of the
teacher’. This idea negotiates with the female teacher’s role affected by the ‘self’; and
the teachers who are not concerned with the inner soul are threatened by the demand
of libratory education, which in turn help the ESL learners in their ‘own struggle for
self-actualization’ and learning autonomy.
Therefore, today higher education institutions in Pakistan encourage students
and teachers to use technology for collaborative pedagogy, make learning more
relaxing while simultaneously exciting. It provides room to the female teachers to
engage in classroom administrative decisions. This engagement is, although, a step
towards libratory pedagogy, yet it is restricted by authoritative set-up prevailing in the
institutions of higher education. However, when she describes teaching as a catalyst
that calls everyone to become more and more engaged I interpolate it as a space for
female teachers to be engaged in the dynamic activity of teaching: a door to critical
awareness of her being. Therefore, this engaged pedagogy is a source of autonomy for
the learner and teacher both:
Education is the practice of freedom, students are not the only ones who are
asked to share, to confess. Engaged pedagogy does not seek simply to
empower students. Any classroom that employs a holistic model of learning
will also be a place where teachers grow, and are empowered by the process.
(hooks, 1994, p. 21).
Therefore, my prerogative to found my study on hooks’ as a feminist theorist, who is
“creating work that acts as a catalyst for social change across false boundaries”
(hooks, 1994, p. 72),provide me a way to proceed with feminist movement for the
autonomy and freedom of female teachers in the classroom. This feminist
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predisposition to autonomy is what I practice as teaching autonomy when I decide to
use technology as a female ESL teacher. Hence, I agree with hooks passion as
embodied in the following philosophy as the end of feminist pedagogy:
To me the classroom continues to be a place where paradise can be realized, a
place of passion and possibility, a place where spirit matters, where all that we
learn and know leads us into greater connection, into greater understanding of
life lived in community. (hooks, 2003. p. 183)
hooks based pedagogy on freedom, and creating community in the classroom. It
resembles both democratic process based on mutual willingness to listen, to argue, to
disagree, and to make peace. This freedom is a space for teachers’ teaching autonomy,
so much so it becomes a determinant of ESL teachers’ propensity towards fostering
learner autonomy. hooks also builds a bridge between critical thinking and real-life
situations to enable educators to show students the everyday world instead of the
stereotypical perspective of the world.
To sum up, my praxis of feminist pedagogy is limited to that critical
awareness of female ESL tertiary level teachers, which is a result of reflection and
action of a teacher to transform her world view. Its advocacy of mutual process
negates accepted limits and opens the way to a new future, thus shows a means to
teacher autonomy that helps the learners to find their autonomy and liberation. Such
praxis in my study promotes student-centred learning with the assistance of
technology. I argue that this is largely determined by those results, which the use of
technology brings for feminist pedagogues.
3.1.2 Technological Determinism in ESL Pedagogy
The impact of technology, which influences Pakistani feminist ESL tertiary
level pedagogues, is addressed with the help of the technological determinism. This
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theory propagates that the introduction of new technology brings some results either
positive or negative or neutral (Feenberg, 1991, 2002; Chandler, 2000; Warschaure,
2004). To Feenberg (2004) the inevitable association between the changes in
technology and their primary influence on human social relations and organizational
structure is Karl Marx argument that foregrounds technological determinism. As
Feenberg (2002) view “traditional Marxism reserved radical technological change for
the distinctly remote ‘higher phase’ of socialism” (p. 51). Marx’s stance on the
relationship between technology and society has become embedded in contemporary
society and particularly in education sector. Furthermore, the idea, innovation and
invention in technologies affects human beings, is all-pervasive; and is responsible to
have an impact on women ESL teacher autonomy in Pakistani social context.
Continuing with Marxist socialism and technology Feenberg (2002) argues:
Given Marx’s reputation as a technological determinist, it is ironic that many
of the strongest arguments advanced against the very possibility of socialism
rest on a deterministic understanding of technology. (Feenberg, 2002, p. 135)
Placing this understanding of technological determinism in Pakistani socialism, like
Feenberg (2002, p. 143), I contest, in ESL pedagogical practices ‘soft’ technology
variables are ‘pursued spontaneously’ by the women teachers ‘as a positive
component of their own welfare’, as opposed to ‘hard’ variables. Therefore, the
following section embarks on soft-technological determinism.
3.1.2.1 Towards Soft Technological Determinism in ESL Pedagogy
This discussion on technological determinism and ESL pedagogy draws
epistemological framework from Feenberg’s (2002) argument:
Deterministic theories share implausible assumptions about technological
development... These are, first, the notion that technological development
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occurs along a single fixed track according to immanent technical criteria of
progress, and, second, that social institutions must adapt to technological
development. In reality, technology is not rigid but is routinely adapted to
changing conditions. Sometimes it adapts to new scarcities or discoveries, and
sometimes to the emergence of new cultural values. In any case, new
constraints are not necessarily obstacles to efficiency but often stimulate
technological change. Thus, technology does not pose an insuperable obstacle
to the pursuit of ‘humanistic’ values. There is no reason why it could not be
reconstructed to conform to the values of a socialist society. (p. 143)
Such a stance about the impact of technology implies its access, adaptability and
utility across the social hierarchy in Pakistani society; and I interpose its impact on the
female ESL tertiary level teachers. It is a means to discover their autonomy through
the use of technology, secondly a means to foster ESL learner autonomy. Thus, I
agree with Feenberg’s argument that the use of technology “maximizes autonomy in
general, promising liberation of the human essence from fixed definitions” (Feenberg,
2002, p. 162).This philosophy argues that technological progress achieves advances
of general utility in Pakistani ESL pedagogical scenario, but these advances are
realized and determined by the social power. According to Feenberg’s view
technology as a dependent variable in the social system, shaped to a purpose by the
dominant power, and I interpolate it as those social fences that are subject to restrict
female teachers’ progress in the pedagogical domain. It is also reshaping to new
purposes under a new hegemony.
Therefore, Warschaure’s (2004) argues that such notion of technological
determinism implies theory of “correlation between the use and presence of
technology with other outcomes”. I interpose these outcomes in terms of ESL
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teaching and learning gains. The presence of technology also connotes upgradation
and innovation. It means introduction of new forms of technologies, provide a
powerful new means of achieving, what Freire and Macedo (1987) noted: “that
literacy is not only about “reading the word,” but also about “reading the world,” and
not only about reading the world but also writing it and rewriting it” (p. 37).
In today’s world, technology is in the access globally, including the people of
underdeveloped or developing countries. Proclaiming this availability to all, it
abounds the nooks and corners of the country with (if not ‘smart’ gadgets) simple
gadgets like a cell phone, for ease of communication. The new technologies affect
societies, either positively or negatively or by just being neutral. The use of
technology, therefore, is discussed in all walks of life in Pakistan; and its utility is
greatly discussed in higher education.
However, the frequent discussions on educational technology of its alleged
impact on learning do not regard how computers are actually used (Warschauer,
2004). Therefore, I argue that the contemporary Pakistani female ESL teachers in the
higher education institutions frequently assign tasks to the students that require them
to use modern technologies. English language teachers, for example, use internet to
browse teaching resources, use word processor to compose assessment sheets, work
sheets etc; use power point to prepare slides as a classroom teaching aid. All the same,
English language learners, for example, use technology to browse internet for
accessing study material, use word processor for composing assignments or academic
papers, use power point to prepare slides for classroom presentations. Dede (1995,
1997) has described the influence of computers on learning with “a fire metaphor, i.e.,
the notion that computers generate learning the way that a fire generates warmth” (as
cited in Warschauer, 2004, p. 1).
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This fire metaphor is taken further, where this theory of determinism
propagates that the presence of technology is correlated to its use. Warschauer
(2004), in consonance to this, describes technological determinism’s logic on the
basis that there is a correlation between the presence of technology, use of technology
or sometimes even our reliance on technology; nonetheless this correlation is not
synonymous to causation. Here, in the present thesis I have also taken the factor of
correlation instead of causation. Taking this view point into consideration the
researchers have identified that women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher
education are able to correlate the presence of technology with its usage in the
teaching regime (see for example Rana, 2006). Another, idea into play within this
conceptualization is of inevitable advancement of technology, inevitable integration
of technology in art, science, philosophy and education, and inevitable impact of
technology on the people who use it. Bauldrillard (1996) characterized this process in
its extreme form when he claimed that the society as a whole can be seen as effects of
their characteristic media technologies. This fatalistic view is the source of the
criticism onto the notion of hard determinism. However, Goguen’s (2001) useful
distinction between the hard technological determinism and soft technological
determinism draws a line; where latter refers to one influence among many, and not
an absolute determinant while the former claims that the force is dominant and
irresistible. Hard determinism is often rejected by the scholars being too ambitious in
making a view of technologies control over society. Warschauer (2004) favours soft
determinism, which suggests that technological development does not automatically
cause outcomes. It does enable new processes and outcomes.
This less strong deterministic stance implies, the use of technologies facilitates
new forms of communication, offer numerous possibilities, which lead to users
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autonomy. These technologies may have already contained within the existing
structure, as McLuhan (1964) recommends “the seeds of radical social and psychic
change”, and society does not have to plant and nurture those seeds, nor does the
society have to allow the technologies to develop in any pre-determined way. Barton
(2016) gives the example of the wide spread use of internet with the opinion that the
rationale behind the question why certain paths of innovation are followed and others
ignored do not lie in some inherent logic within technology. The companies and
communities devote time and effort to researching and developing technologies which
are useful due to some purposes.
The presence of technology, nonetheless, allows the teachers to integrate
technology in everyday teaching plans. Therefore, I propose that spheres of language
teaching and learning, especially English language teaching in Pakistan are positively
affected by the introduction of technology. The language learners can learn many
things with the help of a technological gadget, which was not possible in Pakistani
ESL context about three decades ago. For example, for an English language learner of
1980s the indigenous language teacher was the model of language, and for that
teacher her teacher. Today, a pronunciation model on easily accessible digital sources
is just one named example of the many from the technological applications and digital
sources. These and many other uses of technology for teaching learning of English
were not possible without the contribution of modern technology (Warschauer, 2004).
Furthermore, technology is responsible in making many pedagogical changes.
In Pakistan, the government initiatives to build and enhance technological facilities in
the institutions of the higher education; the distribution of laptops to the teachers and
learners; access to digital library; Wi-Fi facility etc have a profound effect on ESL
pedagogy. These processes have altered the notion of teaching and learning.
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Classroom practices only, cannot determine this technology intervention in pedagogy,
rather a broader outlook beyond classroom is crucial. In consonance to this,
Warschauer (2004) aptly illustrates it further by the analogy of printing press
revolution:
Rather technology can create new social contexts that shape how learning
takes place. For example, the earlier development of the printing press had a
profound effect on Europe, thus contributing to a process by which notions of
teaching and learning were dramatically altered. This was not so much an
“impact,” with the printing press causing change (and, indeed, the earlier
invention of movable type in Asia brought little change at all). Rather, there
was a co-constituitive shaping of technology and society, as social conditions
in Europe provided a ripe context for emergence of the printing press as an
important factor in further societal change. There is thus a broad ecological
effect; as Postman (1993) has noted, 50 years after the introduction of the
printing press, there was not a Europe plus a printing press, but a transformed
Europe. (Warschauer, 2004, p. 2)
This stance entails a strong ecological effect of modern communication
technology on the global society in general, and in the present case on Pakistani social
landscape in particular. Warschauer (2004), in this relation quotes Castells’s (1998)
observation that “information technology, and the ability to use it and adapt it, is the
critical factor in generating and accessing wealth, power, and knowledge in our time”
(p. 6). This critical factor of technology is a reason that, it has crept into pedagogical
sphere, and female ESL teachers and learners readily adapt it to be autonomous.
Drawing upon Vygotsky’s work (e.g., 1962), Warschauer (2004) elucidates the
mediating role of technology at the level of human activity, which eventually reshapes
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how we communicate and even think. This mediation of technology allows the
teachers to reshape their own teaching preference, and also enables them to reshape
their learners learning endeavour. Technology mediation in ESL is therefore,
welcomed and appreciated around the globe, for technology is to stay, play and sway
this global village with its ever creative innovative wonders.
John and Wheeler’s (2008) conception of technology determinism is
pedagogical, political and social with the notion that technology advance is inevitable.
And that in the modern times most of the teachers look at technology with disdain due
to its determinism. The teachers either undermine technology as a pedagogical tool or
ignore its potential (John and Wheeler, 2008). Such situation suggests a technology
milieu where teachers are uncertain about the prospects that technology has for the
pedagogical practices. Consequently, teachers’ responses to new technologies are
varied and diverse. John and Wheeler (2008) identify four distinguished responses of
teachers. Firstly, those who are the ‘enthusiasts’ and positively view the prospects that
technology brings for learning situation. They also try to master new technology and
readily adapt it in the teaching practices. Secondly, ‘pragmatics’, who support use of
technology but are critical of excessive use of technology in teaching and learning of
ESL. Thirdly, the ‘traditionalists’, who resist the use of technology for teaching or
learning English so much to save the long-established pedagogical practices. Fourth
group is of ‘New Luddites’, who are so critical of technology that they undermine the
benefits of technology in every field of life. However, John and Wheeler (2008),
favours the first group of teachers, who move on with technology for its potential.
They commented:
It is, perhaps, symptomatic of our current fascination with digitisation that we
have now moved away from an overt fear of determinism to a position where
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we see the potential of new technology and seek to use it to our best
advantage. (John and Wheeler, 2008, p. 3)
With such constraint they favour soft technological determinism, therein “an active
engagement with learning through and with new technologies so that both experiential
and reflective mode of cognition can operate simultaneously” (p. 5). Here the former
refers to a state in which we perceive and react to the events efficiently around us
without making any considerable effort. On the other hand, reflective mode is of
contrast and comparison, of deliberation and execution which leads to new ideas, new
responses and inventive decision making (Norman, 1993). These two modes of
learning do not refer to the complete notion of cognition in language learning,
nonetheless, are heuristic in understanding the impact of technology on language
teaching and learning. Another debate that surrounds these two modes embarks on the
possibility of the mixing of these modes. This implies that while undertaking an
experiential process of learning the learner might reflect upon it, which would make
these two processes occurring coincidently. Comparable to this, John and Wheeler
(2008) assert that much debate about the value of new technologies in the pedagogical
paradigm “stem from confusion about the relative nature of two modes” (p 4). In the
present study, I put these two modes of learning in the use of technology as teachers’
agency- the way the teacher is affected by the technology, and the way she makes use
of technology leads to her choice of integration of technology in her teaching
paradigm.
John and Wheeler (2008) perceptively point out, the distinction between
affordance and constraints of a variety of new technologies, whereby the former
makes the claim of ease of task due to the use of technology while latter denotes
difficulty or hindrances in the use of particular technology. Technology such as
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internet offers affordance, since a user affords a control on browsing and engagement
in digitised communication, while, the constraining side is of the use of CALL
programme, for which the teacher has to get training or self-teaching before put into
practice. However, in his book Amusing Ourselves to Death, Postman (1985) reminds
us of two contrasting view on technology:
...alongside Orwell’s dark vision [of technology], there was another ... Aldous
Huxley’s Brave New World. Contrary to common belief even among the
educated, Huxley and Orwell did not prophesy the same thing. Orwell warns
that we will be overcome by an externally imposed oppression. But in
Huxley’s vision, no Big Brother is required to deprive people of their
autonomy, maturity and history. As he saw it, people will come to love their
oppression, to adore the technologies that undo their capacities to think...What
Orwell feared were those who would ban books. What Huxley feared was that
there would be no reason to ban a book, for there would be no one who
wanted to read one. ( p. xix)
These contrasting arguments of the use of technology highlight the prevailing tension,
surrounding the use of technology through both dystopias. However, John and
Wheeler (2008) argue for an active engagement with learning, through and with new
technologies, for experiential and reflective modes of learning to operate.
To sum up, my study would identify that women teachers’ use of technology
in ESL pedagogical praxis maximizes autonomy of users. Since the use correlates the
presence of technology with other outcomes, inevitable advancement of technology
results in inevitable integration of technology. Thus, an active engagement with new
technologies, seek both experiential and reflective mode of cognition simultaneously,
so as to generate autonomist users: the women ESL tertiary level teachers. The
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modern digital technologies are not panacea to the problems of education system;
rather they are the pedagogical tools that teachers can utilise for optimal learning
outcomes. In such context, technology has much affordance to language teaching than
any other medium and it is up to the teachers’ decision of the use of technology that
can and would make the difference.
3.1.2.2 Implications of Technology-led Theory for Women’s Education
Another technological determinist view is a technology-led theory of social
change: technology is seen as the prime mover in history. According to technological
determinists, particular technical developments in communications technologies or
media, or, most broadly, technology in general are the sole or prime antecedent causes
of changes in society, and technology is seen as the fundamental condition underlying
the pattern of social organization. Abbe Mowshowitz (1976) argues:
...technology has become an autonomous agent of change...(It) is not to
attribute an occult quality to the growth of modern society which transcends
human choice. It simply means that mechanization has affected social
organization and individual behaviour in such a way as to create a foundation
for further development along certain lines. (pp. 256-257)
That this argument points to the fact that how machines have affected the social strata.
The current potential influence of technology on societal institutions has changed the
previously held social hierarchy. Technology determines the interaction patterns and
an individual’s life. Ben Agger in his essay “The Dialectic of Deindustrialization”
(1985) describes the tendency of system managers and computer experts to exert
control over and they have systematically distorted the content of social discourse
regarding technology. The assumption of this technological determinism is clear.
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Here, technology is not a tool for change rather a change agent. This societal status of
technology implies its influence on the users in general. In such context, Lawley
(1993) viewed women as ignored members of society as far as accessibility to
technology was concerned. However, today more than two decades later, even in an
underdeveloped country like Pakistan, technology is accessible to most of the
population regardless of gender and particularly to the educated women.
Technological determinists interpret technology in general and
communications technologies in particular as the basis of society in the past, present
and even the future. They say that technologies such as writing or print or television
or the computers change society. New technologies transform society at every level,
including institutions, social interaction and individuals. At the least a wide range of
social and cultural phenomena are seen as shaped by technology. Technology has
greatly affected the social set up. It has not only influenced the world view of
communication in today’s technology –rich communication scenario but the nature of
formal disciplines like education. It is commonly argued that the discussions around
mass media, digital and electronic communication exhort technologies for their own
needs, be they personal or political (Lawley, 1993). McLuhan’s (1967) in his seminal
work on the role of technology proclaims:
In terms of the ways in which the machine altered our relations to one another
and to ourselves, it mattered not in the least whether it turned out cornflakes or
Cadillacs. The restructuring of human work and association was shaped by the
technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology. The
essence of automation technology is the opposite. It is integral and decentralist
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in depth, just as the machine was fragmentary, centralist, and superficial in its
patterning of human relationships. ( p. 1)
This gives the concept of technology as the object that defines social interdependence,
and its influence in and around all the domains of life including education and
feminist standpoint.
A technological tool is not only means of executing tasks, learn and know
things but to determine meanings. Those meanings, which are technologically
constructed, help to decipher new interpretations of society, culture and language.
However, many reject this stance; they see a larger role for the users of technology,
especially means of CMC (computer mediated communication) for example
Facebook, Skype, twitter, WhatsApp etc. Such a role is supported by Gidden (1984)
when he talks about the reflexive nature of social life, in which the structure of
activity is created and recreated by the very activities constituting it (as cited in
Lawley, 1993). I interpolate it as a space for the Pakistani women ESL teachers to
gain autonomy in their pedagogical regime. Lawley advocates a perspective where
technology does not determine the role of individuals in the society. This idea of
technological determinism makes the user the subject and technology the object. This
role reversal shapes and determines the social placement of women positively (Ruth
Hubbard, 1983; Lawley, 1993). In this connection, Hubbard’s following view is
arguably demands a paradigm shift:
Technology is part of our culture; and, of course, our culture, which is male
dominated, has developed technologies that reinforce male supremacy. Can
this be changed by women becoming more involved with technology--not only
as its users, but as its inventors, makers, and repairers? (Hubbard, 1983)
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Hubbard’s view, at first, identifies the inferior status of women in twentieth century
but then asks for the possibility of liberation, which I interpret as women teacher
autonomy, through technology. Today the scenario has improved and we find more
women in the economic and political control of technological change, but this cannot
be seen as the only path for feminist action vis-a-vis that technology (Lawley, 1993).
To be precise, in Pakistani pedagogical perspective, today the role of the
women teachers in the institution of higher education demands use of technology not
only as a tool for change rather a change agent. Therefore, a wide range of social
phenomena are seen as shaped under the impact of technology. The value of it is
predominantly realised in the classroom scenario as social interdependence of a
female teacher and her learners. In such technology milieu, the women’s preference to
use technology is coupled with autonomous outlook of the social setup, which allows
liberation and choice.
3.1.3 Benson’s Philosophy of the Development of Learner Autonomy
Another dimension to the epistemological framework for this study is drawn
from Benson’s (2011a) epistemology of two of the six approaches to learner
autonomy: technology-based approach and teacher-based approach. His judgmental
analysis is based on case studies, which provides sound theory and practice to the
philosophy of learner autonomy in ESL education. His conceptualization of autonomy
foregrounds the theoretical underpinning of impact of technology on female teacher
and learner autonomy in Pakistani context. To Benson (2011a) autonomy is ‘not a
method of learning’ and as a teacher he takes “the position that autonomy is a
legitimate and desirable goal of language education” (p. 2). He further argues that
“learners who lack autonomy are capable of developing it given appropriate condition
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and preparation”; and “the development of autonomy implies better language
learning”.
The six approaches outlined in Table 3.1 below, revolves these philosophies of
development of ESL learner autonomy; consequently, provide a holistic framework to
study teachers’ role in fostering learner autonomy in language learning with and
without technology assistance. Although, Benson (2011b) identifies, these approaches
diverse, nonetheless, the role of the teacher cannot be excluded in any of these
approaches to learner autonomy as
It is linked to the social turn in language education, which has involved a re-
evaluation of the role of teachers and teaching in language learning, in that it
draws upon the idea of autonomy as interdependence (in this case the
interdependence of teachers and learners). (Benson, 2011b, p. 16)
Table 3.1: Approaches to the Development of Autonomy
Practices associated with the development of autonomy can be classified under
six broad headings.
Resource-based approaches emphasise independent interaction with learning
material
Technology-based approaches emphasise independent interaction with
educational technologies
Learner-based approaches emphasise the direct production of behavioural
and psychological changes
Class-room-based approaches emphasise learner control over planning and
evaluation of classroom learning
Curriculum-based approaches extend the idea of learner control to the
curriculum as a whole.
Teacher-based approaches emphasise the role of the teacher and teacher
education
Source: Benson (2011a, p. 213)
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Benson (2011a), in his discussion on the approaches to autonomy,
commences with the classroom-based approaches to learner autonomy, which are
primarily related to learner control over planning and evaluation of classroom
learning. A learner, thus, becomes a partner to teacher in the decision making for the
teaching learning process. Classroom-based approaches allow the learners to monitor
their own learning process and grant them the control over the cognitive and
evaluative aspects of their own learning process (Benson, 2011a).Classroom-based
approaches are related to learner autonomy to bring change in teacher and learner
relationship inside the classroom. However, it is evident that whatever a teacher does
to promote learning inside the classroom; or towards what-so-ever resource and
approach teacher directs the attention of the learner outside the classroom is generated
and originated in the classroom.
The basic concepts that Benson (2011a) outlines under the umbrella of
resource-based approaches are self-access, self-instruction and distance learning. Self-
access centers are “enthusiastic consumers of educational technologies” and
“synonymous to technology-based learning” (Benson, 2011a, p. 11). Most of these
self-access centres are created either denying classroom or beyond classroom i.e. a
separate centre outside classroom. The broad definition of self-access includes most
of the outside classroom educational resources including libraries, computer labs,
language labs or audio-visual aid departments in any institution. However, in today’s
practice self-access centres are typically the one supported by instructional
technology. For example, in Pakistan in four institutions of Higher Education Self-
Access centers are established (see Chapter 2 for details).Self-instruction is often
criticized by the educationists for bearing the connotation of teacher-less learning
situation. However, promoting learner autonomy through self-instruction does not
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deny the role of the teacher, the teacher acts as a resource, a guide and facilitator to
pave the way for learner to learn by self-instruction. The next concept illustrating
resource-based approach covers distance-learning. To Benson (2011a), it connotes a
learning situation where a learner undergoes a learning process by taking assistance
from the teacher who is in a geographically different location via a medium: postal or
electronic.
Curriculum-based approaches “extends the idea of learner control to the
curriculum as a whole” (Benson, 2011a, p. 213). This approach emphasizes that
involving learners into decision making process of what to learn at the basic
classroom level is a source to foster autonomy. In such context, I conceptualize the
role of an ESL teacher in involving learners to make decisions of what to learn. In the
broader context, the learners’ say in the choice of the content to be studied so that
autonomous learning may be promoted.
Learner-based approaches to learner autonomy “emphasize the direct
production of behavioural and psychological change” in the learner (Benson, 2011a,
p. 213). The notion of control and responsibility are two basic attributes of learner-
based autonomy. In this connection, I interpose here Little’s (1995) argument:
proficient language learners are autonomous in a sense that they accept responsibility
of their own learning and have developed a skill to reflect on the learning content and
learning process. This ability makes an ESL learner to deal with the resources
available and her change in behaviour indicates improved level of autonomy. On the
other hand, Crabbe (1993) finds the learner control over decision or learners decision
making ability the marker of development of learner autonomy. Therefore, Benson
(2011a) argues that in the classroom context it is difficult to separate “learner-teacher
interdependence from learner dependence upon teacher”, which reflects the degree to
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which learner autonomy is now viewed as a socially and institutionally contextualized
construct” (p. 16). Hence, I foreground the role of female teacher autonomy in the
development of ESL learner autonomy.
3.1.3.1 Towards Teacher-based Development of Learner Autonomy
This teacher-based approach addresses the role of Pakistani female teachers
with respect to development of ESL learner autonomy; teacher identity; and teachers’
education. Within the broad understanding of learner autonomy the role of teacher
education including knowledge of modern technological tools and idea of
interdependence in the classroom context is developed through teacher autonomy
(Benson, 2011a, p. 16).He emphasizes the role of teacher and teacher education to
develop learner autonomy. Thus, there are three areas to study the role of the teacher
in the present study. Apparently identical but these theoretically diverse areas of
Pakistani educated women under study are: teacher autonomy, teacher technology
literacy and teacher identity. Discussing teacher identity, I interpose Breen’s (2007)
opinion:
Either we perceive ourselves as a teacher of language unconnected to wider
social, cultural, and political processes and, thereby, contribute to the
marginalization of our profession, or we accept the formative role we play in
these processes and confront the possibilities for beneficial change in the
intercultural work that we do. (p. 1068)
Breen’s opinion on the role of the teachers raises a question of identity. Can a teacher
be oblivious to the social, cultural and political processes? I propose it is quite
difficult to teach ignoring these process thus a teacher has to adopt a formative role
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for the benefit of the learners. Similarly, Benson (2011a) identifies the importance of
social
...five aspects of educational and social change that have both favoured the
interest in autonomy and problematised its role in the theory and practice of
language teaching and learning: the changing landscape of language teaching
and learning, the globalization of education policy, changing assumptions
about the nature of work and competence, the rise of self-improvement culture
and changing conceptions of social and personal identity. (p. 19)
Therefore, with reference to social hierarchy at the level of classroom, a woman
teacher views her autonomy in the development of learner autonomy. This notion
implies that women teachers see autonomy as a marker of their improvement and
identity. This issue raises a question: Does gender affect the teaching learning
process? This fundamental question works at three dimensions with respect to the
study in hand exploring teachers’ role in the development of learner autonomy:
female teachers’ perception of gender differences in learner autonomy, their own
identity as female teachers and their concept of gender differences; and their
knowledge and use of technology to be autonomous and develop learner autonomy. In
this sense, teachers’ identity is also another important factor affecting role of the
teacher.
Here, it is important to mark a distinction between teacher autonomy and
learner autonomy. To Benson (2008, 2011a, 2011b) when learner takes responsibility
to control learning process it is learner autonomy; and teacher’s control over teaching
process is defined in terms of teacher autonomy. This philosophy leads to the point
that teacher autonomy is crucial to inculcate learner autonomy in a constructive
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language learning environment. The role of the teacher autonomy asserts the value of
teacher’s reflection on her own practices and then making desired changes
(Thavenius, 1999). An autonomous teacher “can help her learners become
autonomous, and...independent enough to let her learners become independent”
(Thavenius 1999, p.160). Similarly, Little (1995) advocates the inherent connection of
teacher working on learner autonomy with teacher autonomy in language teaching
perspective in the following words:
Genuinely successful teachers have always been autonomous in the sense of
having a strong sense of personal responsibility for their teaching, exercising
via continuous reflection and analysis the highest degree of affective and
cognitive control of the teaching process, and exploring the freedom that this
confers. (p. 179)
This discussion thus entails that to develop learner autonomy; a teacher is required to
be trained by educational interventions. Further, Little (1995) proclaims that
“language teachers are more likely to succeed in promoting learner autonomy if their
own education has encouraged them to be autonomous” (p.180). This concept of
teacher education has relevance to pre-service training of the art of teaching with
special reference to endorse learner autonomy. The matter is not alone of fostering
learner autonomy; in the present context, teachers command over educational
technologies is equally important. I find that development of “learner autonomy
requires a shift in the role of the teacher from purveyor of information to facilitator of
learning and manager of learning resources” (Little, 2004, p. 178). As per current
technologically tuned scenario; a teacher needs to introduce, use and work around
technology in one way or the other. Hence, many later studies focused more on in-
service teacher training for competence development of teachers on educational
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technologies to facilitate teaching learning process. In this context, I interpolate with
Levy’s (1997, p. 231) opinion, “It is language teachers who exert ultimate control
over what materials are chosen and subsequently used by students in the classroom.”
Even if the material is provided in the self-access centres or through CALL software,
the students are not expected to use them continuously without direction or
encouragement of the teacher. Teacher remains the motivational factor in and out-of-
the classroom practices for most of the ESL learners. Keeping this dimension in view
it is crucial to provide in-service training to teachers for making conducive learning
environment in the higher education sector of the country. Bearing this concept in
mind, the survey includes this theme to ask for teachers’ reflection on their own
pedagogical scenario. Benson & Huang (2008) comprehensively put forward the
conceptualization of the role of teacher autonomy
... as a professional attribute connected, on one hand, to a capacity to control
the processes involved in teaching process and, on the other, to a capacity to
control one’s own development as a teacher. In the first sense, teacher
autonomy is a parallel concept to learner autonomy; while autonomous
learners control learning, autonomous teachers control teaching. In the second
sense, it involves the teacher’s own autonomy as a learner; autonomous
teachers control the process of learning how to teach, which may include
ongoing learning of their subject matter. (p. 429)
In this connection it is evident that they favour teacher autonomy incorporating
elements of “professionalism, professional freedom and self-direction within the
process of learning how to teach”. This conceptualization of teacher autonomy
implies significance of “teacher education at a number of levels, including pre-service
and in-service programmes, and teachers’ own efforts to improve their professional
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competence”. However, in Pakistani ESL perspective there are spaces and gaps to be
addressed with reference to teachers’ professional competence.
It is obvious that learner’s prior experience influence the selection of
resources, level of autonomy in using digital resources and language learning needs.
The university students, who have already worked on computers either for web
browsing or sending emails or using social media for communication, will work
confidently with technology. While the students with no prior experience of
autonomously making choices or of computers generally require more teacher
support.
To summarize, ESL learners, who lack autonomy, develop it with autonomous
teachers. This development of autonomy implies better language learning. Therefore,
learner-teacher interdependence and form of learner dependence upon teacher are not
as such separate phenomena. It reflects the degree to which learner autonomy is now
viewed as a socially and institutionally contextualized construct that depends on
teacher. Here, I take women teacher autonomy, teacher technology literacy and
teacher identity as three elemental facets to the development of learner autonomy.
Above all, the role of a female teacher in the institution is linked to teachers’ social
and political identity.
3.1.3.2 Towards Technology-based Development of Learner Autonomy
The independent use of instructional technology is the core of technology-
based learner autonomy (Benson, 2011a). Technology offers multiple gadgets of
fundamental significance in terms of usage in language teaching and learning,
including smart cell phones, tablets, iPods, computers, laptops, palmtops. Moreover,
technology offers a versatile communication via internet including browsing WWW
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and CMC (Computer Mediated Communication). This all comes under wider CALL
context (Benson, 2011; Littlemore & Oakey, 2004), provided a teacher chooses to use
them for language learning process. This human-computer interaction (HCI) though,
teacher directed, remains in the definition of independent use of language learning
resources. However, in formal education, authority remains with the teacher, as
teacher is a steering force. So, in this context it is inevitable to ignore the significance
of teachers’ role in leading the students and directing the learners to incorporate
technology even at higher education level; for I believe, autonomous learning and
independent learning does not connote teacher-less education system. This premise is
also put forth by Shetzer & Warschauer (2000): “Whereas previously educators
considered how to use information technology in order to teach language, it is now
essential also to consider how to teach language so that learners can make effective
use of information technology.”
Today the use of technology in education has entered a phase where
knowledge of technology in relation to language learning is developing, and gives rise
to need to develop knowledge of technology (Kasper, 2000). Wherein, electronic
literacy is defined as the knowledge to select and use tools for communication,
research and autonomous learning (Shetzer, 1998).There are number of ways in which
teacher can use technology in developing ESL learner autonomy.
Benson (2011) puts forward an analysis of the potential of use of technology
for second language learning in terms of CALL for the fostering learner autonomy.
Describing Warschauer and Healy’s (1998) classification of ‘CALL applications and
artefacts’, Benson (2011) presents technology-based learner autonomy with respect to
the potential of technology to provide learners the control over the learning content
and process (see Table 3.2). It is discussed in the previous chapter that from the
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beginning, use of technology for language teaching and learning gives learners control
over some aspects of their language learning. Blin (2005) explicating this Benson’s
elucidation of learner control in technology rich environment describes:
While earlier applications mainly allowed control over the pace of learning
and a limited choice over the mode of interaction with the program (e.g.
instructional, practice or testing mode), more recent CALL applications, such
as the use of Internet, offer much broader opportunities for the exercise of
learner autonomy. ( p. 28)
Such attention to the development of learner autonomy is due to the shift in
pedagogical focus from the teacher led ways to learner-centred and learner driven
approach to teaching English as second language (see for example, Jung &
Venderplank, 1994; Levy, 1997).
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Table 3.2: CALL stages and learner autonomy
CALL Applications and Artifacts
(from Warschauer & Healy, 1998)
Potential for Learner
Autonomy(Benson, 2001)
Drills, vocabulary and grammar
Control over pace of learning;
control over mode(e.g.
instruction,practice or testing).
Text reconstruction, games, simulations
(problemsolving,cognitive engagement,
spoken communicationwith peers)
Control over path taken.
Word processors, desktop publishing
packages,concordances and
databases(Computer tool used to facilitate
linguistic processesinvolved in achieving non
linguistic goals or toachieve linguistic goals
that could not otherwise easilybe achieved)
Control over text creation and
interpretation;control over process of
learning;development of
metacognitive skills
andmetalinguistic awareness (i.e.
cognitive andmetacognitive
autonomy).
Multimedia, hypermedia and interactive
technologiespromoting integration of skills
(CD-ROMs)(Rich linguistic and non-
linguistic input, new languagepresented
through a variety of media, branchingoptions)
Control over the selection of
materials andover strategies of
interpretation.
CAL
Source: Blin (2005, p. 29)
3.1.4 Little’s Model of Interaction with Technology for the Development of
Learner Autonomy
However, to better understand what technology offers to language teachers to
develop learner autonomy, Little’s (1996) model of ‘interaction’ with technology is
presented in the following discourse. I have included this model here to elaborate on
the concept of technology-based approach to learner autonomy in a three dimensional
conceptual framework of interaction through technology in Pakistani ESL paradigm at
higher education level. Little uses the term ‘information system’ for technology to
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signal the fact that the teaching learning scenario is rapidly moving towards integrated
multimedia (Little, 1996, p. 211).
To Little the Vygotskian assumption that capacity to reflect and analyse is
central to development of learner autonomy, is the key theoretical underpinning of
this model. Cognitively this capacity of reflection depends on internalization of a
capacity to participate fully and critically in social intercourse. Little (1996)
elaborates three types of interaction for development of learner autonomy:
a) interaction with information system that is using computer as a tutor;
b) interaction around information that is using word processor or learning
through interactive video programmes, which fosters learner autonomy
as it is “computer interaction for linguistic support” (p. 215); and
c) interaction via information system that is browsing the World Wide
Web or interacting via social networking cites or emails.
Contesting on this last point, I insert Benson’s view that it is not instructional
technology but internet that provides ample opportunities to develop autonomy
(Benson, 2011a). Nevertheless, the learner training for successful learner autonomy
depends on the use of technology. Substantiating this view I interpose Levy’s (1997)
explication that the learner training will “differ for computer tutors and computer
tools” (p.199). He also maintains:
If the computer tutor has been well designed, it will have tutorial, context
sensitive help, and a management system that will guide the learner and be
responsive to the particular needs and level of the learner… then it can provide
real autonomous learning opportunities for the student. However, in the role of
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tutor… control is delegated to computer to manage the learning. (Levy, 1997,
p. 199)
To sum up, the independent use of instructional technology is the core of
technology-based learner autonomy technology. Computer as a tutor, tool or resource
encourages the teachers and learners to reflect and analyse. This process automatically
aids learner autonomy. However, technology may hinder learner autonomy if it is not
properly employed in teaching learning situation. Thus, it is important that the teacher
guides the learners how to control technology and what learners can do to not let
technology control them.
With no agreed agenda to study the impact of technology on female ESL
tertiary level teachers, this study addresses female teacher autonomy, teacher identity,
and role of the teacher in the development of learner autonomy. In this way, the above
mentioned ontological and epistemological standpoints lead to the numerous points of
departure. To put these epistemological assumptions on the proposed problem of the
impact of technology on the women teaching in the institutions of the higher
education, a feminist methodological framework is designed with a survey as the
research instrument.
3.2 A Feminist Methodological Framework
Feminist methodology is adopted to study the women teaching ESL at tertiary
level institutions of Pakistan with the aim to address the impact of the use of
technology for the development of learner autonomy. As feminist methodology is
carried out to study human subjects in relation to their social factors (Park, 2009), this
study embarks on the thesis statement with this methodological standpoint. This
method is extensively in practice in socio feminine pedagogical research (see for
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example Bloom, 1998; Park 2009) for providing not only detailed information of the
target population, but from the target population, by a member of the target
population. Bloom (1998) summarizes her understanding about the concept of
feminist methodology as: (a) the social construction of gender, (b) the study of
women’s diverse lives, (c) the contexts of the research questions, (d) the critical self-
reflections of the researcher, and (e) researcher-respondent relationships (as cited in
Park, 2009). This methodological framework was adopted with the expectations to
provide reliable results for description of use of technology and the development of
learner autonomy from the feminist perspective of tertiary level ESL pedagogy.
The rationale behind the selection of feminist methodology for the present
research is twofold. Firstly, the feminist research methodology being grounded in
feminist theory (Park 2009) helps to understand the perceptions of desired population
under consideration for this study- the Pakistani women teaching ESL at tertiary level.
Secondly, such methodology provides pragmatic, reflexive, and situated research
(Franks, 2002; Harding, 1987) in the field of feminist pedagogy. Therefore, the
multiplicity, fragmentation, and differences in my dissertation were strongly
supported by the characteristics of feminist research methodology (Park, 2009; Hesse-
Biber & Leckenby, 2004; Ramazanoglu, 2002; Alcoff, 1997; Harding, 1987).
This methodological standpoint enables me to carry out an in depth study of
the subjects from a Pakistani feminist perspective. In the study women’s diverse
experiences are the resource of feminist knowledge of the use of technology for the
development of ESL learner autonomy. Feminist research methodology provides
many insights into what feminist researchers consider when applying the
methodology to both conducting research and writing. Feminist research allowed me
to apply multiple theoretical underpinnings that foreground the realm of feminist ESL
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pedagogy in the presence of technological interventions in Pakistan. Being a feminist
research this study respects diversity and difference of opinion. It allowed me to
interpret respondents’ opinions objectively through the generated data and
subjectively by mingling my own experiences into interpretations with those of the
respondents. Hence it is a study about women, for women, by a woman. This is why
feminist research methodology was significant to my dissertation research. To
conclude, this methodological choice strengthens the present research because
feminist research utilizes women’s experiences as resources; it is a study about
women and for women, it allows the researcher’s own experiential knowledge; it
values the differences; and it requires self-reflection (Park, 2009).
In order to gather data from the diversely distributed population of the present
study an empirical instrument, survey, was used. The survey is selected because it
provides the measurable and quantifiable data. Such empirical data helped to
demonstrate the real impact of technology on women teachers. Therefore, the
elemental reason, behind selection of this research instrument, is to choose a
quantitative approach where the process of analysis only comes when the whole data
is collected. Secondly, quantitative analysis allows the participation of a larger
audience. In parallel to this Marsen (2006) employed the quantitative approaches to
“predict social outcomes by analyzing society and social interactive process along
rational and scientific lines.” Being rooted in empirical sciences, it relies on collection
of measurable data the research techniques like survey and to carry out statistical
analyses to measure and classify phenomenon under study (Marsen, 2006).
Conclusively, in keeping with this epistemology, I resorted to feminist
methodological approach to study the feminist standpoint with a designed survey.
This empirical study was conducted in three phases which are outlined in Figure I
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below. In the first phase of the study a survey was developed and pilot tested, before
embarking upon actual research. In the phase II the survey is administered to get an
insight from the women respondents on the use of technology and the role of the
teachers of ESL on the development of learner autonomy in Pakistani institutions of
higher education. In the third phase of the study data collected was analyzed and
interpreted. The yielded quantitative data was analysed statistically using SPSS
version 18. Descriptive statistics measures (i.e. frequency counts and percentages)
were taken to analyse the yielded data. Inferential statistics is also used to examine
relationships between variables and differences among them. In order to establish
correlations among research variables Pearson Correlation analysis was used; and to
find the significant difference of means One Way ANOVA analyses were carried out.
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Figure 3.1: Phases of the Study
3.3 Phase I: Survey and Piloting
3.3.1 Development of Survey
The formal procedure for research in Phase I commenced with the development of
the survey, which aimed at obtaining responses of the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education on the use of technology and development of learner
autonomy. The above narrated epistemological assumptions led to the construction of
the survey as an empirical tool for this study. It has provided me that creative space
that is needed to interpret the data from the defined theoretical triangulation
standpoints to explain the point of view of the women teachers on the use of
technology for the development of tertiary level ESL learner autonomy.
Phase
I
Development of Survey
Pilot StudyFinal drafting
of Survey
Phase
II
Survey
AdministrationStoring Data
Missing data analysis
Phase III Statistical Analyses
Interpretation
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3.3.1.1 Rationale for selecting Survey as a Research Instrument
I developed an on-line survey to study the Pakistani female teachers’
reflection on technology and development of ESL learner autonomy in the feminist
perspective. The survey is selected as a research instrument as surveys are often
considered to be an easy and convenient mean of gathering data from a large
population compared to other data collection tools (O’malley & Chamot, 1990),
which makes survey much more advantageous than any other research tool. And an
on-line survey has more benefits than a traditional survey. It can be easily and
economically developed by using any of the free on-line software. Moreover, survey
provides fast and straightforward data processing, especially by using modern
computer software (Dornyei, 2003; Creswell, 2012). For the purpose of this study, I
developed the survey by creating an account on ‘Survey face’, an on-line survey
developer that offered assistance in authoring the survey with the help of already
programmed survey format. It allowed me authoring variety of questions ranging
from close ended to open ended; from single answer options to multiple answers
option.
Being on-line, it was easy and economical to administer the survey by posting on
social networking cites or via e-mail/message service of any social networking cite.
Thus, it allowed an access to larger participants of the target population surpassing the
limitations of geographical diversity. Above all it allowed studying the summary of
the data all along the data collection process which guided the further data collection
process. However, all these advantages are meaningless if the survey is not carefully
developed and this is the reason for which survey- based research is often criticized.
The survey for this study was designed to answer the research question:
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What is the impact of technology on the women ESL teacher autonomy, a
prerequisite to the development of learner autonomy, in Pakistani higher
education institutions?
This basic research question is explored to conceptualize and contextualize this study
on three scales which are addressed in the three sub-questions:
4. To what extent, are the female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of
higher education professionally trained so as to be autonomously engaged in
the development of learner autonomy?
5. What is the impact of technology on the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education?
6. What is the role of the women teaching in the institutions of higher education
in the development of learner autonomy?
Given that, the epistemological framework provided an insight of impact of
technology on the teacher and learner autonomy, it enabled to decide the theoretical
assumptions and philosophies central to the development of the survey in accordance
with the purpose of this research and research questions of my study. The next step
was to devise well-written and technically relevant items of the survey, which means
the items which were relevant to the objectives of the study. Moreover, keeping in
view that the relevance to the research questions is a pre-requisite to avoid
shortcomings (Borg and Al-Bausaidi, 2012); the concept map of this study was
revisited. Development of the survey relevant to teachers’ every day teaching
experience was also taken as a prerequisite. A good survey form needs to be
comprehensive and precise, yet interesting and professional and above all respondent
friendly. Survey is considered as respondent friendly only if it offers logical
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progression and ease of completion and submission which is kept in view throughout
the process. Therefore, these notions were kept on the forefront while designing the
survey. The process of designing was quite long and complicated; however, after
various revisions the final version of survey was developed (see Appendix A). The
designing process of the survey before reaching the final version is described below.
The epistemological framework guided a number of principles and theories
underpinning the trio of technology, development of learner autonomy and feminist
perspective. This critical review put forth many issues relevant to the research
variables that I require to address. Throughout the process of development of survey
the review of the related literature showed diverse and varied directions. I started
with the review of these frameworks to produce a list of workable categories. In order
to simplify this process, I divided the retrieved points into categories and sub-
categories. At this point many issues and points, being not directly relevant, are
dismissed. This process has enabled to decide the final set of categories. This final set
seems to be of great value for development of survey items. Following is the list of
shortlisted categories for the survey:
i. Teachers’ professional competence.
ii. Teachers’ training
iii. Computers as a tool for creating teaching and assessment material.
iv. Technology as a provider of teaching resource material.
v. Computer as a tutor
vi. Internet as provider of learning resources
vii. Identification of learners traits for development of learner
autonomy
viii. Capacity building in development of learner autonomy
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ix. Learner dependence versus independence
x. Decision making
xi. Integration of technology
xii. Women learner autonomy in the gender dichotomy
In order to design items for survey from these categories different scales were
used. Predominantly, this study used a Likert-type scale. These types of scales are the
most useful in behavioural research because the use of Likert-scales can help avoid
loading participant with immense work and ensure an overall view of the focus of the
research (Hinkin, 1995). Likert-type scales can vary in the number of scale points
(e.g. 4 or 7 points) as well as the descriptors. For the current study, the unbalanced
scale (5) was used because a 5-point Likert-type scale is widely accepted as a proxy
interval level of measurement in line with common practice in educational research
(Dornyei, 2003).
Drafting these concepts into workable items for the survey was another
challenge. Firstly, the categories were defined in terms of the objectives of the
research. I then decided to divide the above outlined categories to devise two sections
of the survey: one for demographic details and teachers’ professional training; while
second for Likert-type scale items to explore respondents’ use of technology for the
development of autonomy. However, the review inspired me to delete some items,
either being repetitive or irrelevant. Moreover, while working on the third draft I
divided the survey into three sections. The items for the first section were related to
demographic details and teachers’ professional training including categories i and ii
detailed above. The second section included categories ii-vi, and items were designed
on 5 Point Likert-type scales eliciting how frequently teachers use technology in the
ESL academic activities. Third section comprised categories based on concepts vii-
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xii, on five point Likert-type scale of agreement to elucidate female teachers’ role in
the development of learner autonomy.
Two of the experienced colleagues were asked to review this third draft; they
also had the experience of carrying out research with a survey as a tool of study. Their
remarks contributed a lot to make amendments in the items. One of them drew
attention to add items that should discreetly address gender perspective; secondly
some of the items were repetitive in concept. In the light of these remarks redrafting
and revision process started. This was once again a time taking process after many
revisions the finalized eighth draft comprised 14 items in the section 2, and 28 items
in section; while first section included 7 items. This draft was once again reviewed
and guidelines led to deletion of similar items and addition of two new items. And the
9th draft included 10 questions in the first section to find demographic details and 4
dichotomous questions to address respondents’ professional competence, second
section included 16items, and third section comprised 25 items. The survey was then
tried by pilot testing. The following section would present the pilot study Phase of the
study.
3.3.2 The Pilot Study
In order to make the main study successful, a pilot study was administered in July
2015, with a group similar to those in the main sample population that is the women
teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education. Its main objectives were to test
the reliability of the survey and make recommended changes in the light of the
respondents’ comments. At this stage of the study it guided to remove items which
did not yield usable data, moreover, guided to add items to fill any data gaps.
Moreover, it was helpful to find out the approximate length of time needed for the
main study. Another advantage of conducting a pilot study is avoiding those mistakes,
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which could hinder the success of the main study. It also aids in practicing and
selecting appropriate statistical analysis techniques for the analysis of the main data.
3.3.2.1 Sample Selected for the Pilot Study
The following steps were taken by the present researcher in order to determine the
size and the characteristics of the selected sample:
a. The sample for the pilot study was chosen from teachers of English, as in the main
study.
b. Only the female teachers were chosen as planned for the main study.
c. Subjects were chosen from the four Universities.
Following the above mentioned lines, the data is yielded for the pilot test of the
Technology and Development of Learner Autonomy Survey via e-mail invitations to
the selected teachers teaching in the institutions of higher education. This phase of the
study gathered 22 responses in a time frame of eight days, out of 22 responses 18
were completely filled while 4 were partially filled. However, the yielded data from
all 22 responses was analyzed to test the reliability and validity of the research
instrument. This number of responses allowed me to carry out some meaningful item
analysis and make revisions deemed necessary before formally administering the
survey for the research.
3.3.2.2 Validity of the Survey
Validity of an educational research instrument is a preliminary condition for
yielding a comprehensive and dependable data. Before applying a test, it is important
to examine the extent of its validity. Pidgeon and Yates (1968) elucidated that a valid
research instrument ‘demonstrably measures what it was intended to measure’ (p.61).
In order to determine both the content validity and the face validity of the survey, I
took the following steps:
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a. The questionnaire was checked by two of my colleagues and was rechecked
for accuracy by two more colleagues at Islamia University Bahawalpur.
Although it was time-consuming, it was significant for the content validity of
the survey.
b. The suggestions of the respondents, who were all ESL teachers, and my
colleagues, also provided valuable information to improve the content of the
survey.
c. In the light of these suggestions the final draft was formulated; and it was
examined by a number of jurors, including three PhD scholars and 2 university
teachers, in order to determine its validity. These jurors had an experience of
designing and reviewing research survey.
d. In the light of the comments by the experts the items that were confusing were
reworded before a pilot test 2, in order to verify that the items were well
understood and that the test did not yield obvious bias effects (Dornyei, 2003;
Saris & Gallhofer, 2007).The jurors agreed unanimously that the questionnaire
was valid in content and it could be deemed to measure what it claimed to
measure.
3.3.2.3 Reliability of the Research Instrument
Parallel to validity check, for the reliability15of the research instrument the
statistic measure Cronbach’s Alpha is used to assess the extent to which scales display
‘unidimensionality’. According to Bryman & Cramer (2005) (as cited in Borg & Al-
Bausaidi, 2012 ) the 0.8 alpha level indicates a good level of conceptual relatedness
among items and 0.7 alpha level is acceptable. The 16 items in section two produced
an alpha of 0.701 and 25 items in section three produced an alpha of 0.717. Although
15Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it intends to measure.
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I consider the fact that these statistical results here would have also been influenced
by firstly, in one case the small number of items as compared to the other scale;
secondly, the small pilot sample, This analysis led to further revisions in the survey.
The analysis of the items on the above detailed concept scale, provided evidence that
in several cases the items in each scale were not addressing a common underlying
concept. Thus, these items were revised so as to increase the reliability measure of
every concept. These results nonetheless stimulated to engage in further revision of
the Likert-scale items in Section 3 of the survey. Revisions are thus made to improve
the reliability level of section three. After revisions the survey was pilot tested again.
3.3.2.4 The Pilot Test 2
For the follow up pilot test, the survey was posted on facebook group to invite
responses from ESL teachers from higher education institutions. The 20 responses
were gathered. The yielded data is analyzed on reliability scale with SPSS (version
20) for Chronbach’s Alpha. This time Section II and III fulfilled the criteria of
reliability and Alpha level was greater than 0.8 as illustrated in Table 3.2. The sixteen
items in the pilot survey on the concept of ‘Use of Technology in ESL Teaching’
produced an alpha of 0.905. Similarly, reliability scale is equally adequate for section
three, where the 25 items on ‘The Role of Teacher in the Development of Learner
Autonomy’ indicated Chronbach’s Alpha at 0.917.
Table 3.2: Reliability Statistics
No. Of
respondents
% Cronbach’s
Alpha
No. Of Items
Use of Technology Valid 20 100.0 .905 16
Role of the Teacher 20 100.0 .917 25
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This desired reliability level guided to continue data collection process
including these 20 responses. Here, it is vital to describe this final version of survey.
3.3.3 Final Draft of Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy
Survey
This final draft of the survey comprised three sections. However, the head of
the survey includes the introduction and invitation to the survey (see Appendix A).
First section is reserved to gather information on respondents’ professional training as
ESL teachers and demographic details. Second section addresses the teachers’ use of
technology in ESL teaching practices, while the third section addresses the role of the
teacher in developing learner autonomy. The following discourse includes an
elaboration of the three sections.
Demographic data alone is insufficient to provide information on teachers’
professional competence; therefore, the first section includes the concept of teachers’
training as well. The section, thus, includes items to get information on gender, age,
educational qualification, experience, and respondent’s work place. Gender
identification is one of the prerequisites as teachers’ identity is the matter of interest in
the present research. Moreover, at the analyses phase it helped to filter the responses
generated from only women respondent. To contextualize the concept of technology
through teachers’ professional training, five items were formulated. These items
categorically aim to embark at
a) teacher’s computer proficiency level,
b) in-service computer training,
c) self- motivated computer training,
d) teachers’ involvement in e-research in general; and
e) ESL research in particular.
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Except for computer proficiency level, which was given the continuum of five-point
scale of excellence i.e. from ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’, the rest of the items were
dichotomous with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ options.
In the second section of the survey the items are added to evaluate how frequently
women ESL teachers use technology to facilitate teaching process of ESL in the
institutions of higher education. The independent use of instructional technology
being the core of technology-based learner autonomy (Benson, 2007a), is central to
the context of ESL pedagogy. Technology allows the learners ample opportunities to
have control over learning procedure, which enables learners to pursue learning at
their own pace (Benson, 2001). Keeping with this, the second section of the survey
includes the items on use of technology inside the classroom. For example, the use of
computer as a tutor by conducting CALL activities in University’s Computer Lab
allows the learners to have a control over the pace of learning and over the learning
path. The learners can mend and make amendments to correct their own language
problems if the correct use of language is modelled before them. Modern technology
has provided this opportunity in the hands of every teacher. Today, the use of
technology for assisting the teaching process by using multi-media projector, cell
phone, I-Phone, tab, CD Rom etc, is commonplace, owing to the ease of availability
and utility. This instantaneous decision of the teacher in the classroom helps the
learners to have control over evaluation of their own language errors and mistakes.
The teachers are asked that how frequently they use these mediums to facilitate
learning, for example for modelling correct pronunciation.
Little’s (1996) model of interaction with the technology had been a source for
grounding the theoretical underpinnings of this part, particularly. In Little’s model,
the Vygotsky’s opinion on cognition of learning is synonymous to the capacity to
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reflect and analyse, which is central to development of learner autonomy, and it is the
key theory to this model. Interaction with technology for using computer as a tutor;
interaction around technology that is using word processor or learning through
interactive video programmes; and interaction via technology is browsing the World
Wide Web or interacting via social networking cites or emails. The review of the
literature reflects that these three levels of interaction are central to many of the
researches being conducted to study the relational ties of technology and development
of learner autonomy (Blin, 2005; Willis, 2011). Nonetheless, the research in this field
does not address the teachers’ reflection on the use of these interaction patterns in the
language pedagogy, particularly, women ESL teachers in Pakistan. In order to address
this gap, this study intended to throw light on it by asking women teachers to reflect
on their teaching practices.
Given that the language teachers’ responsibility begins in the classroom but it
includes that learning process as well which is called follow up programme, this
section includes the interaction with the technology outside the classroom. It is often
crucial to language learning that what a teacher guides to students to use technology
for outside the classroom. The items in this section addressed variety of technology
applications including word processor for exhibiting the control over text creation;
use of internet to control the access to learning content by browsing World Wide Web
to access authentic reading material and solving language learning activities for
development of all four language learning skills. More emphasis is given to internet
than any other technology usage, since it is not technology but internet that provides
ample opportunities to develop autonomy (Benson, 2005). Therefore, this section
included the items on the use of internet resources to facilitate learning. Internet also
allows control over interaction with peers, teachers and even native speakers by
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sending or receiving emails and chatting via other cites of social networking.
Moreover, it inquires how frequently teachers guide students to solve on-line
grammar and vocabulary quizzes which allow control over pace of learning.
Keeping in view the aspiration of third part of the survey to assess the role of
the women teachers in development of ESL learner autonomy, this section elicits
responses on the five point Likert-scale of agreement. Its design helps in establishing
the direct correlation of technology, autonomy and underlying socio-cultural construct
of women in Pakistan. This theoretical assumption not only directly addresses
teachers’ classroom practices in relation to technology and developing learner
autonomy; but also elicits to what extent the teachers agree that they incorporate
technology in and outside the classroom to facilitate learner autonomy.
In order to address the argument that role of the teacher is significant in the
development of learner autonomy, the section three of the survey includes twenty five
items. The items aim to assess as to what extent teachers agree that the role of the
teacher affects development of learner autonomy. Identification of the affective
factors, for example motivation and attitude to learning, was taken as a central role of
the teacher in ESL teaching for fostering learner autonomy. The attitude of the
learners’ towards learning a language being positive or negative obviously demands
the teacher to play her role to treat the learners as individuals and facilitate them. As it
is evident that learners’ attitude may inhibit the learner or may facilitate the learning
process. Thus, the argument that the learners’ individual traits are the factors that
affect language learning process holds much to debate on. Therefore, the items are
designed to ask teachers’ reflection to evaluate development of learner autonomy in
terms of willingness to learn and motivation.
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Capacity building of the learners as the role of the teacher in teaching-learning
process is considered central to the development of learner autonomy. Therefore, this
section includes the items to get teachers reflection on capacity building of learners to
take autonomous action, especially in regard to monitoring and evaluation of learning
process. Therefore, the women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education
are asked to reflect on the learners’ capacity to take responsibility of one’s own
learning, skill to evaluate what one has achieved, ability to monitor one’s own
learning and learning to work alone.
Independendence vs dependence, student centred vs teacher led ways are the
concepts addressed under the umbrella of any teacher-based approach to learner
autonomy (Benson, 2011a). The argument that independent learning involves
learners taking responsibility for their own learning is recognized by many
researchers and language teachers as providing a context within which autonomy can
be promoted and supported. However, it is also debated that learning with exclusion
of teacher is a farce. In order to come to conclusion for these notions, the survey
included items to get an insight of teachers’ role on the extent of intervention in the
learning paradigm.
Decision making on what and how to learn is defined by Benson (2011a) as
curriculum-based autonomous learning, though this idea holds larger concept than the
one addressed here. The items in this research are designed to inquire as to what
extent teachers agree that if they allow learners to make choice or decide about what
to learn and what activities to do to develop learner autonomy.
The technology based items intend to elicit the women teachers’ reflection on
the integration of technology in and outside the educational institution for the
development of learner autonomy. The items are designed on independent interaction
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via technology outside the class such as browsing the World Wide Web; independent
interaction with educational technologies inside the class such as CALL programmes;
independent interaction with technology, for instance by using word processor for
composition.
The argument, that the women teachers consider the social perspective of
learners’ gender, is addressed in this section. The gender dichotomy is the core
concept that addresses the learners’ identities in the co-education system prevailing in
the institutions of higher education in Pakistan. In order to study the role of the
teacher in this social paradigm of ESL pedagogy, the survey included four items.
Although, the impact on Pakisatni women of technology and development of ESL
learner autonomy would be addressed universally, through all the sections of the
survey, it is added here to get an insight of the teachers’ consideration of the learning
traits of individuals in the gender dichotomy.
3.4 Phase II
3.4.1 Survey Administration
The key participants for the Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy Survey were predominantly drawn from those involved in ESL teaching to
the advanced learners in the Pakistani institutions of higher education- Universities
and postgraduate colleges. The participants are approached through electronic means.
Like many researchers (for example Saris & Gallhofer, 2007), I preferred using an
electronic survey (internet-based survey) because of its speed and accessibility, as it
allows fast and easy collection of data with a high response rate and a high quality of
response. The survey is administered via e-mails, facebook messages, facebook posts,
telephones and personal meetings. However, through all modes the participants were
provided with the link to the on-line survey. This pre-requisite is taken to generate the
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data from those women teachers who are utilizing technology for academic or non-
academic purposes. The assumption, therefore, is that the women teachers in higher
education are inclined to technology integration for pedagogical practices. The period
for data collection that started in July 2015 was terminated at the end of September,
2015. The participants for the survey were approached on the basis of the following
parameters:
Gender: Female
Language: ESL
Students: Advanced learners
Institution: Universities and Colleges of higher education
Audience: ESL teachers, especially those who are actively using technology
for academic and non academic purposes.
‘Purposeful’ and ‘snowball’ sampling techniques were employed. These sampling
techniques were employed rather than random sampling, so that those female teachers
could be accessed whose knowledge and expertise are substantial in utilizing
technology. This was complemented by snowball sampling which enabled the
approached respondents to forward online survey to those colleagues whose expertise
and interests are same. The sample of survey respondents was constructed from
various sources. This procedure of survey administration is graphically represented in
Figure 3.2 Initially the survey link is uploaded on various facebook groups: CALL
Pakistan, PhD Research Scholars (English) and CALL Teachers (e.g. see Appendix
D). Secondly, the websites of Universities in Pakistan are browsed and the data of
Pakistani ESL female teachers is accessed. Then all those ESL female teachers, whose
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e-mail addresses were mentioned, were sent participation invitations along with the
link of survey. The contact names from universities websites enabled to find teachers
using facebook. Then the friend list of every teacher enabled to send request to other
ESL University teachers. Many participant teachers voluntarily invited their
colleagues to participate in research. Later Universities and colleges were visited and
teachers’ e-mail addresses were gathered to send survey participation requests. Later,
the reminders were sent via e-mails and telephonic conversations.
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Figure 3.2: Procedure of Survey Administration
Consequently, the women teaching in various colleges and universities across
Pakistan were accessed. The item on gender was added to filter the responses of
female teachers only, as the survey was electronic and some of the medium of
invitations were open like invitation via ‘facebook group’. Therefore, when total 151
responses were received; 22 responses filled by men; and the one response where
respondent did not specify the gender, were excluded from the final data analysis.
Procedure of survey Administration
Browsing Websites of the Pakistani Universities
Retrieved
e-mails
Sent Survey Participarion
Requests
Posted
Reminders
Retreived Names
Searched People on Facebook
Sent Survey Participation
Requests
Posted
Reminders
Key Respondents'
Friend List was searched
Sent Survey Participation
Requests
Posted Reminders
Facebook groups
Posted Survey
Participation Request
Posted Reminders
Visited universities and colleges
Gathered e-mail addresses
Sent Survey Participation
Requests
Posted
Reminders
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Table 3.3: Gender of the Respondents
Gender Number of
Participants Percentage
Female 128 85.0%
Male 22 14.6%
Non-indicated gender 1 0.01%
Total 151
Thus, the 128 responses as that were received from female teachers became the
part of this study (see Table 3.3). The analysis of item Q 1.4 showed that data was
gathered from more than 33 institutions of higher education from almost all the
provinces of Pakistan (see Appendix B that summarizes the data on the respondents’
workplace). Only 81 women respondents in response to Q 1.4 named the institution
where they are performing their duties as teachers of ESL (see Appendix B).
Moreover, the information gathered on the age group of respondent is also analysed
through descriptive statistics (see Appendix C).
3.4.2 Data Feeding and Missing Data Analysis
The yielded data from the Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy Survey were entered into a data processing statistical software SPSS
(Version 20).Firstly the analyses were conducted to ensure the accuracy of the data, to
detect any missing values, and to assess the reliability of the scale. The accuracy of
the data was examined by using ‘sort cases’ in ascending order for each variable as
the values of every variable were arranged from the smallest to the largest number,
which helped the researcher to detect any discrepancies in data. The data file was also
examined visually for missing data. The responses of few participants were
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problematic. Participant # 54,55,76,77, 82, 83 and 127 had not responded to one or
two items of Section 1 (Demography and Teachers’ Professional Competence) of the
survey, while Participant #59, 66 and 69 had only responded to Section 1 but
Participant # 59 had even not responded to two items of Section 1. In addition,
Participant # 17, 45, 48, 86 and 128 did not respond to Section 3(The Role of the
Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy) of the survey. None of these
responses were rejected; however, the number of participant is mentioned with every
tabulated analysis sheet in the following chapter.
Table 3.4: Missing Value Analysis
Sca
le
Subscales Missing
No. of
Extremes*
Mean Std. Dev No. % Low High
SE
CT
ION
1 Educational Qualification 1.89 .536 0 .0 . .
Experience 3.00 1.357 0 .0 0 0
Teachers’ Competence in Technology 4.41 1.220 5 3.9 0 0
SE
CT
ION
2
Technology as a Tool 7.90 2.345 3 2.3 12 6
Technology as a Resource 5.89 1.956 3 2.3 8 0
Use of Technology inside the Classroom 9.46 3.470 3 2.3 0 0
Use of Technology Outside the
Classroom 17.84 5.613 3 2.3 12 0
Identification 8.06 1.672 8 6.3 7 0
SE
CT
ION
3
Capacity Building 12.50 2.126 8 6.3 9 0
Intervention 25.42 4.380 8 6.3 4 0
Decision Making 11.80 2.462 8 6.3 4 0
Integration of Technology 12.83 2.465 8 6.3 10 5
Social Paradigm 12.83 2.465 8 6.3 10 5
a. Number of cases outside the range (Q1 - 1.5*IQR, Q3 + 1.5*IQR).
b. indicates that the inter-quartile range (IQR) is zero.
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In order to analyze the missing values from the yielded data Missing Value
Analysis was carried out with Univariate descriptive Statistics and the results are
tabulated in Table 3.4. Univariate analysis was used to explore each variable in a data
set, separately. It looked at the range of values, as well as the central tendency of the
values. It has not only helped to describe the pattern of response to the variable but
has also described each variable on its own. Moreover, where descriptive statistics
describe and summarize data, Univariate descriptive statistics describe individual
variables. Table 3.4 summarises the Univariate descriptive statistics – means,
standard deviation and missing data count and ranges for each subscale from Section
1 to Section 3 – in relation to the data from Technology and Development of ESL
Learner Autonomy Survey.
The results obtained after the analysis of Section I show that mean score for
educational qualification of the respondents remained 1.89 with 0.536 standard
deviations and 0 missing value. Similarly, the mean score for the experience of
women ESL teachers remained 3.00 with 1.357 standard deviations and 0 missing
value. Whereas the mean score for the teachers’ competence in technology remained
4.41 with 1.220 standard deviations and 5 missing values out of 128, which means
3.9% missing data. However the results of Section II show 3missing values out of the
total sample of 128 for all categories of the section, which means 2.3% missing data.
Nevertheless, the mean score for ‘Technology as a Tool’ category remained 7.7 with
2.345 standard deviations. The mean score for ‘Technology as a Resource’ remained
5.89 with 1.956 standard deviations. In addition, the mean score for ‘Use of
Technology inside the classroom’ remained 9.46 with 3.470 standard deviations.
Moreover, the mean score for ‘Use of Technology outside the classroom’ remained
17.84 with 5.613 standard deviations. The results of Section III show 8 missing values
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out of 128 respondents for all categories of this section, which means 6.3% missing
data. Nevertheless, the mean score for ‘Identification’ category remained 8.06 with
1.672 standard deviations. The mean score for ‘Capacity Building’ remained 12.50
with 2.126 standard deviations. In addition, the mean score for ‘Intervention’
remained 25.42 with 4.380 standard deviations. Moreover, the mean score for
‘Decision Making’ remained 11.80 with 2.246 standard deviations. Furthermore, the
mean score for ‘Integration of Technology’ remained 12.83 with 2.465 standard
deviations. Similarly, the mean score for ‘Social Paradigm’ remained the same 12.83
with 2.465 standard deviations. Further Inter Quartile Range analysis was used to
measure how spread out the data points in a set are from the mean of the data set. The
Table 3.4 indicates that the inter-quartile range (IQR) is zero.
3.5 Conclusion
To conclude, it is expected that the findings from this comprehensive
epistemological and methodological research design can be compared to those present
in the literature, so that this study design help to give juncture to this area of applied
linguistics. In other words, it will empower the research in ESL in Pakistani
perspective. It will also help to harmonize the literature where concepts are either
isolated or relate to widely different references. The empirical tool, Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey, inquires the women-teachers to
reflect on their use of technology, their role in development of learner autonomy
independently, and in relation to technology and then the implications of both for the
women teachers and learners of English at tertiary level in Pakistan. The Phase III of
the study (see Chapter 4) explains the results based on the yielded data. It establishes
the respondents’ teaching practices with technology and their perception of learner
autonomy. In this way the research data helps to conceptualize the impact of the use
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of technology on women teachers’ professional competence. The view on female
teachers’ pedagogical practices elucidates the link between teacher autonomy and
development of learner autonomy in the ESL perspective in the higher education
institutions of Pakistan.
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CHAPTER 4
Data Analysis and Interpretation
In the preceding chapters, the ideology behind the opted feminist
methodological framework to study the use of technology and development of ESL
learner autonomy in the feminist pedagogical perspective in Pakistan has established
three significant views. One, the research conducted to study the impact of use of
technology on women teachers in higher education provides limited information.
Two, the information correlated to the conception of learner autonomy in the domain
of ESL teaching is not only limited but fragmented. Three, the study on implications
of technology to develop learner autonomy for Pakistani women teachers in higher
education is still an area not directly explored- a lacking field. Thus, the opted study
design aims at addressing the impact of technology on women ESL teachers’
pedagogical practices in tertiary level institutions. In this connection, the present
chapter would provide the evidences gathered from women teachers in higher
education institutions through a survey on the stated problem. And the details of the
analysis of the yielded data through Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy Survey (see Appendix A) are presented in this chapter.
As elaborated in the previous chapter that this study comprises three phases: in
Phase I, Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey was
developed and piloted (see Chapter 3.3 for details). In Phase II, the survey was
administered, data were stored and missing values analyses were conducted (see
Chapter 3.3 for details); and in the Phase-III data stored in Phase II were analysed,
evaluated and interpreted. This chapter elaborates Phase III: Data Evaluation that is
the results obtained from the analysis of the data and its interpretation.
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Respondents of this study, being women teachers in the institutions of
Pakistani higher education, as a group represent a substantial amount of knowledge
and proficiency in the use of technology for ESL pedagogy. Being women
participants, this group helped to envisage and establish feminist pedagogical
perspective of the present research field of study. This chapter reports the analysis of
the data collected in Phase II from 128 female ESL teachers teaching in the 33
institutions (see Appendix E) of higher education of Pakistan through Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. This section of the dissertation
reports the results of the statistical analyses of the yielded data on three sections of the
survey. The first section deals with the female teachers’ professional competence,
whereby after establishing women teachers’ experience of teaching ESL, the
information on their educational qualification is detailed to paint the concept of
teacher autonomy. As discussed in the previous chapter, this teacher autonomy
presupposes teacher’s predilection to foster learner autonomy. Moreover, the
conceptualization of teacher autonomy is established by evaluating respondents’
technology education in terms of receiving computer in-service training, self-induced
training, and computer proficiency (as discussed earlier use of technology means
educational technology i.e. computers) and women teachers’ participation in research
on ESL in Pakistan. This will foster the view highlighted in the previous chapter that
the research culture is in its embryonic stage, however, technology has introduced
many new traditions and trends in higher education sector.
The second section of the survey looks at the ways in which women teachers
incorporate technology in their classrooms and how technology becomes part of
teaching decisions and choices. In the third section, the women teachers’ role in the
development of ESL learner autonomy and its development is conceptualized both
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independently and in relation to the use of technology. The women teachers’ views
are also specifically ascertained with respect to gender: firstly the association of
gender in general, and then particularly of female learners, in terms of their autonomy
in learning English by using technology. The scope of technology for the
development of learner autonomy is canvassed to help determine how Pakistani
women, teaching ESL in higher education, are empowered by the use of technology
and whether this use develops ESL learner autonomy. In order to evaluate the yielded
data, descriptive statistics are used. Moreover, the thesis reports the correlation among
research variables by presenting results of Pearson Correlation analysis. In addition,
for the significant difference of means findings of One Way ANOVA analyses are
tabulated. No quantitative research is complete without its interpretation as numbers
do not speak; therefore, the meanings are drawn from the numerical data. The
interpretations are drawn from the results of analysis to create meanings in every
section. In this way, the epistemological framework of my study guided to illustrate
the phenomena of technology and its interplay in fostering learner autonomy by the
women ESL tertiary level teachers in Pakistani social context.
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey
The respondents, as detailed in the preceding chapter, for the Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey (see Chapter 3.4.1) were ESL women
teachers in Pakistani institutions of higher education that is Universities and
postgraduate colleges. A total of 128 responses were received from the female ESL
teachers working in Universities and Colleges. Only 8 responses were partially filled
(see Chapter 3.4.2), however, these partially filled responses are also included in the
complete data which was transported in SPSS (Version 20), and missing data is
reported through statistics wherever applicable. In order to analyse the use of
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technology for the development of ESL learner autonomy and to study its impact on
Pakistani women teachers in the institution of higher education the fundamental study
question is:
What is the impact of technology on the women ESL teacher autonomy, a
prerequisite to the development of learner autonomy, in Pakistani higher
education institutions?
This basic research question is explored to conceptualize and contextualize this study
on three scales which are addressed in the three sub-questions:
7. To what extent, are the female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of
higher education professionally trained so as to be autonomously engaged in
the development of learner autonomy?
8. What is the impact of technology on the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education?
9. What is the role of the women teaching in the institutions of higher education
in the development of learner autonomy?
These three sub questions are addressed in the following three sections by
analysing the data generated through the three sections of the Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. Nonetheless, the fundamental
question of the study remained the focus of analyses of the data and the meanings,
which were drawn upon the results of the study: the interpretation part of the
study.
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4.1 Section I: Teachers’ Professional Competence
This discourse commences with the proposition that the women ESL teachers
in the Pakistani institutions of higher education are professionally trained to develop
learner autonomy. Here professional training is defined in terms of teachers’
educational qualification and competence in technology. The research question one is
posed on the argument that there is a link between learner autonomy and teacher
autonomy. And in relation to it, this debate identifies teacher education as a
significant factor of teacher autonomy. According to this debate, an autonomous
teacher is likely to create an environment to develop learner autonomy. Moreover, the
autonomous teacher not only develops the scenario for fine-tuning the learners’
development of autonomy but also inculcates knowledge in a student friendly,
deductive and student-centred environment. The precept of autonomy is somehow
related to the internal connection between the learner and teacher. It can further be
explained extrapolating the idea that the development of learner autonomy depends on
teacher autonomy (Benson, 2010, 2011; Little, 1995, 2007, 2008).
This notion of teacher autonomy is studied in the backdrop of teachers’
training and education. Therefore, in the present study teacher autonomy is identified
in terms of teacher education including teaching experience and the way the teachers
are trained for this profession. Since the dependence of learner autonomy on teacher
autonomy entails autonomous teachers’ inclination towards development of the
scheme of learner education and autonomy, this research targets teachers’
professional competence in the first section of the Technology and Development of
ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. However, this research is delimited to assess
respondents’ education not only in terms of academic qualification but also their
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knowledge and use of those technology related applications which can be
incorporated in ESL pedagogy, for example use of computer or internet.
Hence, the present research embarks on the female teachers’ professional
training to answer first research question by gathering data on the respondents’
education- both formal or academic and informal or non-academic. The former refers
to the academic educational qualification that is the Degree of higher education
ranging between MA to Post Doctorate, as in Pakistan recruitment criteria in the
institutions of higher education is Masters Degree. The latter in the present case refers
to teachers’ competence in modern technology by receiving training through in-
service or pre-service competence development programmes; and women teachers’
autonomous attitude towards development of their own strength as professionals by
actively engaging themselves in research practices.
In this way, this analysis determines the respondents’ approach to pursue
higher education, their strong teaching experience, good technological literacy, and
interest in on-line ESL research. Moreover, it provides evidence of the female ESL
teachers’ familiarity with technology particularly the applications of technology for
pedagogical practices. This helps to envision the feminist pedagogical perspective of
the utility of technology in educational spheres. Therefore, the descriptive statistics
and graphic representation below include the three key factors, to verify the standing
of women respondents as ESL teachers in the institution of higher education. These
three factors are:
a) Teachers’ educational qualification
b) Experience as ESL teacher
c) Teachers’ competence in technology
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4.1.1 Teachers’ Educational Qualification
The educational qualification of the teacher is a marker of teachers’
educational growth and knowledge of the subject. The argument, the women teachers’
decision to pursue higher education is a step towards women’s liberation and
autonomy is supported in the present study. Therefore, Technology and Development
of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey, places it in the first section. The data yielded from
the survey, on teachers’ education was not only analysed alone but it was a yard stick
to attend to the other components of the survey that helped to envisage the autonomy
of the teacher. The analysis of the data on educational qualification of ESL female
teachers in higher education institutions is tabulated below via descriptive statistics,
whereby both: frequencies of response and percentages are illustrated in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Educational Qualification
Degree Frequency Percent
MA 26 20.3%
MPhil 90 70.3%
PhD 12 9.4%
Total 128 100.0%
The Table 4.1 above shows that the response rate for this item of the
questionnaire remained 100%.The statistical analysis reveals that only 20.3% of the
respondents marked the lowest level of educational qualification: MA, which is
considered as the minimum recruitment criteria qualification in the institutions of
higher education. A large number of respondents that is 70.3% of the teachers had the
degree of MPhil and 9.4% had PhD Degrees.
185
Figure 4.1: Educational Qualification
The above analysis reveals a marked inclination of women, working in the
institutions of higher education, to pursue further education as shown in Figure 4.1.
These results signify that female teachers working in the higher education institutions
are continually alleviating themselves by upgrading their educational qualification.
These results are in line with the thesis hypothesis that the women teachers are
inclined to gain higher education and that this indicates teacher autonomy. Teachers’
higher academic qualification is one of the significant factors indicating teachers’
professional training with respect to subject knowledge and respondents’ autonomy
which in turn implies a teacher devoted to foster learner autonomy. Does this
propensity towards higher education entail the respondents’ long teaching experience?
The following analysis would help to reach a conclusive answer to this question.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
20.30%
70.30%
9.40%
MA MPhil PhD
186
4.1.2 Experience as ESL Teacher
The second factor, that is significant in determining the expertise of
respondents as ESL teachers, is the teaching experience in terms of number of years
in their respective institutions of higher education.
Table 4.2: Experience as ESL Teacher
Number of Years Frequency Percent
Less than 1 Year
1-5 Years
6-10 Years
11-15 Years
16-20 Years
Over 20 Years
8 6.3%
54 42.2%
27 21.1%
16 12.5%
15 11.7%
8 6.3%
Total 128 100.0%
The response rate for this item of the survey was also hundred percent. A total
of eighty six respondents have more than six years experience (see Table 4.2). The
study of the chart, displaying descriptive analysis, brings to light the fact that out of
128 respondents only 6.3% has less than one year experience while 42.2%
respondents have the experience between one and five years; thus the rest of them
have more than six years of experience (see Table 4.2 above).
187
Figure 4.2: Experience as ESL Teacher
The above detailed elaboration of the yielded data and its analysis indicate that
the experience of the respondents: which in the present case were the women teaching
in the institutions of the higher education, was extensive as illustrated in Figure 4.3.
However, this analysis demonstrates that a small number of female respondents have
an experience of over 20 years for teaching ESL in Pakistani institutions of higher
education. This number may lead to the prediction that the teachers with more years
of experience are either not using the modern technology or reluctant to take part in
on-line research.
The analyses presented in Table 1 and 2 provide the information of the sound
educational qualification and experience of the women respondents as ESL teachers.
These two key factors clearly indicate the standing of women respondents as the ESL
teachers in the institution of higher education. Here, the argument, the teachers with
higher education qualification use technology, is also supported on the evidence that
Less than 1Year
1-5 Years 6-10 Years 11-15 Years 16-20 Years Over 20Years
6.30%
42.20%
21.10%
12.50% 11.70%
6.30%
188
they had taken part in the present on-line research. This evidence is in consonance to
the discussion started in this section in support of teacher autonomy which is linked
with teacher education. This teacher autonomy is a factor that contributes to the
development of learner autonomy. This leads back to the research question whether it
is the impact of technology that the female teachers improved their educational
qualification. Or did technology determine this path for the women teachers?
Therefore, I would bring my first fundamental research question here: What is the
impact of technology on the women ESL teachers teaching in the institutions of
higher education? Here this question addresses the impact of technology on the
women teachers’ propensity towards technology education and use of technology for
their professional development. In such context the study proposes that the women
teachers enhance education of technology to meet the requirements of modern
technologically tuned world. And this survey also embarks on the question whether
the women teachers learn about modern technology particularly state of the art:
computers and communication tool internet and utilize them for their professional
development as ESL teachers. These issues are addressed under the title of teachers’
competence in technology in the following section.
4.1.3 Teachers’ Competence in Technology
In the present study, the argument that in the contemporary technology rich
scenario the professional training of teachers of ESL also includes the competence in
technology is validated by analysis of the data on technology competence variables.
Moreover, this section addresses the debate that technology offers novel literacy
opportunities to the women teaching in the institutions of higher education. These
novel opportunities encourage female teachers to go beyond the realm of formal
education, and obtain knowledge of the new gadgets and their possible applications
189
for ESL teaching and learning. It is debated that these multi-literacies associated with
the use of technology were a source of new challenges two decades ago. However,
this study proposes that in the contemporary education sector women teachers use
technology in the institutions of higher education. It is due to the emergence and
abundance of new technologies, ease of accessibility and affordability that they find it
a way towards autonomy, empowerment and progress.
Moreover, this study addresses the assumption that being involved in adult
teaching, women teachers face many challenges. One of these challenges is the
technology literacy because the young generation of today are exposed more to the
technological gadgets in and outside the educational institutions than the books or
other study material. Moreover, the system of education and assessment at the higher
education level in Pakistan also compels the teachers to use modern technological
tools, for example, to prepare assessment tests or semester examination papers. As
discussed earlier (Chapter 3.3) literature alone is not the source of the selected
concepts for the study, my own experience and observation being a student teacher,
plus my interaction with the colleagues have enabled me to select ‘competence in
technology’ as an important area in connection with teacher autonomy. Therefore, this
study attempts to explore it.
Given the way the respondents volunteered themselves to participate in this
research (as detailed in Chapter 3.4.1); it would not be surprising if the analysis
reveals that the respondents’ expertise in technology is considerable. In order to gauge
teachers’ expertise, education and knowledge of technology particularly computers
and use of internet; the Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy
Survey gathered responses on five items: Q1.6, Q1.7, Q1.8, Q1.9, and Q1.10 (see
Appendix A). These five items are congruous to the interests of this research which
190
address the technology-based approach to development of learner autonomy. It is
argued that the modern technological scenario demands a consistent and continual use
of technology in the ESL pedagogical spheres. And teaching of English is the most
obvious area of skill development. English is the dominant language, which is being
employed in using computer or internet not only in Pakistan but globally. Therefore,
the study intends to explore whether the women teachers being professional learners,
understand the modern definition of professional competence, by not only
familiarising themselves with technology but also making use of it for academic and
non academic purposes. As discussed above the data is gathered on five items that
attempt to explore the following:
a) respondents’ computer proficiency;
b) in-service computer training;
c) self-induced computer training;
d) participation in on-line research; and
e) participation in on-line research on ESL teaching.
For that reason, the following analyses embark on the respondents’ adeptness in
technology through the women teachers’ reflection on their own technological
competence and it entails teacher autonomy.
4.1.3.1 Computer Proficiency
To analyse teachers’ proficiency level in the use of computers the female
teachers were asked to assess their level of computer proficiency on the five-level
scale: ‘poor’, ‘fair’, ‘good’, ‘very good’ and ‘excellent’.
191
Table 4.3: Computer Proficiency
Frequency Percent
Poor 0 0%
Fair 16 12.5%
Good 57 44.5%
Very Good 40 31.3%
Excellent 13 10.2%
Total 126 98.4%
Missing System 2 1.6%
Total 128 100.0%
The descriptive statistical analysis shows that the response rate to this question
remained 98% as 126 (see Table 3) respondents attempted this item, out of which
majority marked the two upper level categories either good’ or ‘very good’ that is
44.5% and 31.3% respectively. Moreover, 10.2 % placed the proficiency level at
‘excellent’. No one marked the lowest level category: ‘poor’. However, 12.5% of the
respondents placed the computer expertise at the level of ‘fair’. The analysis detailed
in the Table 4.3 above indicates that the most of the respondents have good know-
how of computer technology.
192
Figure 4.3: Computer Proficiency
The Figure 4.3 shows the female teachers good proficiency in computers.
However, this research is limited for it does not probe into the possible means that the
teachers would have adopted to obtain computer education. This leads to the question
whether the institutional administration or government is providing any assistance, to
the women teaching ESL, by arranging in-service computer education training
sessions. The following analysis of Q 1.6 would explicate the female teachers’
response to this query.
4.1.3.2 In-service Computer Training
Referring to the argument that in-service teacher training is crucial for it helps
the teacher to upgrade their professional understanding, skills and attitudes for a
broader perspective; the study explores respondents’ in-service computer training. It
is discussed earlier (see Chapter 2) that Higher Education Commission of Pakistan is
making an effort to develop teachers’ competence in the field of technology by
conducting in-service computer training sessions in the institutions of higher
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
0%
12.50%
44.50%
31.30%
10.20%
Poor Fair Good Very Good Excellent
193
education across Pakistan (see Chapter 2.2 for details). Particularly, English Language
Teaching Reform (ELTR working under HEC Pakistan) has been working for English
faculty competence development through in-service courses. In order to ascertain
whether the opportunity to this educational intervention is accessible to the female
teachers working in the institutions of higher education, survey included a
dichotomous item asking respondents if they have attended any in-service computer
training programme.
Table 4.4: In-service Computer Training
Frequency Percent
No 78 60.9%
Yes 47 36.7%
Total 125 97.7%
Missing System 3 2.3%
Total 128 100.0%
The response rate to this item of the survey remained 97.7%, as only 3
respondents out of 128 skipped this item. The analysis of the collected data reveals
that a vast majority that is of 60.9% of the female respondents did not receive any
computer training for language teaching as explicated in Table 4.4.
194
Figure 4.4: In-Service Computer Training
The percentages detailed in the table above evidently describe that although
the efforts have been made to provide computer training to the ESL teachers teaching
in the institutions of higher education, yet the majority of female teachers has still not
benefitted by such efforts as demonstrated in Figure 4.4 above. These figures are
contrary to the efforts that the government of Pakistan is making to provide in-service
training to the tertiary level teachers. Here, the question arises than how these women
teachers possess good proficiency of computers and related technology as revealed in
response to Q 1.5. Therefore, the following analysis of Q 1.7 aims to identify whether
the female teachers have taken the initiative to attend any computer training course
during or before service to become at par with the needs of modern pedagogical
scenario.
4.1.3.3 Self-induced Computer Training
The analysis of the data tells that female teachers teaching in the institutions of
higher education are keen to gain training of computer technology and majority of the
respondents preferred to attend computer training courses as demonstrated in Table
YES
36.7%
NO
60.9%
195
4.5. These evidences help to envisage the feminist perspective of the utility of
technology.
Table 4.5: Self-induced Computer Training
Frequency Percent
No 47 36.7%
Yes 78 60.9%
Total 125 97.7%
Missing System 3 2.3%
Total 128 100.0%
The response rate for this question remained 97.7% like the previous question.
The analysis reveals that majority of the teachers have voluntarily attended computer
training courses, as the percentage of affirmative response to this dichotomous
question remained 60.9% while only 47 out of 125 respondents have not received any
formal computer training course (see Table 4.5).
Figure 4.5: Self-Induced Computer Training
NO
36.7%
YES
60.9%
196
The percentages detailed above evidently describe that women teaching in the
institutions of higher education avail for themselves the opportunities to computer
training, as the majority of female teachers has attended computer training courses as
demonstrated in Figure 4.5 below. This figure sheds light on the startling fact that
female teachers of ESL in higher education institutions are eager to update themselves
in order to operate effectively in this technology tuned scenario and to remain at par
with the younger generation which is accepting these modern technological tools as
every day tools of utility. This normalization of technology is evident in almost all
affairs and strides of life. This analysis is analogous to the findings of Q 1.5 which
explicated the good computer proficiency of the women who participated in this
research.
The tabulated results on self-induced computer training demarcates women
ESL teachers strong propensity towards technology education. Rather than relying on
institutional or government efforts in terms of in-service computer training, Pakistani
female teachers working in the tertiary level institutions are making a considerable
effort to update themselves as individuals and professionals. Another factor which
indirectly comes to surface, through the yielded data on this item, is of availability,
accessibility and opportunities to technology education in Pakistan without gender
discrimination.
197
Figure 4.6: Comparison of In-service and Self-Induced Computer Training
However, the above detailed analysis of the data on Q 1.7; which aims to
explicate female teacher inclination towards gaining technology literacy voluntarily,
brings forth striking results that are completely reverse to the results of Q 1.6, which
addressed in-service computer training (as illustrated in Figure 4.6). These findings
corroborate the proposition presented by Bukhari & Awais (2010) that in Pakistan in-
service training has never been given attention though “education policies stressed the
provision of in-service education for... at least once in every five years” (p. 65). In
order to fill the gap created, the respondents decided a path to technological education
for them and made it clear that they are strongly in favour of the computer education.
This propensity towards computer training is indicative of two aspects: teachers’
awareness of the importance of technology and teachers decision making; both
elucidate teacher autonomy. Moreover, it is anticipated that proficiency in computers
mark them so well versed in technology that they may be the actively taking part in
the research culture being adopted today through the most advanced means of
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
In-service Computer Training Self-induced ComputerTraining
No
Yes
198
digitised communication: the internet. Thus, the Q 1.9 aims to identify this propensity
of the women teachers towards this use of technology.
4.1.3.4 Participation in On-line Research
The argument that research lays at the heart of higher education in Pakistan (see
for example Sultana & Shah, 2010) focuses the research culture that has been
emerged after the fundamental reforms for ESL teaching by HEC Pakistan (see
Chapter 1.2). In this context, I contest the argument that the intervention of
technology has revolutionized the pedagogical set up altogether and the field of
research is no exception. Authenticating this, the results of the statistical analysis of
the data gathered on Q 1.9 is elaborated here to find whether the female teachers’
participate in research by filling on-line research questionnaires.
Table 4.6: Participation in On-line Research
Frequency Percent
No 33 25.8%
Yes 95 74.2%
Total 128 100.0%
This analysis identifies respondents’ inclination towards use of technology in
research. The response rate for this item remained 100%. A vast majority of
respondents, that is 74.2%, participated in research in Pakistan by filling an on-line
questionnaire while only 25.8% of the respondents showed that they did not take part
in on-line research (see Table 4.6). These findings being in consonance with the
findings of Q 1.5 and Q1.7 show that respondents are actively involved in the use of
technology. Moreover, the results elucidate respondents’ active participation in on-
line research culture i.e. the use of internet technology as the medium to conduct
research. The above detailed analysis of the data gathered on Q 1.9 reveals that
199
majority of the female ESL teachers teaching in the institutions of higher education in
Pakistan takes interest in on-line research. This detailed analysis reveals the fact that
teachers of ESL are taking responsibility of upgrading their information of technology
and are becoming an active member of technology assisted research culture. Such
scenario in no way entails teachers’ preferences and choices being the users of
modern technology. Thus, it helps to establish the view of autonomous use of
technology in the hands of the teacher. As it is discussed earlier, an autonomous
teacher helps the ESL learner to develop the learner autonomy, so the teachers making
use of technology are likely to incorporate it into everyday teaching practices for
development of learner autonomy.
Figure 4.7: Participation in On-line Research
It is evident, as illustration shows in Figure 4.7, that the teachers are positively
inclined to participate in research culture. This inclination gives twofold description
of teachers’ choice: one the use of internet to choose to follow new trends to enhance
knowledge, second it entails teachers’ expertise in the use of technology. Here,
NO
25.8%
YES
74.2%
200
another query is made that aims at the identification of the women teachers’
inclination towards the trend of on-line ESL research in Pakistan. Therefore, the item
Q 1.10 is designed to identify this; and following elaboration includes the analysis of
the data yielded on this survey item.
4.1.3.5 Participation in On-Line Research on ESL Teaching Practices
The Table 4.7 below details the analysis of the data yielded for item Q1.10, which
aims to get an insight of respondents’ proclivity towards research on ESL teaching
practices by filling in on-line research questionnaire.
Table 4.7: Participation in On-line Research on ESL Teaching Practices
Frequency Percent
Valid No 38 29.7%
Yes 88 68.8%
Total 126 98.4%
Missing System 2 1.6%
Total 128 100.0%
The statistical evaluation of the data reveals that out of 95 participants of on-
line research (see Table 4.7) 88 have filled in the questionnaires directly relevant to
the ESL teaching-learning practices (see Table 7). Thus, the readings of the statistical
data presented in Table 7 tells that response rate for this question is 98.4%; whereby
68.8% respondents have confirmed their participation in ESL research while 29.7%
respondents have not taken part in any on-line research on ESL pedagogical practices.
The above detailed analysis of the Q 1.10 reveals that an equally significant majority
of female ESL teachers teaching at the institutions of higher education takes part in
research related to teaching practices of ESL by filling an on-line questionnaire.
Provided the method adopted for this research, it is not surprising that the researchers
201
are familiar to the on-line research culture being adopted in the Pakistan in the present
scenario. Furthermore, the teachers are also taking active part in research. Moreover,
this helps to visualize the feminist perspective of the use of technology. These
findings lead back to the argument that women teachers teaching in the modern
technological situation use technology not only to assess teaching material but also
enhance their experience and knowledge by taking part in modern research culture
prevailing in today’s world.
Figure 4.8: Participation in On-line Research on ESL Teaching Practices
In order to compare women teachers’ participation in the on-line research in
general and on ESL practices in particular stacked cylinder graphic representation is
used (see Figure 4.8). Figure 4.8 helps to construe that female teachers are familiar to
the modern research trends and being tertiary level teachers their active participation
in research indicate their willingness to be the part of the larger academic circle. In
other words these findings substantiate the view that the “culture of research [which]
is recently being promoted in educational institutions in Pakistan” (Rana, 2006, p. 99)
is facilitated by the use of technology. The access to modern technological tools
NO29.7%
YES68.8%
202
enables Women ESL pedagogues in higher education to conduct and participate in
research beyond the social fences such as mobility restriction. Contemporary
published research journals of Pakistan and even foreign countries are evident
examples of tertiary level women ESL teachers’ participation as researchers and as
the subjects being researched (see for example Noureen & Awan, 2011).
Figure 4.9: Participation in On-line Research
It is evident from the above graphic representation (see Figure 4.9) that the
women teachers are aware of the modern research culture and are keen to become part
of such modern research trends. Their participation in my study also adds to this point
further. Thus, comparison of these two survey items and women teachers participation
makes it palpable that the technology has bestowed upon them the autonomy, the
autonomy to get educated, to enhance knowledge and to experience new trends. Thus,
the results obtained from this study help to contravene Rahman’s (2005) view which
was established in his study on tertiary level male and female teachers. He has found
less representation of females due to reluctance of women and difficulty in accessing
them in comparison to their male colleagues. The results obtained today demarcate
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Participation in On-lineResearch
Participation in On-lineResearch on ESL
No
Yes
203
that the situation has been changed a decade later; today women operate
autonomously as researchers and researched due to the accessibility to technological
tools.
Consequently, the above detailed analysis leads to the point of directly
addressing the research question raised in the beginning of this section: To what
extent, are the female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of higher education
professionally trained to develop learner autonomy? The statistical analyses presented
from Table 4.1 to Table 4.7 collectively give respondents’ status of education- both
formal or academic and informal or non-academic. These analyses reinforce the idea
of respondents’ inclination to pursue higher education with considerable teaching
experience, overall good literacy in computers along with the use of internet, and
positive interest in on-line research in general and on-line ESL research in particular.
Moreover, the tables of statistical data and figures illustrating graphic and pie chart
distribution of responses of the female ESL teachers evidently define respondents’
familiarity with technology particularly educational technology. Further statistical
analyses are carried out in order to ascertain the view that teachers with higher
educational qualification are more inclined to use technology. For this purpose, in the
following discourse correlation are established between educational qualification and
teachers’ competence in technology through the results obtained from statistical
measures.
4.1.4 Correlation between Teachers’ Competence in Technology and
Educational Qualification
At this point of the analysis, the above detailed five items: Q 1.6, Q 1.7, Q 1.8,
Q 1.9 and Q1.10, eliciting information on respondents’ computer competence were
collectively analysed against respondents’ academic qualification. These analyses
204
were carried out to analyse the correlation between academic qualification and
respondents’ inclination towards technology its training and usage. The responses of
121 women respondents, being complete in all respects were analysed; whereby
groups were defined with respect to the educational qualification. The MA group
includes 26 participants, MPhil includes 84 participants and PhD group comprises 11
participants. Again the SPSS version 20 was used to obtain correlation coefficient
matrices to study the relationships between the three of groups with competence in
technology as a dependent variable. Further descriptive statistical measures were
obtained to describe three groups of teachers against competence in technology on the
mean scores, and One Way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check any
significant differences among the groups on mean scores. Finally, Post Hoc analyses
of variance (ANOVA) with LSD (Least Significant Difference) adjustment were
conducted to identify the least significant difference among the groups with respect to
the competence in technology.
Firstly, the three groups were analysed by applying Pearson Correlation (2-
tailed) to identify the significant relationship between the variables. The results shown
in Table 8 below illustrate the highly significant positive correlation between the
teachers’ educational qualification and female teachers’ competence in technology.
This propensity of female teachers towards technology means that with the increase in
educational qualification female teachers’ competence in technology is also positively
affected. Nevertheless, the analysis also includes further statistical descriptive
measures and One Way ANOVA to better get the picture of the significant differences
of means.
205
Table 4.8: Correlations of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and Educational
Qualification: Results of Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Computer
Knowledge
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation .246**
Sig. (2-tailed) .007
N 121
Note: ** p < 0.01
In order to compare means analysis of variance (One Way ANOVA) was
conducted. The descriptive measures (see Table 4.8) elucidate that 26 respondents
hold MA qualification degree and their mean score for their competence in the use of
technology remained 5.04 with 1.455 standard deviations with 2 minimum and 7
maximum scores. The table also predicts that the mean scores of whole population of
MA qualified teachers would be between 4.45 and 5.63 as per 95% Confidence
Interval for Mean. On the other hand 86 respondents with MPhil qualification were
part of this research. Their mean score for competence in the use of technology
remained 6.01 with 1.477; standard deviation, while 3 minimum and 9 maximum
scores. The table also predicts that the mean scores of whole population of MPhil
qualified teachers would be between 5.69 and 6.33 as per 95% Confidence Interval
for Mean.
206
Table 4.9: Comparison of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and Educational
Qualification: Descriptive Statistics
N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean Min Max
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
MA 26 5.04 1.455 .285 4.45 5.63 2 7
MPhil 84 6.01 1.477 .161 5.69 6.33 3 9
PhD 11 6.18 1.537 .464 5.15 7.21 3 8
Total 121 5.82 1.522 .138 5.54 6.09 2 9
Table 4.10: Comparison of Teachers’ Competence in Technology and
Educational Qualification: One Way ANOVA
Sum of
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 20.414 2 10.207 4.676 .011
Within Groups 257.586 118 2.183
Total 278.000 120
11 respondents with PhD qualification also took part in this research. Their
mean score for competence in using technology remained 6.18 with 1.537 standard
deviation and 3 minimum and 8 maximum scores. The table also predicts that the
mean scores of whole population of PhD qualified teachers would be between 5.15
and 7.21 as per 95% Confidence Interval for Mean. It is evident from Table 4.9 that
respondents with higher educational qualification, i.e. MPhil and PhD, are more
competent in the use of technology than the respondents with MA degree. These
results seemed similar to the result obtained through Pearson Correlation analysis.
Nonetheless, to compare the mean scores of the three groups of respondents further
207
against their competence in technology One Way ANOVA was conducted. The
findings elaborate that the mean scores of the three groups are significantly different
on their competence of technology, as obtained P value is 0.011 which is less than
0.05 as shown in Table 4.10 above.
Table 4.11: Post Hoc Analysis with Teachers’ Competence in Technology as
Dependent Variable
(I) Educational
Qualification
(J) Educational
Qualification
Mean
Difference (I-
J) Std. Error Sig.
MA MPhil -0.973* 0.332 .004
PhD -1.143* 0.531 .033
MPhil
MA 0.973* 0.332 .004
PhD -0.170 0.474 .720
PhD
MA
1.143* 0.531
.033
MPhil 0.170 0.474 .720
Note: * p < .05
As Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates significant difference among the
groups, LSD (Least Significant Difference) was then conducted to identify which
group/groups was/were significantly different with respect to the five items of
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey identifying teachers’
competence in technology. The Table 4.11 shows that the difference in mean scores
for competence in technology of women teachers with MPhil qualification from
teachers with MA qualification is highly significant with P value .004 which is less
than 0.01. Similarly, the difference in mean scores for competence in technology of
women teachers with PhD qualification from teachers with MA qualification is
significant with P value .033 which is less than 0.05. Whereas, the difference in mean
208
scores for competence in technology of women teachers with MPhil qualification
from teachers with PhD qualification is not significant as P value is 0.720 which is
greater than 0.05.
The analysis reveals that the mean responses of respondents with MA
qualification are significantly different from the respondents with MPhil and PhD
qualification as illustrated in Table 4.11. However, there is no significant difference
between the mean responses of teachers with MPhil and PhD qualification. The above
detailed analysis demonstrates that the teachers with higher academic qualification are
using computer technology more than the teachers with less academic qualification.
These findings thus enable to answer the first research question: To what extent, are
the female ESL teachers in the Pakistani institutions of higher education
professionally trained to develop learner autonomy? The findings elucidate that the
majority of respondents are professionally competent as 95 out of 128 respondents
were MPhil and PhD qualified (see Table 1). Moreover, the teachers with higher
educational qualification are engaged in enhancing competence in technology, which
indicates women teacher autonomy.
Interpretation
The evaluation of the data helps to validate the hypothesis built for this study
that the women ESL teachers are professionally trained to incorporate technology in
pedagogical practices to facilitate learners. It also enables to construe that the
teachers’ professional training makes them autonomous; and these autonomous
women-teacher in patriarchal Pakistan show their being in language teaching by
autonomously pursuing professional training. This factor of autonomy of teacher is
highly recommended marker of teachers’ inclination towards the development of
209
learner autonomy. Little (1995) identified teacher autonomy as the professional
capacity of the teacher which allows her to exercise and bring into play her role in
pedagogy. Arguably, all the factors which are responsible for the development of
learner autonomy deserve attention, in the present technological circumstances,
whereby technology has already made its debut in every nook and corner of
society.Thus, the interpretation of the results boomerangs to the notion that
development of learner autonomy depends on teacher autonomy. I find, Little’s
(1995) argument in parallel to this that effective teachers are autonomous as they have
‘a strong sense of personal responsibility for their teaching’ and ‘the promotion of
learner autonomy depends on the promotion of teacher autonomy.’ In other words,
teachers’ higher qualification in formal education and teachers’ use and knowledge of
technology makes them autonomous teachers. And the present study proposes the
positive impact of technology on women teachers in education sector. The study helps
to elucidate that teacher education appears to be effectual when it is integrated with
practice, a view that is explicit in approaches such as action research, reflective
practice and exploratory practice (Allwright, 2003; Burns, 2010; Burton, 2009). This
idea of teacher education is well supported in the present study in connection to the
teacher autonomy the use of technology for ESL pedagogical practices. However, in-
service teacher competence development courses have always been criticized for
being limited and held back due to practical constraints (Wong & Benson, 2006;
Benson, 2010); and the present study is limited in its scope to throw light on how
teachers view in-service courses in terms of their effectiveness. Nonetheless, the
yielded data supports teachers’ autonomous actions by obtaining technology training.
The results on women teachers’ computer proficiency indicate the correlation
between the use and presence of technology with improved competence level of
210
teachers on computer technology. This is also related to other uses of technology
which enable new processes and outcomes. This also refers to the teachers’ familiarity
with the digitisation in terms of general awareness of its potential usage for
developing themselves as professional teachers. When the teachers make an active
engagement with new technologies their own experiential and reflective modes of
ESL learning operate. Teachers’ such progress in their profession as professionals is
partly due to the inevitable advancement of technology that connotes inevitable
integration of technology in all spheres of life. Here the teachers’ high level of
technology competence denotes soft technological determinism which means that the
development in technology does not automatically make teachers autonomous;
however, it enables teachers to pursue technology literacy by not just formally
receiving education but also making practical use of technology. Moreover, the
mediating role of technology in the life of teachers influences the choices that they
make for technology usage. This propensity, in pedagogical scenario gives the reason
to the teachers to use technology and those who do not.
The survey results on respondents’ computer proficiency also help to deduce
that technology enables the women to operate at par with men. This indicates that in
the social setting of Pakistan where their men counter-parts dominate the social
hierarchy, women find technology as a source of being autonomous and independent.
The women teachers’ propensity towards technology indicates a wholesale change in
teaching-learning strategy in Pakistan. This paradigm shift includes independent
interaction of women-teachers with technology which enables them to become
autonomously working anywhere either on cell phone or laptop; as well as either in
formal or non academic conditions. This technology-led autonomy has indeed
changed the traditional social paradigm where women has been depended on men for
211
accessing libraries, bookshops etc. Thus, it validates the hypothesis of the present
study that the women teachers are autonomously working to improve their own
professional competence under the impact of technology. Secondly, the findings help
to elucidate that teacher autonomy means learner autonomy as every teacher is a
learner f before becoming a teacher. This proposition is in line with Little’s (1995)
argument that
...language learners are more likely to operate as independent flexible users of
their target language if their classroom experience has already pushed them in
this direction; by the same token, language teachers are more likely to succeed
in promoting learner autonomy if their own education has encouraged them to
be autonomous. (Little, 1995, p. 180)
Thus, those female ESL tertiary level teachers have achieved autonomy, had
undergone an internal intellectual process of reflecting; and then revising their
preferences in terms of upgrading their own competence as pedagogues in the light of
such reflection. And in the present case the teachers’ preferences, to pursue higher
education, participation in computer training and use of technology to reflect, indicate
women teacher autonomy. The women-teachers “contents of the preferences” that
they “form or act on autonomously are subject to direct normative constraints”
(Benson, 2005, p. 133).However, this research is limited for it cannot be deduced
from the data that the teacher realize this autonomy, and that it makes them
professionally competent women. This then leads to the question whether this
autonomy of female teachers which is partly due to their awareness of the technology
compels them to integrate and use technology to facilitate ESL learners. The
following section would address this research query.
212
4.2 Section II: Use of Technology in ESL Teaching Practices
The Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey aims to
evaluate the impact of technology on the women teaching English as second language
in the institutions of higher education. For the purpose of this study, it is hypothesised
that being professionally trained the women-teachers frequently make use of
technology in their day to day ESL practices in the higher education institutions of
Pakistan. Therefore, the proposition presented in the previous section on the use of
technology in ESL pedagogical scenario is fundamental to the present study.
Arguably, this use is important to facilitate not only teaching but also learning in the
institutions of higher education and it is also important to autonomous teaching and
learning. This argument gives forth the notion of adopting technology not only for
learning but also for teaching purposes. Therefore, this section of the data analysis
addresses the second research question guiding the ‘use of technology’ aspect of the
present study: What is the impact of technology on the women ESL teachers teaching
in the institutions of higher education? The impact of technology is studied here in
terms of another sub question that would decide: How frequently, do female teachers
teaching in the institutions of higher education make use of technological facilities in
ESL pedagogical practices? The data for this research question was gathered through
section 2 of the Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. In
this section of the survey, teachers were asked firstly to consider frequency of use of
technology as a tool and resource for the planning and preparation phase of teaching
English; secondly the survey included the items on the use of technology in the
everyday classroom practices not only inside but also outside classroom bounds. For
this purpose this section of the survey included 16 items, Q11.1 to Q11.16 (see
Appendix A); and on five point scale of frequency ranging from ‘always’,
213
‘frequently’, ‘sometimes’, ‘rarely’ to ‘never’. However, the items were analysed
under four sub categories:
(1) Use of technology as a tool
(2) Use of technology as a resource
(3) Use of technology inside classroom
(4) Use of technology outside classroom
From these subcategories, first two sections aim at teachers’ use of technology
for preparing and planning teaching session, while the next two sections address that
how the teacher facilitate learning session in and outside the classroom with the aid of
technology. The goal of the analysis is to develop an understanding of the female
teachers’ use of technology for ESL practices in the institutions of higher education;
this technology adaptation in teaching learning scenario is a source of fostering
learner autonomy.
4.2.1 Use of Technology as a Tool
My own experience as ESL teacher and my observation of other pedagogues
allow me to propose that technology is utilized by the teachers today as a tool for
creating teaching material, including: from everyday lesson plans and worksheets to
tests and examination papers. In order to validate: this utility of technology which is
widely in practise, this section presents the analysis of use of technology by the
women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education to facilitate their own
ESL teaching practices by utilizing technology as a tool. Since, a view is established
in the first section of the analysis of the survey that the women teaching in the
institutions of higher education are familiar to the technology therefore; it is not
surprising that the teachers are utilizing technology as a tool for creating and
developing teaching material.
214
Table 4.12: Technology as a Tool
Never Rarely
Sometime
s
Frequentl
y
Alway
s
11.
1
I prepare lecture or learning task
using computer 0% 6.4% 24.0% 39.2%
30.4
%
11.
2
I prepare test or assessment sheet
on computer. 1.6% 9.6% 15.2% 38.4%
35.2
%
11.
5
I author Computer Assisted
Language Learning activities for
my learners.
16.8
%
10.4
% 33.6% 34.8% 4.8%
Use of technology as a tool
6.0% 8.80% 24.27% 37.47% 23.47
%
14.8% least 60.94% most
n=125
For this analysis, the responses to the three items: Q 2.1, Q 2.2 and Q 2.5, are
statistically evaluated for frequencies and percentages (see Table 4.12). The response
rate for these items remained 97% as 125 responses were gathered from the total of
128 respondents. This analysis gives elaborated statistical detail of the individual
items and then the sum of these results to show the overall use of technology as a tool
(see Table 4.12). The results demonstrate that the teachers’ strong inclination towards
utilization of technology as a teaching tool for preparing lectures as approximately
39% respondents ‘frequently’ and 30% respondents ‘always’ used technology.
Similarly approximately 38% respondents ‘frequently’ and 35% respondents ‘always’
used word processor for preparing test or assessment sheets. Moreover, approximately
35% respondents frequently author computer assisted language learning (CALL)
activities while 34% respondents sometimes author CALL activities. In this way, the
sum of the three items indicated that a very less number of respondents made the least
215
use of technology as only 15% (i.e. 6.0% never & 8.80% ‘rarely’) respondent marked
either of the mentioned low frequency scale; while approximately 61% respondents
(i.e. 37.47% ‘frequently’ & 23.47% ‘always’) made the most use of technology.
Figure 4.10: Use of Technology as a Tool
The above detailed elaboration of the yielded data and its analysis indicate that
the most of the participants frequently take assistance of the technology and use it as a
tool to prepare and plan ESL teaching resources for facilitating teaching practices in
the classrooms as illustrated in Figure 4.10. This analysis in every way establishes the
correlation between the presence of technology and use, with the outcome, which
presents the women teachers’ autonomy. The scope of autonomy is not limited to the
free interaction with the technology for taking professional assistance for classroom
practices but also to facilitate learners by authoring CALL activities. The response to
the last question brought striking results, which not only speaks of technological
facilities present in the country but also of their utility in the institutions of higher
education and that too by the women teachers. This scenario brings a new picture, a
picture which depicts a successful, autonomous and confident woman, who shows her
being in her profession that makes her society.
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
6.00%8.80%
24.27%
37.47%
23.47%
216
This graphic illustration indicates that the respondents to the Technology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey considered use of technology within
the scope of Pakistani ESL pedagogy. These results are analogues to the findings
obtained in Section I on the teachers’ competence in technology. Therefore, it can be
deciphered that women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education have a
positive impact of the technology, which in turn enables them to play their positive
role in the development of learner autonomy. However, this analysis demonstrates
that a small number of female teachers in the institutions of higher education are still
not making use of technology to facilitate ESL pedagogical practices. This leads to
the next query elaborated in the following section, what percentage of the female
teachers avail the opportunity to use technology as a resource for accessing and
creating teaching resources.
4.2.2 Use of Technology as a Resource
Technology is a teaching resource and a means to obtain a wide variety of
teaching-learning aids as responses to Q 2.3 and Q 2.4 elucidate in Table 12.
Although, the use of technology as resource is considered as one of the facts of
today’s pedagogical scenario, the debate, whether to make such use of technology or
not, also surrounds this widely held opinion. The analysis of data on Q 2.3 and 2.4
shows agreement to this use of technology. In this connection, the analysis of data
describes women teachers’ use of technology as a resource to facilitate their own ESL
teaching practices. For this analysis, the responses to two of the above mentioned
items are statistically evaluated for frequencies and percentages.
217
Table 4.13: Technology as a Resource
Never Rarel
y
Sometime
s Frequently Always
11.
3
I use internet to explore websites
for language learning activities. 0%
6.4
% 8.0% 33.6% 52.0%
11.
4
I use internet to download
Computer Assisted Language
Learning activities for my
learners.
12.8
%
6.4
% 16.0% 40.0% 24.8%
Use of Technology as a resource 6.0%
6.4
% 12.00% 36.80%
38.40
%
12.4% least 75.2% most
n=125
The response rate for these items also remained 97% as 125 responses were
gathered from the total of 128 respondents. The results presented in Table 4.13
demonstrate the teachers’ strong inclination towards utilization of technology as a
teaching resource for facilitating teaching-learning practices as approximately 34%
respondents ‘frequently’ use technology and 52% ‘always’ use internet to explore
websites for language learning activities. Similarly 40% respondents ‘frequently’ and
25% respondents ‘always’ use internet to download Computer Assisted Language
Learning activities for facilitating their learners. Resultantly, the sum of the two
items as tabulated in Table 4.13 indicate that approximately 12% (i.e. 6.0% ‘never’ &
6.4% ‘rarely’) respondents marked least use of technology as a resource, and
approximately 12% respondents marked that they ‘sometimes’ use technology while
75% (i.e. 36.8% ‘frequently’ & 38.4% ‘always’) of the respondents marked most use
of technology. Thus, it indicates that the most of the women teaching in the
institutions of higher education make use of technology as a resource for accessing
teaching-learning material for the ESL learners.
218
The results, thus, indicate that the most of the female teachers teaching in the
institutions of higher education take frequent assistance of the technology by utilizing
it as a resource for gathering or downloading ESL teaching resources. Doing so helps
the teacher to facilitate pedagogical practices in the classrooms and seize optimal
learning opportunity for their learners.
Figure 4.11: Technology as a Resource
These results are corroborating the standpoint that the teachers use technology
for accessing material for teaching to facilitate not only the learners but their own
teaching practise as illustrated in Figure 4.11. Moreover, the results also show that
CALL practise is no longer a lacking field as respondents showed highly positive
inclination towards it. Nevertheless, the results of the survey indicate that there are
female teachers who never take assistance of modern technological gadgets to
facilitate ESL pedagogical practices as illustrated in Figure 4.11. At this juncture, the
question arises whether the female teachers use technology to facilitate the
pedagogical process, the analyses presented in the following section would shed light
on it.
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
6.00% 6.40%
12.00%
36.80%38.40%
219
4.2.3 Use of Technology inside the Classroom
In this section, the analysis of female teachers’ use of technology to facilitate
their own ESL teaching practices by utilizing technology inside the classroom is
elaborated. For this analysis, the responses to five items: Q 2.6, Q 2.7, Q 2.8, Q 2.9
and Q 2.11, are statistically evaluated through descriptive analysis for percentage
response to each item and then the sum of responses to all five items.
Table 4.14: Use of Technology inside the Classroom
Never Rarely
Sometime
s
Frequentl
y
Alway
s
2.6 I conduct/deliver my lessons in
department’s Computer Lab.
18.4
%
12.0
% 38.4% 23.2% 8.0%
2.7 I use my cellphone/tab/Iphone for
conducting listening activities.
11.2
%
16.0
% 25.6% 28.0%
19.2
%
2.8 I use multi-media to facilitate
learning. 7.2% 4.0% 28.8% 36.8% 23.2
%
2.9 I use my cell phone digital
dictionary to give model to
students for correct
pronunciation.
4.8% 7.2% 27.2% 41.6% 19.2
%
2.1
1
I guide students to use Word
Processor for writing
compositions or to enhance
writing skills.
6.4% 10.4
% 25.6% 36.8%
20.8
%
Use of technology inside the
classroom
9.60% 9.92% 29.12% 33.28%
18.08
%
19.52% least 51.36% most
n=125
220
The response rate for these items remained 97% as 125 responses were
gathered from the total of 128 respondents. The results demonstrate the teachers’
positive inclination towards utilization of technology by conducting or delivering
lectures in department's Computer Lab as approximately 23% respondents
‘frequently’ and 8% respondents ‘always’ make this use of technology, while only
18% respondents had ‘never’ conducted lesson in department's Computer Lab (see
Table 4.14 above). Similarly, approximately 28% respondents ‘frequently’ and 19%
respondents ‘always’ use cellphone/tab/Iphone for conducting listening activities,
while only 11% respondents had ‘never’ used technological gadgets in the classroom
for facilitating learners. Moreover, approximately 37% respondents ‘frequently’ and
23% respondents ‘always’ use multi-media to facilitate learning, while only 7%
respondents had ‘never’ used this technological gadget in the classroom to facilitate
ESL teaching-learning process. Furthermore, the analysis of Q 2.9 reveals that 42%
respondents ‘frequently’ and 19% respondents ‘always’ use cell phone digital
dictionary to facilitate learning while only 5% respondents had ‘never’ used this
technological facility in the classroom. All the same, 37% ‘frequently’ and 21%
respondents ‘always’ guide students to use Word Processor for writing compositions
or to enhance writing skills while only 6% respondents had ‘never’ directed students
to use this technological facility in the classroom to inculcate ESL skills. The sum of
the detailed data of all these five items, resultantly, indicates that the least use of
technology, which the respondents have identified by marking the columns of ‘never’
and ‘rarely’ is only 19.52% while the most of the respondents made the most use of
technology as 51.36% and of the respondents had either selected ‘frequently’ or
‘always’ to point towards use of technology in the classroom teaching practices.
221
Figure 4.12: Use of Technology inside the Class
The above detailed statistical analysis indicates that most of the teachers
frequently take assistance of the technology and use it in the ESL classroom as
resource for facilitating teaching practices in the classrooms, as illustrated in Figure
4.12. The women teachers’ choice to conduct class in the departments’ computer
laboratory indicates a positive use of technology in ESL pedagogy. Most of the
teachers in the institutions of higher education take assistance of computer labs since
in Pakistan Self-Access centres are limited to few higher educational institutions (see
Chapter 2.3). Even then, there are certain constraints in conducting a class in
computer lab, as for example, availability of lab for that class period, availability of
desired media equipment, cooperation of lab staff are some of the many issues that
arise in a teacher’s day to day pedagogical practices.
4.2.4 Use of Technology outside the Classroom
The use of technology to facilitate ESL teaching practices particularly by
utilizing technological facilities outside the classroom is also examined in section 2 of
the Survey. For this analysis, Table 4.15 presents the responses of the female teachers
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
9.60% 9.92%
29.12%
33.28%
18.08%
222
to six items: Q 2.10, Q 2.12, Q 2.13, Q 2.14, Q 2.15 and Q 2.16, which are
statistically evaluated through descriptive analysis to yield percentage response to
each item. The sum of responses to all six items is also tabulated.
Table 4.15: Use of Technology outside the Classroom
Never Rarely
Sometime
s
Frequentl
y
Alway
s
2.1
0
I assign tasks that require
submission via e-mail.
13.6
% 8.0% 39.2% 28.8%
10.4
%
2.1
2
I assign task to my students that
requires World Wide Web
browsing.
3.2% 9.6% 29.6% 44.8% 12.8
%
2.1
3
I suggest my students, on-line or
e-authentic reading materials for
assigned tasks.
0.8% 6.4% 43.2% 36.0% 13.6
%
2.1
4
I suggest cites for grammar and
vocabulary quizzes. 8.0% 6.4% 38.4% 36.0%
11.2
%
2.1
5
I guide students to use on-line
dictionaries and encyclopaedias. 4.0% 4.8% 22.4% 38.4%
30.4
%
2.1
6
I suggest language learning
websites to my students to
develop language skills.
3.2% 6.4% 20.0% 45.6% 24.8
%
Use of technology outside the
classroom
5.47% 6.93
% 32.13% 38.27%
17.2%
12.4% least 55.47% most
n=125
The response rate for these items remained 97% as 125 responses were
gathered from the total of 128 respondents (see Table 4.15 above). The results
demonstrate the teachers’ positive inclination towards utilization of technology by
assigning tasks that require submission via e-mail as approximately 29% respondents
223
‘frequently’ and 10% respondents ‘always’ made this use of technology while only
approximately 14% respondents had ‘never’ assigned such tasks. Similarly
approximately 45% respondents ‘frequently’ and 13% respondents ‘always’ assigned
task to students that required World Wide Web browsing while only 3% respondents
had ‘never’ directed the learners to use technology outside the classroom. Moreover,
approximately 36% respondents ‘frequently’ and 14% respondents ‘always’ suggested
their students to access on-line or e-authentic reading materials while only 1% of the
respondents had ‘never’ guided learners to use technology for academic purposes.
Furthermore, the analysis of Q 2.14 reveals that approximately 36%
respondents ‘frequently’ and 11% respondents had ‘always’ suggested cites for
grammar and vocabulary quizzes to facilitate ESL learning while only 8%
respondents had ‘never’ recommended on-line ESL learning resources. All the same,
approximately 38% respondents ‘frequently’ and 30% respondents had ‘always’
guided students to use on-line dictionaries and encyclopaedias while only 4%
respondents had ‘never’ directed students to use this technological facility. The
analysis of the data yielded for Q 2.16 reveals that approximately 46% respondents
‘frequently’ and 25% respondents had ‘always’ suggested language learning websites
to the students to develop language learning skills while only 3% respondents had
‘never’ directed students to use this technological facility to foster ESL skills. The
sum of the detailed data of all these six items indicates that the least use of
technology, which the respondents have identified by marking the columns of ‘never’
and ‘rarely’ is only 12.4% while the most of the respondents made the most use of
technology as 55.47% of the respondents had either selected ‘frequently’ or ‘always’
to demonstrate the strong inclination towards making use of technological facilities
present outside the classroom.
224
Figure 4.13: Use of Technology outside the Classroom
The above detailed elaboration of the yielded data and its analysis indicate that
the most of the female teachers teaching in the institution of higher education
frequently guide and direct learners attention to technological facilities present outside
the class as illustrated in Figure 4.13. This reflects teachers’ strong propensity towards
the technological gadgets for the facilitation of pedagogical progress. This response
has demonstrated positive impact of technology on women teachers in higher
education. Moreover, teachers’ recognition of the utility of technology to enhance
language gains beyond classroom is evident of the correlation between the use and
presence of technology with its tendency of positive language learning gains.
However, the analysis demonstrates that there are some female ESL teachers who do
not guide their learners to make use of technology to facilitate ESL learning.
In nutshell, the analyses elaborated in this section reveal that female teachers
teaching in the institutions of higher education have a strong impact of technology
which is evident in results of the survey describing quite frequent use of technological
facilities in ESL pedagogical practices as illustrated in Figure 4.13. Given that all the
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
5.47%6.93%
32.13%
38.27%
17.20%
225
results of section two of the survey indicated the positive impact of technology in the
frequent use of technology for planning and practice of teaching, it is important to
have a holistic view of all subscales. Therefore, the following overview of the
subscales presents results graphically, and then the results of correlation analyses are
tabulated to demonstrate the correlation between the four subscales for the use of
technology.
4.2.5 Overview of the Subscales of the Use of Technology
At this stage of the analysis, it is important to view the results of all four
subscales for the use of technology to better approach to the conclusive answer to the
research question 2: What is the impact of technology on the women ESL teachers
teaching in the institutions of higher education? This impact of technology is studied
by probing into the women teachers’ frequency of proclivity towards use of
technological facilities for ESL pedagogical practices (see Table 16 below).The sum
of all four subscales of ‘use of technology’ helps to establish bigger picture of the
practicality of the assumption of this study. This table foregrounds the theory of
technological determinism as adopted by Warschauer (2004) in terms of frequent use
of technology. The analysis also favours Benson (2001) view of technology-based
approach to learner autonomy.
226
Table 4.16: Use of Technology
Use of Technology Never Rarely
Some-
times
Frequen
tly Always
Use of technology as a tool 6.00% 8.80% 24.27% 37.47% 23.47%
Use of Technology as a resource 6.00% 6.40% 12.00% 36.80% 38.40%
Use of technology inside the
classroom 9.60% 9.92% 29.12% 33.28% 18.08%
Use of technology outside the
classroom 5.47% 6.93% 32.13% 38.27% 17.20%
Average use of technology 6.77% 8.01% 24.38% 36.46% 24.29%
The Table 4.16 above displays that approximately 24% of the women teachers
‘always’ use technology in ESL pedagogical processes. This number, although, does
not represent a larger number of respondents, it helps to establish a view that a
considerable number of female teachers are in constant touch with the use of
technology. This propensity towards technology entails twofold impact of technology;
one the presence of technology correlates to its use; and two this group of teachers fall
in John & Wheeler’s (2008) definition of ‘enthusiasts’ who develop a positive view of
the prospects that the use of technology brings for teaching-learning paradigm. In the
column of ‘frequently’, the average response rate is greater as compared to ‘always’:
i.e. approximately 37%. This frequency of use of technology, also places them
amongst ‘enthusiasts’ but this frequent use of technology may entail two ideas: either
the female teachers do so with the perception of ‘appropriateness’ or due to some
practical constraints. Teachers may find use of technology suitable on some
occasions, while not on the other occasions. With reference to the latter the teachers
may face some practical constraints for using technology as identified by Mahmood,
227
Iqbal, Nadeem, Javed & Hassan, (2014) in a research conducted in Pakistan to gather
responses of school teachers on the use of ICT in teaching English.
Although, the Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey
did not aim to address these constraints, it could be anticipated on the basis of the
yielded data. Along these lines, 24% of the respondents agree to use technology
‘sometimes’. Can such response place them in John & Wheeler’s (2008) description
of ‘pragmatics16’? Nothing can be delineated here, for sure, as this research does not
throw light on. However, the analysis help to construe that women teaching ESL in
Pakistani institutions of higher education support the use of technology. However, a
small percentage of respondents, that is approximately 7%, can be placed either as
‘traditionalist17’ or ‘New Luddites18’ according to the definition of John & Wheeler
(2008). The results across all four subscales on the use of technology in the
institutions of higher education support the hypothesis that in contemporary Pakistan
most of the female ESL teachers have recognized the potential in technology, which
makes them autonomous teachers. This autonomy entails reaping the same in the
classroom scenario: fostering ESL learner autonomy.
16They support use of technology but are critical of excessive use of technology in teaching and
learning of ESL. 17They resist the use of technology for teaching or learning English so much to save the long-
established pedagogical practices. 18They are so critical of technology that they undermine the benefits of technology in every field of life.
228
Figure 4.14: Use of Technology
Use of Technology as a Tool
Use of Technology as a Resource
Use of Technology inside the Classroom as a resource
Use of Technology outside the Classroom
In order to replicate the descriptive statistical results, and to establish a big
picture, it is significant to present the results graphically (see Figure 4.14) to show the
highly positive frequent use of technology along all four subscales: use of technology
as tool, use of technology as a resource, use of technology inside the classroom and
use of technology outside the classroom. To embark on this propensity towards use of
technology further it is important to note that this usage does not relate to those
artefacts and applications that aim at controlling and adapting to our environments.
While many critics commenting on the use of technology in educational sphere still
argue; technology is value-free and technological development proceeds
independently of human purpose. However, it can be clearly observed that this is not
the case as far as the matter of choice of technological gadgets is concerned for the
tertiary level education. The research has yielded enough evidence to contravene this
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
NeverRarely
SometimesFrequently
Always
229
notion. And Figure 12 clearly demarcates the value of technology in the educational
practices of ESL in the institutions of higher education. Moreover, the argument of
masculinity of technology is also nullified here as the women teaching in Pakistan are
seeking help of technology as a resource and tool. Further, the results indicate a strong
inclination of women teachers towards use of technology in everyday teaching –
learning practices both inside and outside their classrooms.
Table 4.17: Correlation among Subscales: Use of Technology as a Tool, Use of
Technology as a Resource, Use of Technology inside the Classroom and Use of
technology Outside the Classroom
Educational
Technology
Use as a
Tool
Technology
as a
Resource
Use of
Technology
Inside the
Classroom
Use of
Technology
Outside the
Classroom
Use of Technology as a
Tool
1
Use of Technology as a
Resource
.681** 1
.000
Use of Technology Inside
the Classroom
.684** .699** 1
.000 .000
Use of Technology Outside
the Classroom
.669** .560** .593** 1
.000 .000 .000
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Additionally, to identify the significant relationship among the sub scales of
section 2 of the survey, Pearson Correlation (2-tailed) is applied on the four
subcategories of the use of technology: use of technology as tool, use of technology as
a resource, use of technology inside the classroom and use of technology outside the
classroom. The results obtained from 125 respondents are analysed here. The results
230
shown in Table 4.17 above, illustrate the highly significant positive correlation among
all four subscales as the p value is less than 0.01 for all four subscales. The table
illustrates that the correlation coefficient between ‘Use of Technology as a tool’ and
‘Use of technology as a resource’ remained 0.681 with 0.000 p value which
demarcates highly positive correlation. This correlation indicates the wide use of
technology for not only developing and creating teaching material, for example, work
sheets, but for accessing the internet to download relevant pedagogical resource. It
shows that teachers are aware of making use of technology to benefit English
language learners of Pakistan. Similarly, the correlation coefficient between ‘Use of
technology as a tool’ and ‘Use of technology inside the classroom’ was 0.684 with
0.000 p value, which again shows highly positive correlation. This correlation is
indicative how teachers rely on technology for both: their own assistance in
developing teaching resources and their learners’ assistance in developing English
language skills. The women teachers mark technology as an assistant in pedagogical
practices and learning endeavours which emphasise a strong positive impact of
technology. Moreover, the correlation coefficient between ‘use of technology as a
tool’ and ‘Use of technology outside the classroom’ is 0.669 with 0.000 p value, again
shows highly significant correlation. The correlation that is established with the
statistical analyses on the subscales of the use of technology demarcates a progressive
approach of women teaching English at the tertiary level institution. The teachers’ use
of technology indicates the multidimensional nature of technological gadgets which
can be utilized into language pedagogy, and also multidimensional utility of available
technological gadgets. The next column of the Table 4.17 illustrates that the
correlation coefficient between ‘Use of Technology as a resource’ and ‘Use of
technology inside the classroom’ remained 0.699 with 0.000 p value which
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demarcates highly positive correlation. The classroom is teachers’ domain, however,
the modern theories of teaching try to make it learners’ domain by providing complete
freedom to them. This theory is often rejected for being utopian theoretically and
chaotic practically. All the same, the correlation between use of technology inside the
classroom and using technology as a resource present teacher, if not an authority
figure, an important character who facilitates learners at every step of their language
learning process.
Similarly, the correlation coefficient between ‘Use of technology as a
resource’ and ‘Use of technology outside the classroom’ is 0.590 with 0.000 p value,
which again shows highly positive correlation. Moreover, the correlation coefficient
between ‘Use of technology inside the classroom’ and ‘Use of technology outside the
classroom’ is 0.593 with .000 p value, again shows highly significant correlation. This
positive correlation describes that women in Pakistan, and especially the teachers in
higher education institutions are moving away from traditional approaches to teaching
and favour cultivation of research based approach to learn English as second
language. The use of technology outside the class helps the learners to have more
exposure to the language learning content beyond classroom, which in turn favours
optimal experience of this language and plus most advantageous learning outcomes.
The above tabulated statistical illustrations (see Table 4.17) demonstrate that
the teachers, who use technology as a tool or resource for developing or accessing
teaching material, also use technology inside the classroom and encourage the
learners to use technology outside the classroom. Thus, this teacher directed use of
technology outside the classroom, is a step towards development of learner autonomy.
All the same, the practitioners and advocates of use of technology, particularly CALL
programmes, consider even the use of technology inside the classroom an inclination
232
towards independence and development of learner autonomy. Moreover, it all
depends on how a teacher teaches, means selected teaching methodology, an area
which is not explored inTechnology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy
Survey. Nonetheless, the results obtained through descriptive and correlation statistics
indicate a strongly positive impact of technology on the women teaching ESL in the
institutions of higher education. This also indicates the female teachers’ inclination
towards autonomous language teaching and learning.
Interpretation
The above detailed analysis helps to construe that technology has the positive
impact on women tertiary level ESL Pakistani teachers. The results help to envision
the women pedagogues are positively engaged in utilizing technological facilities.
The female teachers show teacher autonomy through their administrative decisions for
using technology. The analysis reveals that the teachers utilise technology for
developing, creating and composing teaching aids on computers. Moreover, they are
found to be engaged in accessing internet and other technology aids to facilitate
themselves first as learners; and then their learners. The hypothesis that the teachers
bring technology to the pedagogical discourse to model use of English made by native
speakers, is verified when teachers marked frequent use of technological gadgets for
such purposes. The findings of this section favours the broader views around the use
of technology as a physical object like a tool, a source of knowledge, a source with
which people do different works, a process that begins with a need and ends with a
solution and a socio-technical system that manufactures and uses objects involving
people and other objects in combination.
233
This study is limited to explore only teachers’ tendency to bring the use of
technology into practise of English teaching. However, the survey results help to
elucidate that when the teachers use technology, the English language skill
improvement becomes incidental because the medium would display information in
English, either oral or written. The oral input of English, as a result, enhances
students’ speaking skills. And students would be able to learn English more
effectively. And the written mode gives the input of the structure of the language
which also aids learners to learn autonomously by interacting with the medium-the
state of the art-computers.
In the context of classroom a majority of teachers agreed to make frequent use
of cell phone, tab etc to conduct listening activities, which indicates the diversity of
the use of technology. This eclecticism indicates the feminist pedagogical approach of
the women teachers being an important part of the pedagogical system in the
institutions of higher education in Pakistan. This discourse, on one side, builds up the
scenario of technology-aided facilitation to teaching and learning; while on the other
side is appreciative to the teachers who adapted a gadget of everyday’s need for
educational purposes. These factors help to throw light on the women teachers’ way
of teaching in the institutions of higher education, their active part in teaching
decisions, their use of technology and the particular preferences so as to advance
themselves and their learners in ESL pedagogy. Technology offers the female
teachers opportunities to integrate multiple media, which facilitates the learning of
English. Another, positive report received from the survey is that of the use of
technology inside the classroom particularly the use of multi-media. The women
teachers affirmative response to this item of the survey helps to elucidate that use of
power point or other multiple media technology not only enables teacher to bring
234
multiple mode of presentation of language teaching contact to the classroom, but to
provide more authentic sources of information to the learners. Such way of teaching
learning enhances learning gains of ESL learners by providing opportunities to
experiential learning. This diversity of information may not be transferred by the
teacher in a traditional classroom. However, this practise is sometimes criticised due
to the lack of professional training; lack of resources; and fewer opportunities for such
practices. Nonetheless, the statistics of the study support my point that the ESL
tertiary level women teachers are autonomously finding ways and means to use
technology with the help of technology—browsing the internet. The teacher
autonomy is contextualised partly owing to the rapid progress in information
technology and partly due to the facilities extended to the institutions of higher
education by the government (see Chapter 1.2).
About more than a decade ago, the modern technology was not accessible to
every girl or woman in Pakistan; however, today the accessibility to technology is
commonplace in the institutions of higher education. The today’s handheld
technological gadgets and Wi-Fi connection in all public sector and private sector
universities provides an opportunity to teachers to endow learners with native
pronunciation model. Another, aspect of technology-aided classroom teaching is the
use of word processor for compositions, e-mails or articles. This innovation has
changed the ways of teaching from traditional essay writing to e-mail writing; this
change marks the technological determinism, which was identified by Warschauer
(2004).
However, the survey had not directly asked the respondents to identify the
purpose of use of word processor. It only intended to explore that how frequently
teachers guide students to use Word Processor for compositions or to enhance writing
235
skills. Nonetheless, the women teachers’ strong positive inclination to this use of
technology entails multi-purpose utility of word-processor. One more phenomenon
that is supported from this discourse is the enhanced opportunities to the ESL learners
to use English, as English is the language of accessing most of the internet resources
from Pakistan. These findings are in parallel to the Warschauer’s (2004) opinion that
the use of technology in the classroom makes the use of English for communication
“incidental to the main task but, as a result of carrying out the activity, the students
would be learning important new English genres and engaging in new discourses.”
In a nutshell, the results of this subscale, on the use of technology, encourage
me to deduce that the women teaching in the institutions of higher education are
autonomously making use of technology. This deduction is arguably two fold, on one
level it tells of the capability, availability, and accessibility to the modern gadgets;
while on the other level, it reflects the technology competence and autonomy of the
women teachers. Thus, these findings helps to elucidate Little’s (1995) theory of the
dependence of the development of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. However,
the analysis demonstrates a small number of female teachers in the institutions of
higher education did not make use of technology in the classroom to facilitate ESL
pedagogical practices. The question arises whether the teachers guide and encourage
students to use technology beyond classroom boundaries if they did not find it
feasible to use technology inside the classroom. The following section would shed
some light on this question.
The results of this study are in consonance to the increasingly adopted teaching
trend of integrating technology into teaching and learning ESL in Pakistan (Haider,
2013; Irshad & Ghani, 2015). Moreover, it ascertains the notion that CALL can
236
provide ample opportunities for students to develop learner autonomy (Healy, 1999;
Murray, 1999; and Schwienhorst, 2003) because the learners have an access to
technology, e.g. on laptops and via internet for 24/7; while the access to the teacher is
for a limited time – in and out of the classroom- during a day. However, I support the
argument that technology cannot substitute a teacher; technological advances have
brought a wide variety of material available to the learners almost anywhere. The
technology also empowers the female teachers by providing access to a wide range of
teaching resources. For example, a demonstration of a lesson through multi-media
slides helps the learners to better understand a concept and the same idea can be
reinforced by accessing the same material outside the class as a hard copy or
otherwise. These interpretive elucidations validate the hypothesis of the present study
that the use of technology makes the women teaching ESL autonomous. Secondly, the
teachers use technology for facilitating ESL learning inside the classroom and guide
the learners to access the web sources to reinforce the pedagogical process started
inside the classroom. This enables learners to develop autonomy in a teacher guided
or directed scenario. This teacher-learner rapport in the technologically rich learning
ESL paradigm brings about paradigmatic shift from teacher-led classroom to student-
centered classroom (this notion is discussed in detail in the following section 4.2.3), in
other words, towards learner autonomy.
This technology–led scenario entails that “technology in general is the sole or
prime antecedent cause of changes in society, and technology is seen as the
fundamental condition underlying the pattern of social organization” (Chandler,
2000). Thus, the proposition presented in the beginning of this study (see Chapter 1.3)
that the presence of technology compels the teachers to employ it in their everyday
pedagogical practices is supported. The use of technology determines the social
237
change around us. This technological determinism is rapidly changing the previously
held educational hierarchies, practices and norms in the pedagogical sector too. The
analysis presented in this section points to the fact that today women in higher
education puts technology in the realm of their pedagogical practices. Their responses
enables me to deduce that the teachers themselves are influenced by current
technology rich environment where every young learner is seen either watching e.g. a
facebook video, or listening to e.g. a news bulletin, or chatting e.g. via Skype or
playing games on cell phone. If in this technologically diverse pedagogical
environment teachers decide to use technology to facilitate and motivate the learners,
then this ever changing socio-cultural classroom situation obviously affect the concept
of power in the pedagogical hierarchy at the tertiary level of education.
Moreover, the results of the survey support the view that today technology has
become accessible to the teachers due to its global spread and ease of approach. This
spread of technology has its roots in ever increasing technological advancement and
increased interest in education globally, even Pakistan being a developing country is
no exception. In such Pakistani situation, the gender barrier is diminished as the
participant women-teachers reported the strong inclination towards technology. This
in turn helps to construe a technology rich social set up of the institutions of higher
education. This social setup indicates that technologies such as writing or print or
television or the computer has changed society in general and pedagogical practices in
particular. The findings of this study support the view that entire form of society is
seen as being determined by technology. This context of ever progressive
technological inventions and innovations transform society at every level, including
institutions, social interaction and individuals. The conceptualization, of a wide range
of social and cultural phenomena being shaped by technology, helps to understand the
238
women teachers’ inclination towards technology. It can be seen as a constant
endeavour of an inferior being to be recognized, if not influential, an equal in the
patriarchy of Pakistan. These interpretations, thus lead to the next research question
which inquires of the role of the female teachers in integration of technology in
teaching learning practices for fostering ESL learner autonomy. The following section
would shed some light on this research question.
4.3 Section III: The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner
Autonomy
The role of the women as teachers of ESL in the development of learner
autonomy in the technology-led scenario at the tertiary level of education is aspired
by debates on feminist pedagogy. It is seen that the role of the teacher in actual use of
technology for teaching depends very much on the extent to which the teachers have
been envisioned as having a significant role to play. According to a misconception,
the teacher may have a minimal role or excluded altogether in the development of
learner autonomy. On the other hand, the teacher may play a significant role being a
facilitator or guide to channelize the path to the development of learner autonomy
with the use of technology. These two opposing arguments lead to the fundamental
dichotomous debate around the role of the teacher in the development of autonomy;
one that excludes teacher from the trio of learner, language learning and the learning
material and second that gives central importance to the teacher in the trio of
classroom language learning, teacher and learning material. Here this dichotomy
presents two distinct standpoints; where according to one view the role of the teacher
is at the periphery of language teaching whilst the other view put it in the mainstream
of language teaching. In order to identify how the Pakistani women teaching ESL in
the institutions of higher education see their role in pedagogical scenario the data
239
yielded from the third section of the of theTechnology and Development of ESL
Learner Autonomy Survey is analyzed.
In this way, the yielded data from section three of the survey is statistically
analysed to answer fourth research question: What is the role of the women teaching
in the institutions of higher education in the development of learner autonomy? In this
section of the survey, female teachers were asked to consider how far they agree with
the statements designed to illustrate responses on the role of the teacher for the use of
technology to foster ESL learner autonomy through 25 items Q3.1 to Q3.25 (see
Appendix 1). The statements are devised on five point scale ranging: ‘strongly
disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘not sure’, ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’. However, the items
were analysed under six sub categories.
a) Identification
b) Capacity building
c) Intervention
d) Decision making
e) Integration of technology
f) Social paradigm
These subcategories are identified to describe the role of the teacher in the
development of learner autonomy.
4.3.1 Identification
This subcategory of the survey aims at teachers’ identification of the factors
that affect and influence the development of learner autonomy in ESL learners. The
argument; that learners’ willingness to be engaged in learning process is central to the
development of learner autonomy, holds much of the debate in the pedagogical
240
research on the development of learner autonomy in second language acquisition. On
the other hand, it is also claimed in research that it is motivation that precedes
autonomy. In order to concede to these somehow linked notions the present research
includes these two variables: ‘willingness to learn’ and ‘motivation’.
Table 4.18: Identification
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.1 The willingness to learn indicates
learner autonomy. 0% 9.2% 5.0%
55.0
% 30.8%
3.1
3
Motivated language learners are
more likely to develop learner
autonomy.
0% 3.3% 0.8% 60.0
% 35.8%
Identification
0% 6.25% 2.9% 57.5
% 33.3%
6.25% Negative 90.8% Positive
n=120
For this category, Table 4.18 presents the analyses of the responses of the
female teachers to the designed two items: Q 3.1and Q 3.13. The sum of responses to
the two items is also tabulated. The response rate for these items remained 93.8% as
120 responses were gathered from the total of 128 respondents. The results
demonstrate the female teachers’ positive inclination towards their role in
identification of the affective factors involved in fostering learner autonomy as
approximately 86% respondents agreed (i.e. 55.0% ‘agree’ & 30.8% ‘strongly agree’)
that the learners’ willingness to learn indicates learner autonomy; while
approximately 9% disagree (i.e 9.2% ‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly disagree’); and
approximately 5% respondents were ‘not sure’. All the same approximately 96%
respondents agreed (i.e. 60.0% ‘agree’ & 35.8% ‘strongly agree’) that motivated
241
language learners are more likely to develop learner autonomy; while approximately
3% disagree (i.e. 3.3% ‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 1%
respondents were ‘not sure’. Teachers’ responses across the two items in this subscale
indicated that more than approximately 91% of the teachers agreed (i.e. 57.5% ‘agree’
& 33.3% ‘strongly agree’) that the learners’ willingness and motivation are important
affective factors for developing learner autonomy.
Figure 4.15: Identification
The above detailed elaboration of the yielded data and its analysis indicate that
most of the female teachers teaching in the institution of higher education agreed that
willingness to learn and motivation as important affective factors for development of
learner autonomy as illustrated in Figure 4.15. The results illustrate that the teachers
agree that learners’ immediate motivation to learn the language can ensure positive
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Not Sure
Agree
Strongly Agree
0%
9.20%
5.00%
55.00%
30.80%
0%
3.30%
0.80%
60.00%
35.80%
Motivated language learners are more likely to develop learnerautonomy.The willingness to learn indicates learner autonomy.
242
and effective progress. However, the analysis demonstrates that there are some female
ESL teachers who disagree with the role of motivation and willingness to
development of learner autonomy for ESL learners. Here, the question arises whether
the teachers identify the role of skill development and capacity building important to
fostering learner autonomy. The following section would shed some light on this
research question.
4.3.2 Capacity Building
The argument; capacity building of the learners in teaching-learning process is
central to the development of learner autonomy, is elaborated here with respect to the
role of the teacher. This argument leads to the fundamental debate central to this
argument that language learners are far more capable of autonomous action,
especially in regard to monitoring and evaluation of learning process, than teachers.
Therefore, the women teaching ESL in the institutions of higher education are asked
to consider as to what extent the learners’ capacity to take responsibility of the
learning process is fundamental to learner autonomy. The data generated to find
consensus for this debate is analysed in this section. This section addresses as to what
extent female teachers agree that their role is to build up learners’ capacity in
monitoring and taking control of their own learning; and evaluation of learning help
to foster learner autonomy.
243
Table 4.19: Capacity Building
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.2 The capacity to take control of
one's own learning develops
learner autonomy. 0% 5.0% 3.3%
44.2
% 47.5%
3.3 The skill to evaluate what one has
acquired helps to develop learner
autonomy. 1.7% 10.0%
11.7
%
41.7
% 35.0%
3.4 The ability to monitor one’s
learning is central to
development of learner
autonomy.
0% 3.3% 10.8
%
50.8
% 35.0%
Capacity Building
1% 6.10%
8.60
%
45.6
% 39.17%
7.1% Disagree 84.8% Agree
n=120
For this category, Table 4.19 presents the analyses of the responses of the
female teachers to the designed three items: Q 3.2, Q 3.3 and Q 3.4, which are
statistically evaluated to yield percentage response to each item. The sum of responses
to the two items is also tabulated. The response rate for these items remained 93.8%
as 120 responses were gathered from the total of 128 respondents. The results
demonstrate the female teachers’ positive inclination towards their role in building
capacity in learners so as the learners take control of their own learning. For example
approximately 92% respondents agreed (i.e. 44.2% ‘agree’ & 47.5% ‘strongly agree’)
that the capacity to take control of one’s own learning develops learner
autonomy;while approximately 5% disagree (i.e. 5% ‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly
disagree’); and approximately 3% respondents were ‘not sure’. All the same
approximately 78% respondents agreed (i.e. 41.7% ‘agree’ & 35.0% ‘strongly agree’)
that the skill to evaluate what one has acquired helps to develop learner
244
autonomy;while approximately 12% disagree (i.e. 10% ‘disagree’ and 1.7% ‘strongly
disagree’); and approximately 12% respondents were ‘not sure’.The analysis of the
item Q 3.4 showsthat approximately 86% respondents agreed (i.e. 50.8% ‘agree’ &
35.0% ‘strongly agree’) that the ability to monitor one’s learning is central to
development of learner autonomy;while approximately 3% disagree (i.e. 3.3%
‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 11% respondents were ‘not
sure’.Teachers’ responses across the three items in this subscale indicate that more
than 85% of the teachers agreed (i.e. 45.6% ‘agree’ & 39.17% ‘strongly agree’) that
capacity to take control over learning and evaluation of learning procedure are central
for the development of learner autonomy.
Figure 4.16 Capacity Building
This is evident from the analysis of this subscale presented in the above
discussion that most of the female teachers teaching in the institution of higher
65.00%
70.00%
75.00%
80.00%
85.00%
90.00%
95.00%
91.70%
76.70%
85.80%
The capacity to take control of one's own learning develops learner autonomy.
The skill to evaluate what one has acquired helps to develop learner autonomy.
The ability to monitor one’s learning is central to development of learner autonomy.
245
education agreed that for the development of learner autonomy teacher’s role should
be of a facilitator in building learners’ capacity for taking control over learning
process as illustrated in Figure 4.16. This control indicates learners’ independence
that helps in developing learner autonomy. Benson (2008) elucidates this point by
identifying that if learner takes responsibility to control learning process it helps the
teacher to foster learner autonomy. Explicating its link with the pedagogical process it
is identified that an autonomous teacher is in charge and takes control over teaching
process. Such pedagogical process includes monitoring and fostering the capacity in
learners to take control of their own learning, to evaluate learning process and to
monitor their own learning. Here, the question arises if the teachers’ role is to
facilitate learners’ independence then to what extent the female teachers working in
the institutions of higher education intervene in the classroom teaching-learning
process to foster learner autonomy. The following section would shed some light on
this.
4.3.3 Intervention
The notion of independent learning, which typically involves learners taking
responsibility of their own learning, is recognized by many researchers and language
teachers as providing a context within which autonomy can be promoted and
supported. The expression independent learning has almost become synonymous to
learner autonomy. However, the opposite of independence is the notion of
dependence which entails learners’ excessive reliance on the teachers. Therefore, to
embark on these conflicting concepts: independence vs dependence and student-
centred vs teacher-led ways, in relation to learner autonomy and the role of the
women teacher in Pakistani institutions of higher education, theTechnology and
Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey includes seven items. The gathered
246
data would assist in addressing this issue and would decide on the degree to which
teachers agree that the learners should be independent for the development of
autonomy.
Table 4.19: Intervention
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.5 Learner autonomy can only be
developed in student-centred
classroom. 1.7% 10.0% 5.8% 51.7% 30.8%
3.6 Learner autonomy means
traditional teacher-led ways of
teaching must be abandoned. 1.7% 23.3% 5.0% 39.2% 30.8%
3.7 Learners develop autonomy when
they are allowed to work
independently. 0% 8.3% 0% 57.5% 34.2%
3.11 Learners cannot develop
autonomy without teacher's help. 1.7% 26.7% 8.3% 45.8% 17.5%
3.14 Learner autonomy is promoted
through regular opportunities for
learners to complete tasks alone. 0% 12.5%
4.2%
65.0% 18.3%
3.16 Learner autonomy requires the
learner to be totally independent
of the teacher. 9.2% 42.5% 5.0% 34.2% 9.2%
3.17 Learning to work alone is central
to the development of learner
autonomy. 5.8% 34.2% 4.2% 47.5% 8.3%
Intervention
2.87% 22.50% 4.64% 48.70% 21.30%
25.4%
Negative
70.0%
Positive
The female teachers’ role regarding intervention in teaching-learning process
is analysed in this section. Table 4.19 presents the analyses of the responses of the
247
female teachers to the designed seven items: Q 3.5, Q 3.6, Q 3.7, Q 3.11, Q 3.14, Q
3.16 and Q 3.17, which are evaluated to yield percentage response to each item. The
average of the sum of responses to these seven items is also tabulated. The response
rate for these items remained 93.8% as 120 responses were gathered from the total of
128 respondents. The results demonstrate the female teachers’ positive inclination
towards their less intervention in teaching-learning process to facilitate development
of learner autonomy as approximately 83% respondents agreed (i.e. 51.7% ‘agree’ &
30.8% ‘strongly agree’) that the learner autonomy can be developed in student-
centred classroom;while approximately 12% disagree (i.e. 10.0% ‘disagree’ and 1.7%
‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 6% respondents were ‘not sure’.All the same
approximately 70% respondents agreed (i.e. 39.2% ‘agree’ & 30.8% ‘strongly agree’)
that traditional teacher-led ways of teaching must be abandoned;while approximately
25% disagree (i.e. 23.3% ‘disagree’ and 1.7% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately
5% respondents were ‘not sure’. Similarly approximately 92% respondents agreed
(i.e. 57.5% ‘agree’ & 34.2% ‘strongly agree’) that to develop learner autonomy the
learners should be allowed to work independently; while approximately 8% disagree
(i.e. 8.3% ‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly disagree’). The analysis of the item Q 3.11
shows that approximately 63% respondents agreed (i.e. 45.8% ‘agree’ & 17.5%
‘strongly agree’) that learners cannot develop autonomy without teacher's help;while
approximately 28% disagree (i.e. 26.7% ‘disagree’ and 1.7% ‘strongly disagree’); and
approximately 8% respondents were ‘not sure’.
Q 3.14 addresses the role of the teacher in fostering learner autonomy by
providing regular opportunities to learners to complete tasks alone. Like the previous
items of this subscale most of the respondents agreed that learning to work alone is
central to the development of learner autonomy as approximately 83% respondents
248
agreed (i.e. 65% ‘agree’ & 18.3% ‘strongly agree’);while approximately 13%
disagree (i.e. 12.5% ‘disagree’ and 0% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 9%
respondents were ‘not sure’.However, most of the teacher considered their role being
teachers important to teaching–learning scenario as approximately 52% respondents
did not agree (i.e. 42.5% ‘disagree’ & 9.2% ‘strongly disagree’) that learner autonomy
requires the learner to be totally independent of the teacher; nonetheless the
percentage response in agreement to this statement remained 43% (i.e. 34.2% ‘agree’
& 9.2% ‘strongly agree’); and approximately 5% respondents were ‘not sure’.
Corresponding to first five items, Q 3.17 received most of the responses in agreement.
The female teachers favoured that learning to work alone is central to the
development of learner autonomy as approximately 56% respondents agreed (i.e.
47.5% ‘agree’ & 8.3% ‘strongly agree’);while approximately 40% disagree (i.e.
34.2% ‘disagree’ and 5.8% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 4% respondents
were ‘not sure’.Teachers’ responses across the seven items in this subscale indicated
that about 70% of the teachers agreed (i.e. 48.7% ‘agree’ & 21.3% ‘strongly agree’)
that the giving responsibility to the learners helps in development of learner
autonomy.
249
Figure 4.17 Intervention
The analyses detailed above for this subscale indicate that the most of the
female teachers teaching in the institution of higher education agreed that for the
development of learner autonomy teacher led ways of teaching should be abandoned
and learners should have a control over learning process as illustrated in Figure 4.17.
This control indicates learners’ independence and thus, learner autonomy. In the
Figure 4.17 the rise of bar for disagreement is mainly owing to Q 3.16, which in fact
postulates ESL learners independent learning. Here, the question arises along with
learners’ independent learning to what extent the female teachers working in the
institutions of higher education agree that decision making agent should be the teacher
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
1
82.50%
70.00%
91.70%
63.30%
83.30%
43.40%
55.80%
Learner autonomy can only be developed in student-centred classroom.
Learner autonomy means traditional teacher-led ways of teaching must be abandoned.
Learners develop autonomy when they are allowed to work independently.
Learners cannot develop autonomy without teacher's help.
Learner autonomy is promoted through regular opportunities for learners to completetasks alone.Learner autonomy requires the learner to be totally independent of the teacher.
250
in the classroom for foster learner autonomy. The following section would shed some
light on this.
4.3.4 Decision Making
The female teachers’ role in teaching-learning decisions is central to the
development of learner autonomy. This argument leads to the fundamental debate
around the question whether the decisive personnel in the ESL pedagogical process in
the institutions of higher education is the teacher or learner. The data generated to find
consensus for this debate is analysed in this section. Table 4.20 presents the analyses
of the responses of the female teachers to the designed three items: Q 3.9, Q 3.10 and
Q 3.15, which are statistically evaluated to yield percentage response to each item.
For the holistic results the average of the sum of responses to the three items is also
tabulated. The response rate for these items also remained 93.8% as 120 from the total
of 128 respondents responded to this subscale. The results demonstrate the female
teachers play a positive role and involve learners in decisions of teaching and learning
process to facilitate development of learner autonomy.
251
Table 4.20: Decision Making
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.9 If learners decide about what to
learn they become autonomous
learners.
3.3% 19.2% 2.5% 46.7
% 28.3%
3.1
0
Learner autonomy is developed
when learners make decisions for
how to learn.
3.3% 10.0%
5.8%
50.8
% 30.0%
3.1
5
Learner autonomy is promoted
when learners have some choice in
the kinds of activities they do.
0% 6.7% 2.5% 66.7
% 24.2%
Decision Making
2.20% 11.97% 3.60%
54.73
% 27.50%
14.17% Disagree 82.2% Agree
Approximately 85% respondents agreed (i.e. 46.7% ‘agree’ & 28.3% ‘strongly
agree’) that their learners are decision makers for learning content which helps them
to be autonomous learners; while approximately 23% disagreed (i.e. 19.2% ‘disagree’
and 3.3% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 3% respondents were ‘not sure’.All
the same approximately 81% respondents agreed (i.e. 50.8% ‘agree’ & 30.0%
‘strongly agree’) that their learners take the decisions for how to learn which is
another factor to promote autonomy; while approximately 13% disagreed (i.e. 10%
‘disagree’ and 3.3% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 6% respondents were
‘not sure’. In the same way, approximately 91% respondents agreed (i.e. 66.7%
‘agree’ & 24.2% ‘strongly agree’) that their learners have some choice in the kinds of
learning activitiesthey do; while approximately 7% disagreed (i.e. 6.7% ‘disagree’
252
and 0% ‘strongly disagree’); and approximately 3% respondents were ‘not
sure’.Teachers’ responses across the three items in this subscale indicated that more
than 82% of the teachers agreed(i.e. 54.73% ‘agree’ & 27.5% ‘strongly agree’)that
they entrust responsibility to the learners to make decisions in the classroom for
teaching-learning process so as to foster learner autonomy.
Figure 4.18 Decision Making
The analyses detailed above for this subscale indicate that the most of the
female teachers teaching in the institution of higher education agreed that for the
development of learner autonomy decision making should be shared with the learners
as illustrated in Figure 4.18. The female teachers view their role in entrusting
responsibility to the learners to make decisions about what and how to learn, viz. the
content and learning strategies. This authority of learners in decision making indicates
learners’ independence and learner control over planning of teaching-learning context
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
75.00%
80.80%
90.90%
If learners decide about what to learn they become autonomous learners.
Learner autonomy is developed when learners make decisions for how to learn.
Learner autonomy is promoted when learners have some choice in the kinds of activities they do.
Agree+ Strongly Agree
253
which ensures learner autonomy, as In the Figure 16 the bar for disagreement
remained low, which in fact postulates that female teachers perform their role to
encourage ESL learners’ to make independent decision for ESL learning scenario.
Here, the question arises to what extent the female teachers working in the institutions
of higher education agree that integration of technology fosters learner autonomy. The
following section would shed some light on this.
4.3.5 Integration of Technology
The female teachers’ role in integration of technology in teaching-learning
process is central to the development of learner autonomy. This argument leads to the
fundamental debate around the question whether the integration of technology
supports learning or changes the role of the teacher; and put the teacher on the
periphery of pedagogical process instead of being in the main stream of teaching-
learning process in the institutions of higher education. The data generated to gauge
this conflict is analysed in this section. The female teachers’ role regarding integration
of technology in teaching-learning process is analysed in this section. Table 4.21
presents the analyses of the responses of the female teachers to the designed six items:
Q 3.8, Q 3.12,Q 3.18, Q 3.19, Q 3.20, and Q 3.21, which are statistically assessed to
yield percentage response to each item. The sum of responses to these items is also
tabulated. The response rate for these items remained 93.8% as 120 responses were
gathered from the total of 128 respondents.
254
Table 21: Integration of Technology
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.8 Browsing World Wide Web for
completing tasks develops learner
autonomy. 5.0% 9.2% 1.7% 65.0% 19.2%
3.12 Use of technology motivates the
ESL learners to develop
autonomy. 0% 4.2% 1.7% 60.8% 33.3%
3.18 Computers positively affect ESL
learners’ attitude to develop
autonomy. 0% 11.7% 1.7% 58.3% 28.3%
3.19 Use of technology greatly benefits
shy or inhibited learners to
develop learner autonomy 0% 9.2% 1.7% 55.8% 33.3%
3.20 Computers assist the high
achievers to realize their potential
by working on their own pace. 2.5% 7.5%
0%
54.2% 35.8%
3.21 Technology enables high
achievers to develop autonomy
without preventing their peers
from working on their own pace.
0.8% 7.5% 5.0% 52.5% 34.2%
Integration of Technology 1.38% 8.22% 1.97% 57.77% 30.68%
9.60%
Negative
88.45%
Positive
The results demonstrate the female teachers’ positive inclination towards
integration of technology in teaching-learning process to facilitate development of
learner autonomy as approximately 84% respondents agreed (i.e. 65.0% ‘agree’ &
19.2% ‘strongly agree’) that browsing World Wide Web for completing tasks
develops learner autonomy. All the same approximately 94% agreed (i.e. 60.8%
‘agree’ & 33.3% ‘strongly agree’) thatuse of technology motivates the ESL learners to
develop autonomy. Moreover, approximately 87% respondents agreed (i.e. 58.3%
‘agree’ & 28.3% ‘strongly agree’) that computers positively affect ESL learners’
255
attitude to develop autonomy. The analysis of the item Q 3.19 shows that
approximately 89% respondents agreed (i.e. 55.8% ‘agree’ & 33.3% ‘strongly agree’)
that use of technology greatly benefits shy or inhibited learners to develop learner
autonomy. Similarly, most of respondents agreed that computers assist the high
achievers to realize their potential by working on their own pace as approximately
90% respondents gave response in agreement to Q 3.20 (i.e. 54.2% ‘agree’ & 35.8%
‘strongly agree’). In addition to this, the analysis of the item Q 3.21 shows that
approximately 87% respondents agreed (i.e. 52.5% ‘agree’ & 34.2% ‘strongly agree’)
that technology enables high achievers to develop autonomy without preventing their
peers from working on their own pace. Teachers’ responses across the six items in
this subscale indicated that more than 88% of the teachers agreed that the giving
learners control over learning situation by integration of technology helps in
development of learner autonomy.
256
Figure 4.19: Integration of Technology
The analyses of the role of the teacher in fostering learner autonomy by
integration of technology indicate that most of the female teachers teaching in the
institution of higher education favours integration of technology for development of
learner autonomy as illustrated in Figure 4.19. This integration of technology helps
the learners to pursue independent and self-paced learning that helps to foster learner
autonomy. Here, the question arises to what extent the female teachers working in the
institutions of higher education agree that in the pedagogical social paradigm, where
we judge individuals in the dichotomy of male and female, ESL learners display
gender differences in the development of learner autonomy. The following section
would shed some light on this question.
78.00%
80.00%
82.00%
84.00%
86.00%
88.00%
90.00%
92.00%
94.00%
96.00%
84.20%
94.10%
86.60%
89.10%90.00%
86.70%
Browsing World Wide Web for completing tasks develops learner autonomy.
Use of technology motivates the ESL learners to develop autonomy.
Computers positively affect ESL learners’ attitude to develop autonomy.
Use of technology greatly benefit shy or inhibited learners to develop learner autonomy
Computers assist the high achievers to realize their potential by working on their own pace.
Agree + Strongly Agree
257
4.3.6 Social paradigm
The argument, that the women teaching ESL consider the social perspective of
learners’ gender, is elaborated in this section. The female teachers’ play their role, in
analysing the social aspects of learning situation for developing learner autonomy
among ESL learners who are gaining education in the co-education system prevailing
in the institutions of higher education. The present section presents the analyses of the
responses of the female teachers to the designed four items: Q 3.22, Q 3.23, Q 3.24
and Q 3.25, which are statistically evaluated to yield percentage response to each item
(see Table 4.23). The response rate for these items remained 93.8% as 120 responses
were gathered from the total of 128 respondents.
Table 4.23: Social Paradigm
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.22 Differences in development of
autonomy are due to difference
of gender. 16.7% 55.0% 10.8% 14.2% 3.3%
3.23 Development of learner
autonomy is gender specific. 14.2% 51.7%
8.3%
20.0% 5.8%
3.24 Female beginner learners being
part of Pakistani male
dominating society lack
autonomy.
6.3% 48.3% 6.7% 28.3% 8.3%
3.25 Computers in and outside
institutions provide an
opportunity to female learners
to develop autonomy.
0% 14.8% 4.2% 60.8% 19.2%
Social Paradigm
9.30% 42.45% 7.50% 30.83% 9.15%
51.8% Negative 40.0% Positive
258
The first three items were designed to identify whether the teachers consider
that the learners are different on the dichotomy of gender. The results demonstrate
that the female respondents do not consider any gender difference in the development
of female learner autonomy. The data analysed below shows that the most of the
teachers disagreed with the stance that language learners showed differences in
development of autonomy due to difference of gender. Approximately 72%
respondents disagreed (i.e. 55.0% ‘disagree’ & 16.7% ‘strongly disagree’); however,
18% respondents agreed (i.e. 14.2% agree & 3.3% strongly agree) and 11% of the
respondents were not sure about such gender differences in development of learner
autonomy. This shows that a small number of the female respondents consider the
inherent nature of gender differences in pedagogical scenario and the same concept is
evidently highlighted in response to Q 3.23; whereby approximately 66% respondents
disagreed (i.e. 51.7% ‘disagree’ & 14.2% ‘strongly disagree’) with the statement:
“Development of learner autonomy is gender specific”; whereas, only 26%
respondents agreed (i.e. 20.0% agree & 5.8% strongly agree) and 11% of the
respondents were not sure about the gender differences in development of learner
autonomy. However, when the female respondents were asked about female beginner
learners’ lack of autonomy being part of Pakistani male dominating society, 55%
respondents disagreed (i.e. 48.3% ‘disagree’ & 6.3% ‘strongly disagree’) while 37%
respondents agreed (i.e. 28.3% ‘agree’ & 8.3% ‘strongly agree’) and 7% of the
respondents were not sure. Nonetheless, majority of the female respondents believed
that computers in and outside institutions provide an opportunity to female learners to
develop autonomy asapproximately 80% respondents agreed (i.e. 60.8% ‘agree’ &
19.2% ‘strongly agree’) with the posed statement.Teachers’ responses across the four
items in this subscale indicated variability. This means that the female respondents
259
did not disregard the gender differences in ESL pedagogical scenario in the higher
education institutions as approximately 50% respondents realized this dichotomy of
gender in the social paradigm of pedagogy evidently shaping the role of the female
teachers in the development of ESL learner autonomy in the institutions of higher
education.
Women teachers response on the dichotomy of gender in the pedagogical
social paradigm indicate the variability, as demonstrated in the analyses of the role of
the female teacher in fostering learner autonomy in the Table 4.23 above. Here, the
answer to the posed question is not clear cut as approximately 52% of the female
respondents working in the institutions of higher education disagreed with the stance
that in the pedagogical social paradigm men and women ESL learners achieve
different levels of learner autonomy. However, 48% of the female respondents either
agreed with or were not sure about gender differences in the Pakistani ESL social
paradigm of higher education sector. The analyses of the role of the teacher in
recognizing the gender differences in the classrooms indicate that the view of female
teachers teaching in the institution of higher education is varied as illustrated in
Figure 4.20.
260
Figure 4.20: Social Paradigm
Arguably the female teachers’ role in development of learner autonomy of
ESL is central to the pedagogical process. This argument leads to the fundamental
debate around the question whether the women teaching in the institutions of higher
education play any role in the ESL pedagogical process in development of learner
autonomy in Pakistan. The data generated to find consensus for this debate was
further analysed in this section. Moreover, in order to better understand the correlation
of technology and development of learner autonomy; and its impact on the women in
Pakistani higher education, statistical analyses were carried out to establish the
correlation between the variables of the study. The following section would shed
some light on this.
4.3.7 The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy:
Correlation between Variables
Before establishing the correlation between research variables, at this stage of
the analysis, it is important to view the results of all six subscales for the ‘Role of the
teacher for the development of learner autonomy’. This view would help to envisage
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
StronglyDisagree
Disagree Not Sure Agree Stronglyagree
261
the consistency or differences of responses among subscales to better approach to the
conclusive answer to the research question 3: How frequently, do female teachers
teaching in the institutions of higher education make use of technological facilities in
ESL pedagogical practices? Therefore, it is significant to present the results
graphically in Figure 4.21 to show the highly positive responses of the women
teachers towards their role in the development of learner autonomy along all six
subscales: ‘Identification’, Capacity Building’, ‘Intervention’, ‘Decision Making’,
‘Integration of Technology’ and ‘Social Paradigm’.
Figure 4.21: The Role of the Teacher in the Development of Learner Autonomy
The results illustrated in Figure 4.21 are comparable to the stance that the role
of the teacher is central to the development of learner autonomy (Hurd 1998; Benson
2008). This also reflects women teachers’ awareness of not only the concept of
learner autonomy, their approach to learner autonomy, their awareness of the benefits
and demands of the technology rich environment and of learners’ identity in the social
and cultural scenario of Pakistan. Here it is important to note that teachers perform
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
StronglyDisagree
Disagree Not Sure Agree Strongly Agree
Identification Capacity Building Intervention
Decision Making Integration of Technology Social Paradigm
262
their role in fostering learner autonomy so as to promote confidence and motivation
through the language learning process and make learners realize their own potential.
At the same time the teachers help the learners to improve their capacity for self-
analysis. The analysis shows that teachers work to on fostering autonomy is not just to
make them independent or teaching a few techniques, it involves changing the way in
which teachers relate to learners.
Table 4.24: Correlations among Subscales: The Role of the Teacher in the
Development of Learner Autonomy
Identifica
-tion
Capacity
Building Intervention
Decision
Making
Integra-
tion
Social
Paradigm
Identificatio
n 1
Capacity
Building .725** 1
.000
Intervention .240** .485** 1
.008 .000
Decision
Making .362** .602** .564** 1
.000 .000 .000
Integration .182* .329** .401** .379** 1
.047 .000 .000 .000
Social
Paradigm .182* .329** .401** .379** 1.000** 1
.047 .000 .000 .000 .000
n=120
Note: * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Given that, it was more meaningful to examine teachers’ responses across the
six subscales of the role of the teacher for the development of learner autonomy
separately rather than as an overall total score for the scale, it was therefore decided
that possible correlations among the six subscales should be explored. For this
purpose Pearson Correlation (2-tailed) is applied. Table 4.24 displays the correlations
263
between the subscales. The table below shows significant positive correlations
between ‘Identification’ and ‘Capacity Building’ as well as between ‘Identification’
and ‘Intervention’, which confirm the posited role of the teachers to facilitate the
development of ESL learner autonomy. The analysis revealed that the correlation
coefficient between ‘Identification’ and ‘Capacity Building’ at 0.725 with the p value
0.000, which shows highly positive significant correlation between these two
variables on the role of the teacher towards development of learner autonomy.
Similarly, correlation coefficient between ‘Identification’ and ‘Intervention’ was
calculated at 0.725 with the p value 0.008 which shows highly positive significance.
As a consequence, these figure retrieved after the analysis show that the teachers play
their role in identification of affective factors to foster learner autonomy and they find
appropriate intervention in the teaching-learning process imperative for managing
their ESL students’ learning. In this context, the teachers’ role is vital in making the
learners dependent or independent; in fact, teachers play their role in managing the
control over teaching-learning process between dependence and independence- thus, a
concept of interdependence emerged. Benson’s (2008) notion of teachers working
towards learner autonomy with the aid of technology follows the interdependence
pattern in the classroom. This allows the learners to work alone and in collaboration
with peers and the teacher. The women teachers show awareness of their role to
perceive the learners capacity to learn and enhancing such opportunities for learners
where they can take control of learning to develop autonomy.
Moreover, there is highly significant positive correlations between
‘Identification’ and ‘Decision Making’ with correlation coefficient at 0.362 and .000
p value which is less than 0.01. On the other hand, significant positive correlation is
found between ‘Identification’ and ‘Integration of Technology’; and between
264
‘Identification’ and ‘Social Paradigm’ with the correlation coefficient at 0.182 and
0.047 p value for both which is less than 0.05. This demonstrates that the teachers
play their role to assist the development of ESL learner autonomy by giving some
choice on the content for learning and the strategy or method adopted to learn. The
teachers role is also crucial in integration of technology to benefit mixed ability and
shy or inhibited learners to develop learner autonomy. Similarly, this positive
correlation between identification and social paradigm indicate that teachers recognise
the gender differences in learners and perform their role by suitable integration of
technology. For that reason, it can be deduced that the women teaching in the
institutions of higher education strongly regarded computers in and outside
institutions as a medium for female learners to develop autonomy.
The analyses, to find the correlation between the subscales of the scale of role
of the teacher in the development of learner autonomy, revealed highly significant
positive correlation between ‘Capacity Building’ and ‘Intervention’ with correlation
coefficient at 0.485 and .000 p value. Similarly, correlation coefficient between
‘Capacity Building’ and ‘Decision Making’ is at 0.602 with the p value.000 which
confirms highly positive significant correlation. All the same, the correlation
coefficient between ‘Capacity Building’ and ‘Integration of Technology’ remained
0.329 with the p value.000 which shows highly positive significant correlation. The
correlation coefficient of 0.329 with .000 p value between ‘Capacity Building’ and
‘Social Paradigm’ also demonstrates highly positive significant correlation.
Similarly, the Table 4.24 demonstrates a highly significant positive correlation
between ‘Intervention’ and ‘Decision Making’ with correlation coefficient at 0.564
and 0.000 p value. Similarly, correlation coefficient between ‘Intervention’ and
‘Integration of Technology’ was at 0.401 with the p value 0.000 which confirms
265
highly positive significant correlation. All the same, the correlation coefficient
between ‘Intervention’ and Social Paradigm’ remained 0.401 with the p value 0.000
which shows highly positive significant correlation.
The next column of the Table 4.24 shows that the correlation coefficient
between ‘Decision Making’ and ‘Integration of Technology’ remained 0.379 with the
p value 0.000. These findings confirm the highly positive significant correlation. All
the same, the correlation coefficient between ‘Decision Making’ and Social
Paradigm’ remained 0.379 with the p value 0.000 which shows highly positive
significance. The column of ‘Integration of Technology’ in the Table 4.24
demonstrates the correlation coefficient between ‘Intervention’ and Social Paradigm’
at 1.000 with the p value 0.000, which indicates highly positive significant
correlation.
The above detailed results clearly demonstrate highly positive significant
correlation among all six subscales. This paradigmatic correlation among subscales
strengthens the view, based on the assumption that learners do not develop the ability
to self-direct their learning simply by being placed in situations where they have no
other option. Therefore, the role of the teacher is central to this debate.
Interpretations
The analysis of the data helps to construe that the woman ESL teacher plays a
role of a guide and facilitator, who helps the learners in identifying their strengths and
weaknesses. They also agree to help learners build capacity to pursue learning so as to
manage the situation between dependence and independence. Many advocates of
learner autonomy argue that some degree of freedom in learning is required if learners
are to develop their autonomy (Little, 2004; Benson, 2007a, 2010, 2011a). However,
this argument does not lead to the exclusion of teacher from the pedagogical scenario.
266
The analysis of the survey revealed that the development of learner autonomy in
language learning depends not only on the development and exercise of building
capacity in learners for taking responsibility with some detachment from teacher but
also recognizing learners’ willingness to learn and the other factor is, ‘motivation’ of
the learner.
Substantiating this, Levy (1997) finds that a teacher teaching with the help of
technology “may have a minimal role, or be excluded altogether” if instructional
technology programme is self-contained, “alternatively, the teacher may play a pivotal
role in actual delivery of materials”, if the use of technology is taken as a tool. In this
context, Levy (1997) favours the use of computers as tool in contrast to tutor, “which
is intended to emulate or replace the teacher in some way, the function of computer as
a tool is to enhance or improve the efficiency of the work of the teacher or student”
(Levy, 1997, p. 184).
The argument that teachers who are engaged in fostering autonomy allow
learners ‘critical reflection, decision making and independent action’ (Little 1991, p.
4), is arguably supported in this analysis. Moreover, the analysis of the present study
elucidate that women teachers have identified their role in directing learners to take
responsibility for all necessary decisions of learning situation. In parallel to this,
Holec defines autonomous learners as those who presume responsibility for
‘determining the purpose, content, rhythm and method of their learning, monitoring
its progress and evaluating its outcomes” (Holec, 1981, p. 3). These views of
autonomy are typified in the present research when the teachers show a strong
inclination towards adopting their role in identification of the factors contributing to
learner autonomy, capacity building, intervention, decision making and integration of
technology for development of learner autonomy. These findings help to envisage the
267
feminist perspective of not only the utility of technology but also the role of the
teacher in the development of learner autonomy.
Consequently, the above analysis and the research data elaborate and create
space for the women argument palpably and tangible in establishing the idea of the
learner autonomy. The feminist perspective emergent from the survey supports the
role of the teacher as a feminist pedagogue conformist. According to Chicago a
feminist pedagogue facilitates by guiding learners to search the learning content
(Keifer-Boyd & Maitland-Gholson, 2007).The present analysis reveals that the
women teachers support this view by giving students the chance to make decisions for
the content to study. This choice enables students to operate in the class with an
elevated sense of the decision making agents in the pedagogical practices, which in
turn helps them to develop autonomy in language learning. This autonomy, arguably,
is linked to the optimal learning output.
The analysis also embarks on the learner-centred approach of a feminist
pedagogue. In my study, the women teachers emerged as a strong protagonist in ESL
pedagogical scenario, where they exercise their control not only to liberate themselves
but also to liberate their learners by supporting the view on providing ample
opportunities to the learners to work interdependently. As discussed, earlier in this
section interdependence allows learners to work at their own pace independently and
also collaborate with peers and teacher to gain language learning skills.
Carrying this dialogue forward, the study embarks at the notion of power
imbalance between the teacher and learner which prevailed in the higher education
institutions of Pakistan before the advent of technology. This study reveals that the
women-teachers consider themselves the part of technologically transmitted symbiotic
system of knowledge. The system where teacher is not an authoritative figure or
268
custodian of knowledge rather; develops such autonomy in learners that she herself is
ready to learn from the learners. In this way, the results help to contravene the
previously grounded hierarchical passing of knowledge from teacher to learner. The
respondents working in the institutions of higher education with higher qualification
marked success, in education and as employed members of the society, which enables
them to view and adopt this new social change in institutional hierarchy. Study gives
a view on practical application of feminist theory of pedagogy in the Pakistani socio-
political perspective of women teaching English.
The role of the teacher in this context is socially constructed in the presence of
gender dichotomy, and socio-politically constructed due to the impact of technology.
This unique dimension puts the women-teachers of today in the technologically knit
social scenario. In education, particularly language feminist pedagogy a number of
authors and researchers examine gender from this perspective (e.g., Cameron 2005;
Coates 2004; Ehrlich 1997; Kubota 2003; Norton 2000; Norton & Pavlenko 2004;
Pavlenko 2001; Schmenk 2004; Sunderland 1992, 1998, 2000a, 2000b, 2004; Willett
1996). Moreover, the women teachers recognize the dichotomy of gender; and thus
the role of technology in positively facilitating the female learners in the development
of autonomy in ESL pedagogical process.
4.4 Summary
This section summarises the salient findings that emerged from Phase III of
the study. The 128 sets of responses provide a corpus of material on the
epistemological framework of this study. It surrounds feminist pedagogical ESL
perspective of higher education in Pakistan. This feminist perspective foregrounds the
teachers’ professional competence, use of technology and teachers’ role in the
development of learner autonomy. Theory and praxis of technological determinism
269
addresses the impact of technology on women teacher autonomy- the respondents of
the survey. As a group the respondents represent a substantial amount of knowledge
and expertise in the pedagogical field of ESL. In relation to teacher autonomy for the
development of learner autonomy, the data indicated that the female ESL teachers in
the Pakistani institutions of higher education are professionally trained.The statistical
analyses give respondents’ high status of education- both formal or academic and
informal or non-academic. Thus, it reinforces the idea of respondents’ inclination to
pursue higher education with considerable teaching experience, overall good literacy
in computers and female respondents’ positive interest in on-line research in general
and on-line ESL research in particular. Moreover, it can be arguably deciphered from
the findings; the female ESL teachers evidently exhibit their familiarity with
technology particularly educational technology. The responses also reflected a strong
inclination towards computer literacy. All the same, the correlation analyses
suggested the highly significant positive correlation between the teachers’ educational
qualification and female teachers’ competence in technology. This propensity of
teachers towards technology means that with the increase in educational qualification
female teachers’ competence in technology is also positively affected. The results
painted a scenario, the teachers with higher educational qualification are found
engaged in enhancing competence in technology, indicated women teacher autonomy.
In describing how this philosophy of teacher autonomy affects the development of
learner autonomy, the next section of the research included the use of technology for
ESL teaching and learning.
The scope of research on the use of technology was remarkably broad as 98
percent of the respondents marked all categories in Section II of the survey. Clearly,
the survey items for this section encompassed wide range of the uses of technology
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including technology as a tool for compositions and as a resource: to access web
sources of teaching material, CALL applications, internet and the various other
applications that can be used in pedagogical practices of CALL. The findings
explicate frequent use of technological facilities in ESL pedagogical practices by the
respondents.This frequent use of technology relates rather to those applications of
technology that aim at controlling and adapting to the pedagogy. The results also
demarcate technology as value-added and technological intervention proceeds with
the educational purpose in hand. The statistical analyses clearly demonstrate that the
teachers, who use technology as a tool or resource for developing or accessing
teaching material also use technology inside the classroom moreover encourages the
learners to use technology outside the classroom. Thus, this directed use of
technology, outside the classroom, is a step towards development of learner
autonomy. All the same, the practitioners and advocates of use of technology,
particularly CALL programmes, consider even the use of technology inside the
classroom an inclination towards independence and development of learner
autonomy.
The role of the women teaching in the institutions of higher education in the
development of learner autonomy is fundamental. Teachers identify willingness to
learn and motivation for ESL learning, important affective factors which facilitate the
learners to develop learner autonomy. The yielded and analysed data support this
standpoint as teachers hold strongly positive view on identification of learners’
individuality that they bring to the learning situation. Additionally the results help to
realize that the learner autonomy in language learning depends not only on the
development and exercise of building capacity in learners for taking responsibility
with some detachment from teacher but also recognizing learners’ willingness to learn
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and motivation. This strengthens the view that is based on the assumption that
learners do not develop the ability to self-direct their learning simply by being placed
in situations without a teachers’ intervention. Therefore, the role of the teacher in
terms of her presence and involvement, but limited control over learning situation, is
also supported by the respondents. Moreover, respondents have identified their role
by managing the learning setup between dependence and independence of the
learners. The philosophy of some degree of freedom in learning was also supported by
the teachers for the development of learner autonomy; that too without the exclusion
of teacher from the pedagogical scenario. The learner autonomy in language learning
depends not only on the development and exercise of building capacity in learners for
taking responsibility with some detachment from teacher but also recognizing
learners’ willingness to learn and motivation. Moreover, the findings of the present
study elucidate that women teachers have identified their role in directing learners to
take responsibility for all necessary decisions of learning situation. Autonomous
learning was perceived by the teachers as a learning situation where learners take
responsibility for what to learn and how to learn that is the content and method of
their learning, monitoring its progress and evaluating its outcomes. Thus, the feminist
perspective that emerged in this study of the role of the teacher explicate a strong
inclination towards teachers role in identification, capacity building, intervention,
decision making and integration of technology for development of learner autonomy.
Furthermore, the women teachers recognize the gender dichotomy that learners bring
to the social paradigm of the ESL pedagogical situation in the institutions of higher
education. Nonetheless, technology plays its role in women empowerment being
teachers and learners of ESL in the tertiary level education.
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CHAPTER 5
Discussion on the Findings:
Emerging Themes and Patterns of Impact of Technology
The empirical data report, on the impact of technology, in the previous chapter
shows diversity of phenomena and philosophies, describing women teachers’ role in
ESL tertiary level education in Pakistan. When this impact is viewed as a whole, i.e.
through the study of the literature, the analysis of data, and the interpretations of the
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey, the diversity is
remarkable in theory and praxis of use of technology in ESL pedagogy as practiced by
women teachers. The way the women ESL teachers, reflected on their pedagogical
practices, the conceptualization of teacher-based and technology-based learner
autonomy appeared multifaceted. However, through the lens of epistemological
framework of this study, these realities reconciled with theoretical postulations.
Certain themes appear and reappear while revisiting the data analysis of the survey,
while finding answers to the research queries of this study.
Here, I do not attempt to be judgmental, since the research tool is empirical;
nonetheless, I, being a female ESL teacher, cannot altogether reject the aspect of
subjectivity in the interpretation of findings. Moreover, the feminist methodological
design of my study provides me this opportunity and room.
5.1 Impact of Technology
The impact of technology on women ESL teacher autonomy is broad in
Pakistani tertiary educational context, and this teacher autonomy is an antecedent of
the development of learner autonomy. Women ESL teachers recognize use of
technology as a source of education and professional training. The breadth of this soft
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technological determinism is reinforced in the results of the survey question
circumscribing the impact of technology with reference to teachers’ professional
competence. This positive impact of technology on women teachers’ education helps
to elucidate that teachers’ technology education is effectual as it results into its
integration into ESL classroom practices. The knowledge of English and technology
are two enabling forces, granting autonomy, which comes into play in the classroom
practices and beyond. In addition, the fundamental theme that emerges while
investigating the thesis statement resides in the phenomena that the role of the teacher
is elemental in the development of learner autonomy.
5.2 Women Teachers’ Education and Teacher Autonomy
This section of the study advocates one of the markers of teacher autonomy:
teacher education (see Chapter 3.1.3). Here, teachers’ education is not limited to
academic qualification, but encompasses technology literacy and its practical usage.
Interestingly, the introduction of word ‘teacher autonomy’ in second language theory
and practice has received much support from one group of teachers and criticism from
the other group. However, the results of this study help to elucidate, if teacher’s
academic qualification is a marker of teacher’s competence in the subject, the
teacher’s expertise in the use of technology indicates her effectiveness in the modern
technology-rich scenario. Therefore, the following sections throw light on these two
modes of education.
5.2.1 Academic Qualification
The results obtained from the analysis of the survey elucidate that the
Pakistani women ESL teachers are inclined to pursue higher education. The findings
elucidate that the majority of respondents are competent in English as 95 out of 128
respondents were MPhil and PhD qualified (see Table 4.1). Woman’s interest and
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achievement in higher educational qualification is the evidence that she recognizes the
value of autonomy, which grants her critical awareness not only as a teacher, but also
indicates her autonomy being a prime entity of the society. Given that, autonomy
enables her to gain greater access over means and resources of education, and to
control them, so as to make them serve her own purposes. In this way she finds
education as a juncture of established theory and critical praxis to challenge
discrimination and subordination, prevailing in the social hierarchy of her educational
institution.
Moreover, English being the language of colonial oppressor still haunts in this
post-colonial era as the language of superior or elite or oppressor. Discussing the need
to use English by black, hooks (1994) argues that people utilised the oppressor’s
language to speak with one another “so that it would speak beyond the boundaries of
conquest and domination” (hooks, 1994, p. 170). My argument resides in this
knowledge autonomy of English: the socially and politically superior language, gives
her a sense of being professionally trained and competent enough to operate
effectively rejecting male dominance. And this finding refers back to Sidwha’s (1996)
view that women’s proficiency in English marks her elevated status (see Chapter 1.2).
Thus, education in English grants a woman teacher, autonomy, which she identifies as
her professional capacity, and allows her to exercise and bring into play her role
effectively in ESL pedagogical practices in the Pakistani institutions of higher
education.
5.2.2 Competence Development through Technology
The presence of technology entails its use. Such an obvious correlation, as
envisioned through the findings of this study of Pakistani ESL tertiary level women
teachers, is expressed in terms of a positive pedagogical proclivity towards use of
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technology. The study reveals that the women ESL teachers with higher academic
qualification utilize computer technology more than the teachers with less academic
qualification (see Table 4.9, 4.11). At the first level, such scenario is suggestive of the
positive correlation between education and use of technology. At the next level, the
presence of technology and use of technology by ESL pedagogues indicates women
teachers’ autonomy. This active engagement with new technologies gives them
experiential and introspective path to ESL learning, and shows them a path to
introduce the same to their pupils. It is responsible for those new technology related
teaching-learning processes which initiate in the classroom; and result in positive
language outcomes.
The observation: advancement in technology determines the increasing
integration of technology in education by female ESL teachers in Pakistan, is
supported by the findings of this study. It shows that the technology mediation
becomes obvious in women teachers’ pedagogical practices, as an outcome of the
process started at rudimentary level in terms of an effort by an individual. In this era,
the Internet and computer technology are pervasive in tertiary level institutions in
Pakistan, and play a key role in teaching teachers and developing their competence. If
I reflect on my own teaching practices, I find the Internet and computers mediation
unavoidable, and accommodating in ESL learning and teaching. I also find my
colleagues getting benefit of technology for their teaching practices, for example use
of cell-phone to take assistance for English vocabulary, browsing the Internet for
assessing teaching aids etc. Numerous contemporary researches in this area have
elucidated opportunities for teacher autonomy using technology (Benson, 2004, 2008,
2011a).
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Here, I add one important finding that came forth while conducting this
research, most of the women ESL teachers are active users of social networking sites,
for example facebook. And, I accessed many teachers through e-mail. Both suggest
that women ESL tertiary level teachers, in Pakistani male dominating society are
autonomous technology users. Or, it may point to the fact that the presence and
associated use of technology marks a change in the society. The results of the study
point to this change as normalisation of digitisation. In Pakistan, power and men had
an inherent link, and men had been the elite of the society. So, like every society the
novelty in material resources are commodities of the elite first. And oppressed only
receive it when the luxury commodity becomes a mere routine thing of everyday use.
It is then ironic to find that women autonomy is reflected in the autonomous use of
technology. Insofar, use of technology presupposes autonomy (Benson, 2011). The
data generated from the survey supports, what appears as a paradigm shift from
restricted opportunities to material resources to open access to plethora of knowledge
and experience. The independent interaction of women ESL teachers with technology
in and outside the higher education institutions breaks them free of social fences. This
technology-led autonomy has indeed changed the traditional social paradigm where
women face mobility restriction due to pardah issues and have been depended on men
for accessing knowledge gates, e.g. libraries, bookshops etc.
Undeniably, today, information and communication technologies have become
an integral part of social strata of higher education. Adopting such modernization,
every university has its own website, and some universities even provide e-access to
its faculty and students. Moreover, in Pakistan, HEC has set it as goal to inculcate the
value of technology assisted ESL teaching by introducing CALL Subcommittee (see
Chapter 1), yet the concrete and garden facts speak otherwise. The information
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yielded through the survey does not support technology facilitation or in other words,
technology training for pedagogical use (see Table 4.4). The results of Q 1.7 indicate
that the most of the respondents of the survey did not get an opportunity to receive in-
service computer training for ESL teaching. The documented sources claim that HEC
Pakistan supports men and women alike in obtaining CALL education, so as to
incorporate it into their own pedagogical practices. Moreover, in order to complement
PM’s Laptop Scheme (see Chapter 1), HEC Pakistan launched Smart Universities
Project, which aims to facilitate teachers and learners in research and learning
opportunities through ubiquitous access to the Internet. This becomes a way, whereby
the presence and associated use of technology as a soft variable is pursued
spontaneously by the women ESL tertiary level teachers in Pakistan. They take it as a
positive component of their progress and that, which would not have to be imposed on
them by artificial incentives or socio-political coercion. The yielded data supports
teachers’ autonomous actions, in this connection; by pursuing computer training
courses for improving their teaching capabilities (see Figure 4.6).
However, in-service teacher competence development courses have often been
criticized for being limited; and sometimes held back due to practical constraints not
only in Pakistan (Rana, 2006; Masrur, 2009, Hassan, 2009) but globally (Wong &
Benson, 2006; Benson, 2010). These discussions point to the need based continuous
and extensive professional in-service training sessions for ESL faculty in the
institutions of higher education.
Across the globe, the research culture and higher education complement each
other. In Pakistan many researchers focuses the need of effective research in higher
education on and by teachers; particularly by teachers’ continual involvement in it
(Sultana & Shah, 2010). This research culture has entered a new phase due to the
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fundamental reforms for ESL teaching by HEC Pakistan (see Chapter 1.2). Therefore,
the intervention of technology has revolutionized the pedagogical set up altogether
and the field of research is no exception. The analysis of Q 1.9 and Q1.10 (see
Chapter 4.1.3) elucidates respondents’ active participation in on-line research.
Moreover, the participation in this study (on-line survey participation) also adds to
this point further. Thus, comparison of these two survey items (see Figure 4.9) plus
participation in the on-line the Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy Survey makes it obvious that the technology has bestowed upon the women
teachers the education autonomy, knowledge autonomy, experiential autonomy and
teacher autonomy.
Pakistani women teachers use technology, not only to be empowered and
autonomous in class but also to develop a perception of such autonomy socially. This
socio-political English language teaching-learning autonomy enables them to operate
beyond prevailing restrictions of gender divided roles. Thus, it establishes an outlook
of gender parity in this technology rich scenario. In the social setting of Pakistan,
where men usually dominate the social hierarchy, the access of educated women to
the modern resources, rejects the issue of gender biasness. The survey of this study, in
this way, helps me deduce that if technology is a source of autonomy and
independence for a teacher, same is true for ESL learners, for I believe that this
technology determines new ways of education for both educators and those being
educated. The following section will address that how the use of technology in ESL
pedagogical practices is linked to teacher’s teaching autonomy and learner’s learning
autonomy.
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5.3 A Feminist View on Technological Determinism
This study finds that technology intervention influences the choices that
Pakistani female ESL tertiary level teachers make for technology usage in their
pedagogical practices. The discussion in the preceding section aligns the respondents’
view with the finding that the ESL pedagogical scenario at the tertiary level, itself, is
a reason for the use of technology. The presence of information and communication
technology around tertiary level learners, and a woman teacher’s own encounter,
coerce them to realize this reality in the pedagogy. Technology is not only a way to
get access to plethora of information; interaction with this information system
empowers the individuals. In Pakistan, gender roles or gender hierarchy is one type of
power relation, that women teachers deal with, in their classroom, and beyond, in
their daily lives. However, being technology competent ESL teachers, they
confidently address the power structure in the classroom on equality; and thus
denigrate oppression pervasive as a social phenomenon of Pakistani society. An
educated woman finds education, especially knowledge of English a strategy to resist
these systems of oppression. The technology is a tool of her autonomy, for she knows
if the status of her being, invites denigration from the others, her use of technology
and proficiency of English becomes an agent of elevation: socio-political feminist
movement beyond boundaries.
The results of this study helps to elucidate the notion established in several
other studies in Pakistani context that technology-assisted instruction provides ample
opportunities for students to develop learner autonomy (e.g. Rana, 2006; Haider,
2013; Adil, Masood & Ahmed, 2013; Majoka, Fazal & Khan, 2012; Mahmood, Iqbal,
Nadeem, Javed, & Hassan, 2014) because the learners have an access to technology
24/7; while the learner-teacher interaction is limited. But, in the light of data analysis,
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I support the argument that technology cannot substitute a teacher. Technological
advances have brought a wide variety of material available to the learners almost
anywhere. An array of technological teaching resources present inside and outside the
colleges and universities facilitates female teachers’ pedagogical practices and
learners’ language learning exposure. The teachers’ assertion in guiding the students
to access technology outside the classroom fosters learner autonomy. As a result,
although, the process of learning starts in the classroom furthers outside the
classroom, yet it does not exclude the role of the teacher. This teacher-learner rapport
in the technologically rich ESL learning paradigm brings about paradigmatic shift
from teacher-led classroom to student-centered classroom, in other words, towards
learner autonomy.
It indicates that the use of technology determines the social change in
educational centers. Technological determinism is fast paced changing the previously
held social hierarchies, practices and norms in colleges and universities. The women
teachers of ESL plant technology in the realm of their pedagogical practices. The
respondents accepted that they are influenced by current technology rich environment
because young generation is technology tuned e.g. ESL learners’ everyday use of
Facebook, Skype, WhatsApp, Viber, Instagram etc. The teachers’ decision to use
technology to facilitate and motivate the ESL learners, and transform their technology
use into language learning use is productive. Firstly, it strengthens ESL pedagogy.
Secondly, the ever changing socio-political classroom situation alters the concept of
power in the pedagogical hierarchy, the teachers take decisions observing learners
inclinations. It means learners and teacher share power; both can alter each others’
course of action.
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Furthermore, a woman ESL teacher by way of technological autonomy forms
a modern reflection of Pakistani society. However, the classroom is the most possible
place of her praxis of autonomy in the institution of higher education: her immediate
domain. For years it has been a place to either exercise authority, or to show
knowledge superiority. The use of technology not only demands new outlook to
teaching-learning philosophy, but also changes her perception of her learners. She
practices her newly discovered autonomy to autonomies her learners. Corroborating
this, the women ESL tertiary level teachers positively asserted (see Table 4.23) that
the presence and associated use of computers in and outside institutions provide an
opportunity to especially the female learners to develop autonomy. Therefore, the
next section describes learner autonomy as a teaching philosophy.
5.4 Learner Autonomy: A teaching Philosophy
Through both critical appraisal of the selected literature and the findings of the
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey, ESL learner
autonomy is emerged as teacher-based approach in the tertiary level teaching
paradigm of Pakistan. This reflection is a criticism on the nature of learner autonomy
that begins with the oft stated maxim that teacher is redundant if the goal of learning
is learner autonomy. The data help to elucidate that the trio of teacher, learner, and
learning paradigm contribute to the development of learner autonomy (see Figure
5.1). This elucidation is made on the number of themes that emerged from the study
of analysed data. Firstly, the teacher is directly responsible to provide a learning
paradigm to the learner to assist learner achieve learner autonomy. Secondly, the
relationship between teacher and learner is two-way: teacher creates, for the learner, a
learning paradigm as a facilitator, guide, and counsellor; she receives feedback, from
the learner, through learner’s performance. In addition, the increased level of
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language proficiency also suggests a degree of learner autonomy and gives direction
to the learner to achieve autonomy. Thirdly, the relationship between teacher and
learning paradigm is also two-way: teacher creates, regularly revise and revisit the
learning paradigm after evaluating learner’s performance. Fourthly, the relationship
between learner and learning paradigm is also two-way: learner makes decisions to
progress in the designed learning paradigm while reflecting on his own performance.
The ultimate goal of each unit of this trio is learner autonomy as shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Learner Autonomy
The results of the study show that the women teachers have the critical
awareness of the social paradigm where women and men achieve autonomy. Being
part of Pakistani male dominating society women teachers have the awareness that
female beginner learners lack learning autonomy, and that, this autonomy may be
achieved if the learners take part in decision making. The results of the study establish
that learner autonomy is an achievement of learners within classroom setting under
the guidance of teacher and in collaboration with teachers. The teachers are
teacher
learning paradigm
learner
Learner
autonomy
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supportive to the learners because their encounter, with the technology in the modern
education system, has been flowing, flexible and facilitative. These three ‘fs’ suggest
the positive impact of technology on the women ESL teachers, which demonstrate the
room for the teacher autonomy; and resulting efforts of the teacher for the
development of learner autonomy.
5.5 Learner Autonomy and the Role of the ESL Teacher: A Feminist
Perspective
The analysis of the data helps to construe that the women ESL teachers play a
significant role as a guide, facilitator and counsellor in the tertiary level learning
paradigm. The feminist perspective explicates a strong propensity of women teachers
in recognizing their role as a teacher in terms of development of learner autonomy.
The study results, in this connection, corroborate six areas:
(a) Teachers identify the affective factors and individual learner differences
that may hinder or foster learner autonomy.
(b) Teachers play a role in learners’ capacity building by recognizing learners’
ability to control, evaluate and monitor their learning responsible factors of
development of learner autonomy.
(c) Teachers decide so as to what extent of intervention in the learning
paradigm would ensure the development of learner autonomy.
(d) Teachers play a role in decision making process of learning paradigm and
recognize that learners develop autonomy by making decisions of what and
how to learn.
(e) Teachers integrate technology for development of learner autonomy.
(f) Addressing Pakistani social paradigm in the higher education institution,
particularly ESL classroom, women teachers do not consider any gender
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differences in the development of ESL learner autonomy. However, they view
a positive impact of the pedagogical use of technology on female ESL learner
autonomy.
This holistic outlook favours the view that advocates some degree of freedom to
learners in the classroom situation. The women ESL teachers allow learners to take
active part in teaching learning process. Women teachers’ critical awareness of
learning paradigm enables them to value learners’ critical reflection, decision making
and independent action for the development of learner autonomy (Little, 1991). These
findings help to envisage the feminist perspective of not only the utility of technology
but also the role of the teacher in the development of learner autonomy.
Consequently, the above discussion of analysis and interpretation of the
research data elaborate and create space for the women ESL tertiary level teachers’
stance of deliberate and concrete attempts to foster learner autonomy. This feminist
perspective supports the role of the teacher as a feminist pedagogue conformist.
Comparable to this, teachers identify two partial conditions of achieving autonomous
learning: willingness to learn and motivation. Thanasoulas, (2000) opines that “the
evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning
in general” (p. 8) creates self-esteem which affects learners’ willingness to learn. Self
esteem not only refers to conscientiousness but also the readiness and willingness to
achieve the target in learning a language. Motivation to achieve ESL target skills
results from “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning plus
favourable attitudes towards learning” (Gardner, 1985, p.10). This indeed, affects the
context of choice, process and dependence in the learning procedure. Therefore,
women ESL teachers support the students’ place in classroom decision making,
especially, for deciding the content to study. The teachers consider that it would
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enable students to operate in the class with an elevated sense of autonomy. This
autonomy is ultimately reflected in students ESL proficiency level.
The learner-centred approach of a feminist pedagogue is supported through the
results of the Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey. The
women ESL tertiary level ESL teachers emerged as a strong advocates and supporters
of development of learner autonomy in ESL pedagogical scenario. The use of
technology provides control not only to liberate; but also to help liberate their learners
by providing ample opportunities to the learners to work interdependently. This
discussion leads to the notion of the extent of teachers’ intervention in the classroom.
The women ESL tertiary level teachers place the concept of interdependence so as to
allow learners to work at their own pace independently and also in collaboration with
peers and teacher to attain plausible language learning outcomes.
This study also embarks at the notion of power imbalance between the teacher
and learner which may prevail in the higher education institutions of Pakistan.
Considering their part in the technologically transmitted symbiotic system of
knowledge, the women ESL tertiary level teachers do not value the role of the
teachers as so called authoritative figure as the sole custodian of knowledge. Rather
they favour development of learner autonomy by sharing power structure in the
classroom. In this way, the teachers contravene the previously grounded hierarchical
passing of knowledge from teacher to learner. One important finding of the study is
linked to the fact that the respondents being highly qualified individuals have a
different world view of the classroom being microcosm of Pakistani society. It
enables them to get benefitted from the presence of technology and incorporate the
same in that microcosm of Pakistan. In this way, study supports the view of practical
application of feminist theory of pedagogy in the Pakistani social perspective of
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women teaching. Evidently, the data supports that the role of the female ESL teacher
in fostering learner autonomy, in Pakistani tertiary education context, is socially and
politically constructed owing to the use of technology.
The Gender and Women Empowerment 2015-16 focuses on the empowerment
of Pakistani women and “envisages a framework for equitable development of women
living across the country” (p. 60). Moreover, it strengthens the concept of role of the
women teachers in ESL education of women. Given that, these teachers provide the
foundation stone to the women and men to operate autonomously and equally as
educated individuals in all spheres of life. As ESL education is an important means to
be successful in Pakistani society. This policy also recognizes education as crucial for
ensuring women’s emancipation; and participation in mainstream social, economic
and political fields. Higher education in this way grants autonomy to women, it
enables them to gain greater access and control over material and knowledge
resources. The improvement in their lives in this way broadens their worldview and
they grow and come out of the box they have been raised in to challenge the
ideologies of discrimination and subordination.
From the discussion on the findings of the study, so far, it is clear that the
Pakistani women ESL teachers points of departure for the impact of technology on
their pedagogical practices converges to the positive use of technology. Hence, this
study leads to the pedagogical philosophies and concerns which are addressed through
the following framework.
5.6 Pyramid of ESL Techno-Feminist Pedagogy
The analysis and interpretation of the data obtained through the Technology
and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey underpin this pyramid of ESL
techno-feminist pedagogy. It is offered here to delineate the multifaceted philosophies
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of impact of technology on women teacher autonomy in Pakistani ESL context. There
are a number of concerns addressing the impact of technology in the domain of ESL
teaching learning theory and praxis, especially the one related to the development of
learner autonomy as an antecedent of teacher autonomy. Thus, the epistemological
scenario is divergent at the theoretical level of the impact of technology, but
converges to support autonomy of women in Pakistani feminist ESL pedagogy.
Though, the argument of my study resides in teacher autonomy, which a woman ESL
teacher gains through the use of technology, yet it coincides with the social structure
of Pakistani society. Philosophically and practically this ESL teacher autonomy marks
teacher’s inclination towards development of learner autonomy in the realm of higher
education. The findings of this study recommend the positive impact of technology on
women teacher autonomy in ESL Pakistani context. Consequently, it locates teacher
autonomy in the pyramid of ESL techno-feminist pedagogy (see Figure 5.2).
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Figure 5.2: Pyramid of ESL Techno-Feminist Pedagogy
In general terms techno-feminist approach to study role of women in the age
of technology is helpful for a number of reasons. In suggesting ‘technofeminism’ for
women’s position in ICTs, Wajcman (2007) rejects ‘technophobia’ and technophilia’.
She argues that the relationship between women and technology is both ‘fluid and
flexible, and that feminist politics and not technology per se is the key to gender
equality’ (p. 287). The discipline of women teaching-learning autonomy in ESL
paradigm is faced with similar problems. However, I view the assumption of
masculinity of technology or liberating agency of technology as hyperboles. My thesis
surrounds the understanding of the women ESL teachers’ use of technology as a step
to normalization of digitization in the Pakistani context. It is discussed earlier that the
philosophies surrounding this study (see Chapter 3.1) are diverse, and the Technology
and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey also points to this diversity. This
Learner
Autonomy
Technological
Determinism
Teacher
Autonomy
Feminist
Pedagogy
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pyramid of ESL techno-feminist pedagogy frames the approaches surrounding the
issues of autonomy in second language teaching-learning theory and practice. This
frame of study is not only addressing the position of women ESL tertiary level
teachers in Pakistani context of technology, but may also assist women ESL teachers
in other social setups across the globe.
The broad conceptual frame of techno-feminist pedagogy rests on Frierean
conception of critical awareness. Therefore, the data of this survey supports the
theoretical predisposition of the praxis of ESL techno-feminist pedagogy. The role of
technology is often referred to in the specialized literature and in the results of the
survey for describing theory and practice of technology in second language research.
The respondents’ use of technology for their professional development indicates this
critical awareness of women teachers, which transforms their world view of teaching
tertiary level learners. Resultantly, they reject accepted limits and open the way to a
new future by pursuing higher educational qualification (see Table 4.1). It is largely
determined by those results, which the use of technology brings for feminist ESL
pedagogues. This frame views the ESL techno-feminist pedagogical process
facilitating participatory learning through the use of technology; both inside and
outside the class. It also validates the women ESL teachers’ positive personal
experience of the use of technology.
hooks (1994) ESL teaching philosophy highlights “the difference between
education as the practice of freedom and education that merely strives to reinforce
domination” (p. 4), and thus favours the role of the teacher in creating student-centred
learning paradigm. Substantiating this, the analysis of the data reveals that women
teachers’ use of technology in ESL pedagogical practices maximizes autonomy and
thus language proficiency of the learners. Since the use correlates the presence of
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technology with other outcomes. The ESL techno-feminist pedagogy interfaces this
aspect of technological determinism. Secondly, inevitable advancement of technology
results in inevitable integration of technology. Thus, the datum on use of technology
in ESL class reflects on teachers’ active engagement with new technologies, to
inculcate both experiential and reflective mode of cognition simultaneously. The
women ESL teachers, thus, appear as autonomous users of technology to facilitate
pedagogy and pedagogical process.
5.6.1 Definition
Before embarking on the theoretical assumption of this explicated frame, it is
imperative to define this pyramid of techno-feminist pedagogy. To start with the
essence of dystopias of ESL pedagogy, the teachers find range of available digital
resources facilitative. The use of technology presumes autonomy of women teachers,
whilst this autonomy entails teachers’ pedagogical proclivity towards learner
autonomy. The techno-feminist pedagogy withholds the character of the teacher as
essential and fundamental for the tertiary level education. Use of technology in
pedagogy or technology-assisted instruction (TAI) ensures autonomy of its users: ESL
learner and teacher. All the same feminist pedagogy enunciates and spotlights the
learner in the pedagogical process. These two philosophies of education advocate a
pedagogical process that aims at emancipation of learners. Secondly, like pedagogical
approach of soft technological determinism, feminist ESL pedagogy opposes and
alters hegemonic influences based on gender, race, ethnicity, and class (Vandrick,
1994). Thus, this framework rejects the concept of teachers’ authority in the class and
advocates equality. A techno-feminist pedagogue is not predisposed to maintain rule
of thumb, rather becomes a partner of learners in a language learning process. In this
connection, the datum from the survey on Q 3.6 “Learner autonomy means traditional
291
teacher-led ways of teaching must be abandoned.” accepts this notion (see Table
4.19). The women teachers prefer to share authority with learners. Whether it is due to
the impact of the use of technology or the gradual modernization of the pedagogical
scenario, the answer is not definite. However, this gradual modernization of tertiary
level education in Pakistan is also due to the progress, advancement and ever
evolutionary attributes of technological development.
While, soft technological determinism view that the choice to use and alter
technology corresponds “the operational autonomy of a hegemonic subject”
(Feenberg, 2002); the feminist pedagogy view the value of presence of every
individual in the classroom and also that everyone contributes in the learning
paradigm. hooks (1994) views these ‘contributions’ as ‘resources’ (p. 8). Therefore,
this pyramid serves to interface these theoretical dispositions. On one hand use of
technology is the material resource of learning; and on the other hand learner’s
contribution in the class is a resource. ESL Techno-feminist pedagogy holds both: the
role of the learner and role of technology. Above all teacher is the prime interlocutor
of learning in the classroom. Here, the assumption that is made of the role of
technology is not only as a resource, but a tool and tutor also. Thus these basic two
elements: technological determinism and feminist pedagogy together establish ESL
teacher autonomy and give a sound base to the development of learner autonomy.
These aspects of technology and feminist ESL pedagogy, along with teaching learning
autonomy are discussed in more detail here.
5.6.2 Technological Determinism and ESL Feminist Pedagogy: In an Interface
Mode
Evidence from the results of the survey suggest that the modern digital
technologies are not panacea to the gender-based problems of Pakistani education
292
system; rather they are the pedagogical tools that women ESL teachers can
autonomously utilise to foster learner autonomy. This educational pyramid gives
strength to teacher autonomy by way of making use of technology in pedagogical
practices to develop ESL learner autonomy. But a number of considerations account
for such strengths to ESL techno-feminist pedagogy. First and foremost, as language
teachers and technology users the female teachers are aware that the use of
technology directly supports English language learning, as English is the dominant
language to use technology. Secondly, the women teachers’ use of technology for
pedagogical process brings the concept of learner-centred learning from theory to
praxis of ESL tertiary education. Thirdly, the woman teacher’s own experiential
knowledge of the utility of technology influences her pedagogical decisions related to
adoption of technology in the classroom.
In this way, the women ESL teachers in the institution of higher education
recognise the use of technology not only as a tool to bring about change rather a
change agent. Therefore, a wide range of social phenomena are seen as shaped under
the impact of technology. The value of it is predominantly realised in the classroom
scenario as social interdependence of a female teacher and her learners. In such
technology milieu, the women’s preference to use technology is coupled with
autonomous outlook of the social setup, which allows liberation and choice. This
discussion leads to another assumption that this human creation: technology, is
inherently or built-in with facilitative approach for the mankind. As the process of
ESL learning that is started in the classroom may be continued or reinforced outside
the classroom. For the incessant advancement in technology has brought us into the
era of mobile and easy accessibility to the technological device without place or time
restriction. Thus, it accounts for an autonomous learning space of an ESL learner.
293
The use of technology has an impact on women teachers and learners, which
can neither be marked as hard or relentless nor neutral, but irresolute and non-
directive. The use of technology is often based on choices and preferences of the
users. The relationship between choice and outcome of that use is never linear. It is
paradigmatic as far as the choice is concerned as it depends on purpose; and
syntagmatic as far as outcomes are concerned. Here, I refute Mander’s objection that
“the great majority of us has no say at all in choosing or controlling technologies”
(Mander, 1978, p. 135). In this age of technology women ESL teachers are confronted
with array of options, as discussed earlier, but desired outcomes and purpose in hand
are the driving forces that lead to decisions. Use of technology as tool, like
applications of word processing may require some training or guidance. But as it is
revealed from this study that ESL women teachers not only possess know how of
technology but are actively engaged in making use of it for pedagogical practices. In
this way Pakistani women ESL teachers are techno-feminist pedagogues who can play
a pivotal role in directing ESL learners’ use of technology inside the classroom
towards learning English. They can also guide the learners about those applications of
technology which can be accessed outside the classroom to ensure optimal ESL
learning gains. Such practices proclaim close connection between teacher autonomy
and learner autonomy, the one which is addressed below, and the one which views it
as a teaching philosophy (see section 5.4). Since, this study helps to construe that
teacher autonomy suggests unconditional unidirectional approach of women teachers
towards development of learner autonomy.
5.6.3 Learner Autonomy: An Antecedent of Teacher Autonomy
Learner autonomy is a prime antecedent of teacher autonomy in second
language pedagogy. The research findings help to elucidate that women ESL teacher
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autonomy means, autonomy of the teacher as a learner in Pakistani tertiary level
pedagogical context. The same point of view is explicated through a comparison that
ESL learners operate as independent users of English if their classroom practices have
guided them in this way. Similarly, only those language teachers can promote learner
autonomy, whose own educational set up has supported them to be autonomous. The
results of the survey show that teachers have achieved learner autonomy, as the
women teachers’ competence in technology (see Figure 4.6) and higher academic
qualification (see Figure 4.1), helps me to deduce that they had undergone an
intellectual process, what Friere calls reflection; and then revised their professional
preferences. Such preferences indicate autonomy of the women ESL tertiary level
teachers. However, the contents of their preferences are subject to direct normative
constraints: both social and political. Significantly, this autonomy of female teachers
is a critical awareness due to the impact of use of technology. This usage compels
them to view classroom as a domain of feminist pedagogy. Realizing her autonomy
and to use it as libratory agent, the world view of a Pakistani learner teacher or
teacher learner emerges as a proponent of feminism. Therefore, I interpose Schenke’s
(1996) argument that “feminism, like antiracism, is …not simply one more social
issue in ESL but a way of thinking, a way of teaching, and most importantly, a way of
learning” (p. 158). In such way, teaching, as practiced by feminist ESL teachers, can
take many forms to raise gender awareness and consciousness. ESL techno-feminist
pedagogy advocates teachers’ learner autonomy. This development of autonomy
implies better language learning. Therefore, learner-teacher interdependence and form
of learner dependence upon teacher are not as such separate phenomena. It reflects
the degree to which learner autonomy is now viewed as a socially and institutionally
contextualized construct that depends on teacher.
295
Here, I take women teacher autonomy, teacher technology literacy and teacher
identity as three elemental facets to the development of learner autonomy. Above all,
the role of a female teacher in the institution is linked to teachers’ social and political
identity. My ontological approach to study the status of women in Pakistan is limited.
The woman I am referring to is an educated and employed individual. The classroom
in the higher education institution is her micro-world, where she exercises her
autonomy. In this way, she transcends the social barriers under the impact of
technology. Her education and employment status as ESL tertiary level teacher is a
marker of success. Residing in the bubble of her restricted domain, the classroom,
ironically she exercises her autonomy as a female pedagogue. However, this
autonomy is held dear in many other researches and studies; and is considered as
force of feminist libratory emancipation. Many researchers and writer consider
educated women as empowered and autonomous. Substantiating this elevated status
of educated women, and analyzing women’s situation depicted in Saffron Dream by a
woman diasporic writer: Shahla Abdullah of Pakistan Roychoudhary et al. (2015)
delineated:
Today women have realized that they are neither dependent nor helpless. They
feel that a woman is an equal competent just like a man. Today, a woman has
also become a direct money earner and is not confined only to household
works. The women of modern era think on different lines. (Roychoudhary,
Srivastava, & Dwivedi, 2015, p. 281)
This lofty status of a woman of modern age in the technology mediated environment
shapes her role and alters her course of action. She encounters a wide range of choices
within these overall socio-political constraints of Pakistani society. The element of
choice which technological gadgets offer helps her either to use them, or abandon
296
them, or modify them to serve her purpose. Eventually, the most deterministic
perspective may be unwittingly to apply freedom to the social factors that influence
choices. Women ESL teachers do not retain free-choice simply because of the social
and pedagogical constrains. Indeed, they realize the potential of technological control
in their pedagogical practices by choosing not to see how the environment they shape
with the use of technology, in turn, shape their individuality, identity and social
outlook.
5.6.4 Further Implications
The pyramid of ESL techno-feminist pedagogical framework has further
implications for future feminist studies in ESL education in Pakistani context and
beyond. It has implications to study ESL feminist pedagogues, CALL
teachers/practitioners/programmers, role of the technology, role of the ESL teachers
and role of the ESL learners. While, the above discussion highlighted various areas of
interest of this framework, its future implications place the same in other feminist
educational perspectives. It has implications for future research as it brings together
theory and praxis of those future pedagogical practices that view education as a door
to women autonomy or freedom. For at the theoretical level, it addresses
technological determinism with the philosophy of presence, use, and outcome
correlation; whereas, from the practical standpoint it addresses the ways and means
through which technology can be put into effective use to reap optimal ESL learning
outcomes. Technology assistance has been an effective mode of learning and
teaching. In the present study the teachers viewed the application of technology as a
tool of teacher autonomy for creating teaching material by using word processor, like
worksheets and PowerPoint slides. It is also a tool for learner autonomy, for example
it assist learners in enhancing writing skills. Technology use also determines the
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access to plethora of teaching and learning resources, by browsing World Wide Web.
Moreover, tutor in technological gadget like computers assist a different course of
action and granting greater ESL teaching learning autonomy. Nonetheless, it places
the role of a woman teacher as a guide and facilitator; and a counsellor too.
Throughout, the process of teaching with the use of technology women teachers place
learners in the centre as enunciated in their pedagogical proclivities, and especially
demonstrated through the use of technology.
This elucidation is made here, with the expectation that the future research in
the field of ESL learner autonomy may not exclude the role of a teacher and feminist
approach in technology aided instruction. The role of the teacher is and will remain at
the heart of pedagogy, here I point to this, because throughout my educational career,
I aspired those teachers who valued every individual in the class. Therefore, as an
ESL teacher I value those pedagogical practices that put me among the learners.
Rejecting philosophy and practice of teacher-authority concept, I prefer and advocate
teacher-partner concept in the learning paradigm. For I believe, pin drop silenced
classroom is a graveyard. And how can one teach the living, if one assumes them
mute, in other words, dead. For learning to occur, I favour feminism for learners,
irrespective of their gender. I favour voicing of the learners. In Pakistani context,
English language proficiency grants learners of every gender, class and religion this
socio-political autonomy.
In addition, in today’s technologically aware world, use of technology is the
best way for women ESL teachers to realize that the classroom is not a restricted
domain. The future research may embark upon the view that women teachers
actualize teaching autonomy through those pedagogical practices which fosters
learner autonomy. Such a feminist approach to education gives voice to the silent,
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freedom to the oppressed and autonomy to the restrained. In further research this
framework will help to address the issues of social prejudice in education sector in
particular and in the society in general.
5.6.5 Strengths and Limitations
The strength of pyramid of ESL techno-feminist pedagogy lies in its flexibility
of application in any socio-educational context to address teacher-learner relationship
through feminist theoretical perspective of use of technology. Such a relationship
embodies interdependence of teacher-learners and learners-learners in teacher-led
classroom. It addresses the social issues of women marginalization in education
sector, not only in terms of the social fences that blocks their path to education and
empowerment; but also restrict their access to material resources. It also allows the
study of the role of a woman teacher’s education as a marker of her professional
competence, which enables her to practice her autonomy in the classroom. It
emphasises woman teacher’s position as a learner, who achieves knowledge
autonomy; as a technology user achieves technical autonomy; in other words, as an
ESL teacher achieves professional or job specific autonomy. Ideally, this model
studies the role of women teachers in developing ESL learner autonomy in terms of
teacher education, teacher identity and teacher autonomy. That may involve teachers’
education in terms of academic qualification and proficiency in the use of technology,
in-service or pre-service training, and interest in research. Teacher identity in this
model is restricted in terms of being female, and also educated employed individual.
Teacher autonomy is accessed as a presupposition for teachers’ pedagogical proclivity
to learner autonomy.
The shortcomings of this framework lie in its approach to ESL pedagogy from
feminist perspective of technological determinism. Moreover, this model does not
299
encompass the whole philosophy of technological determinism. It only addresses soft-
deterministic outlook for the women ESL teachers. The framework insists that the use
of technology shows ways and means to gain a critical awareness. It focuses the social
barriers that women face, while getting access to technology, in terms of male
dominance and the Pakistani context of female dependence on men to access
educational resources. However, it does not discuss the economic hindrances to the
use of technology. Since, economic issues and social issues go hand in hand;
therefore, this pyramid may be applied to address such issues. It is quite a well
researched phenomenon that in higher education institutions learners value autonomy,
whether in control over learning content, method or material resources inside and
outside the classroom (e.g Bersica, 2008; Karim, 2014). In addition, language learners
need to receive training in using technology efficiently. The researchers have revealed
that technology trained learners and teachers make effective use of technology, and
get benefit in language learning (Hoven, 2006; Winke & Goertler, 2008; O’Bryan,
2008).
Although, ESL techno-feminist pedagogy places learner autonomy at the top
section of pyramid, yet it gets strength from the foundation. This foundation is laid by
ESL teachers with a feminist pedagogical approach towards the use of technology.
Emphasising teachers’ role, this frame of study does not reject learner centeredness in
the pedagogical process, with the expectation that the teachers’ role is crucial in
channelizing, monitoring and guiding adult learners learning exposure. For teachers
designed technological assistance may better aid learning process and motivate
learners to achieve the targets set by the teacher. But this same value of this pyramid
is liable to criticism.
300
5.6.6 Opportunities and Threats
The feminist approach to teaching and learning is opportunistic not only for
female feminist pedagogues but also to male and female learners. For it crosses the
barriers of traditions providing opportunities on the bases of class, gender, status,
religion. Thus, it dismisses the norms of oppression operating at the level of society;
and in the educational centres at the level of classroom, a microcosm of society. This
philosophy of education rejects the notion of feeding learners with information and
expecting them to rote-learn, a way of producing a generation of stereotype
mimicking parrots. It promotes learning that motivates critical thinking, creative
response and ingenious contribution to the society. Advocating education as a means
to autonomy, though only teaching-learning autonomy, yet it provides an approach to
teachers and learners to transcend the barriers set by the so called conformists of the
society. Providing opportunities of integration of technology in pedagogical practices
to female teachers of Pakistan, it sets the ground for women of Pakistan to liberate
and operate effectively in today’s cosmopolitan world of education.
Promoting the use of modern technological gadgets as a tool and resource for
the teachers to create and design teaching material, this pyramid values individual
learner differences. For instance, the difference in choice of resources means students
use different types of digital media and technology resources in different ways. It
allows teachers to identify individual learning style and strategies (Oxford, 1990). It is
argued that the use of learning resources is often influenced by an individual learner’s
style, and it shapes the classroom discourse in the student-centred environment. It is a
common observation of teachers working with technology that some learners prefer
visual resources, like diagrams or flow charts while others prefer aural stimuli. Some
learners have prior knowledge on some subject area, while others are skilled
301
technology users. This diversity is more common at higher levels of education.
Therefore, this pyramid allows to study the role of the teacher in recognising learners’
individualities and to provide them with the opportunities that cater to the needs of
individuals. In this way this pyramid has the potential to promote teaching as a
business where a woman teacher enters with a conviction that it is important to her to
exercise her autonomy in a way that it engages every individual in the classroom. This
engagement is not passive reception of mound of knowledge but an engaged process,
where learners are active participants.
The use of technology in -pedagogical practices offers communication with a
machine, and via machine. The latter form of communication may indicate human-
human interaction, or human interaction with only human intelligence packed in
machine. Such practices in ESL tertiary level pedagogy are often liable to chaos and
confusion more than profit. Substantiating this, Gardner & Miller (1999) demonstrate
the use of technology for the self-access, self-instruction and distance learning as
permitting little advancement in learner autonomy and, therefore, language learning.
Again, I believe, enhanced learner autonomy does not coincide with enhanced
language proficiency. In other words, learner autonomy is not a yard stick for
language proficiency. A teacher or researcher may deduce from learner being
gradually becoming autonomous: a step towards improved understanding of learning
goals or demands of immediate learning situation.
5.7 Conclusion
This study, addressing the women population in higher education institutions of
Pakistan, investigated the impact of technology on the women ESL teacher autonomy,
in terms of teacher education, teacher identity and pedagogical practices. In turn, this
teacher autonomy is embarked upon as a prerequisite to the development of learner
302
autonomy. These defining traits of teacher autonomy place learner autonomy as a goal
of the pedagogical process. Here, the concept of learner autonomy is defined as a
teaching philosophy through a trio of teacher, learner and learning paradigm. Thus,
learner autonomy is defined as learner’s willingness to learn, ability to make
decisions, capacity to take responsibility of one’s own learning and a skill to critically
evaluate one’s own progress. It operates under the guidance of teacher and in
interdependence with peers in a teacher-led pedagogical process.
The Pakistani women ESL teachers recognise, as Warschauer, Shetzer & Meloni
(2003) demarcate a “flexible, autonomous, lifelong learning...essential to success” (p.
176) in this age of information and communication technologies. This critical
awareness is associated with the active feminist movements in Pakistani educational
institutions. Teachers, as highly qualified women reject the gender discrimination and
denigrate the concept of every form of oppression by men or even women within the
microcosm of their social stratum in the higher education institution. The study also
evaluates women pedagogical practices as their conscious actions to emancipate and
gain teaching-learning autonomy. It also helps them actualize their requisition and
struggle to social equality in Pakistan. The findings favour Frierean conceptualization
of the ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’, an interplay of theory and praxis, which focuses
teaching as an engaged process as opposed to banking concept of learning. Thus,
female ESL teachers and learners, learn to respect each other’s differences,
accomplish mutual goals, and help each other reach individual goals. Based on hooks
philosophy of feminist pedagogy this study has found that the women ESL teachers
consider classroom most radical space of possibility for the female ESL teachers in
higher education institution, where they confirmed their active engagement with
technology in the pedagogical process.
303
In this way, the study gives an insight into the impact of technology on women
ESL teachers. The presence of technology determines its use, and it guides women
teachers’ social and political development. In this way, the analysis and interpretation
of the data obtained through the Technology and Development of ESL Learner
Autonomy Survey underpin the pyramid of ESL techno-feminist pedagogy. It
delineates the multifaceted philosophies of impact of technology on women teacher
autonomy in Pakistani ESL context. Thus, this pyramid has implications for further
research due to its strengths; however, it is limited in addressing the core ideology of
educational domain. I recommend that the future research on feminist methodology
should consider this pyramid. Being grounded in critical theory, it addresses the
theoretical disposition of feminist pedagogy. Policy making authorities should open
doors to higher education for women across the country, especially for teaching and
learning English. The policy making board should have both: women and men
representatives; and this is only possible with the equality of opportunities to
education and resources to education. Moreover, equality of access to technological
resources in the institutions of higher education should also be considered as it is a
prerequisite to facilitate autonomous ESL teaching and learning. In this way the
educational paradigm of the country may help to bring equality and balance rejecting
the socio-political fences. In further research this framework will help to address the
issues of social malignance in education sector and society, for example gender
stereotype in text books, masculinity of technology, gender-based employment,
gender-based educational fields, misconception to consider technology as a male
domain etc.
304
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Appendix A
Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy Survey
I would like to invite the tertiary level language teachers to participate in my
research project: Technology and Development of ESL Learner Autonomy: The
Impact on Pakistani Women in Higher Education. This project is undertaken as a part
of my Doctoral research at The Islamia University of Bahawalpur under the
supervision of Professor Dr. Mamuna Ghani. The purpose of this study is to
investigate the effects of use of technology on development of ESL learner autonomy;
the ability to take control of one's whole learning process. The goal of this research
project is to better understand how technology available to individuals, particularly in
gender perspective of higher education in Pakistan, both in and outside the institutions
is utilized to make optimal and conducive ESL learning environment. Your answers
will be of immense help in getting insights to complete this study. The information
provided by you will remain confidential and will be used only for academic purpose.
Should you have any query Please contact me at: 03006899042 or
sadiyairshad@gmail.com. Please take a few minutes to answer the following
questions.
Section I
1 Gender
Q Male
Q Female
1.2. Select your age group please.
Q 20-25
Q 26-30
Q 31-35
Q 36-40
Q 41-45
Q 45 and above
1.3. Please choose one of the following to indicate your qualification.
Q MA
Q MPhil
Q PhD
Q Post-Doctorate
338
1.4. Please give the name of the institution where you teach.
_____________________________________________________________________
1.5. Please indicate your experience as an English teacher.
Q Less than 1year
Q 1-5 years
Q 6-10 years
Q 11-15 years
Q 16-20 years
Q More than 20 years
1.6 Have you received any in-service computer training for language
teaching?
Q Yes
Q No
1.7 Did you attend any computer training course during or before service?
Q Yes
Q No
1.8 Please rate your proficiency of computer usage.
Q Poor
Q Fair
Q Good
Q Very good
Q Excellent
1.9 Have you ever filled up an on-line questionnaire?
Q Yes
Q No
1.10 Do you categorize any of those on-line questionnaires directly relevant to
your experience as a language teacher?
Q Yes
Q No
339
Section II: Use of Technology in Teaching English
2. Please rate how frequently you follow the following practices in your everyday
teaching paradigm.
Always frequently sometimes Rarely never
2.1 I prepare lecture or learning task
using computer.
2.2 I prepare test or assessment sheet
on computer.
2.3 I use internet to explore websites
for language learning activities.
2.4 I use internet to download
Computer Assisted Language Learning
activities for my learners.
2.5 I author Computer Assisted
Language Learning activities for my
learners.
2.6 I conduct/deliver my lessons in
department's Computer Lab.
2.7 I use my cell phone/tab for
conducting listening activities.
2.8 I use multi-media to facilitate
learning.
2.9 I use my cell phone digital
dictionary to give model to students to
correct pronunciation.
2.10 I assign task to my students that
requires World Wide Web browsing.
340
2.11 I guide students to use Word
Processor for writing compositions or
to enhance writing skills.
2.12 I assign tasks that require
submission via e-mail.
2.13 I suggest my students on-line or e-
authentic reading materials for assigned
tasks.
2.14 I suggest cites for grammar and
vocabulary quizzes.
2.15 I guide students to use on-line
dictionaries and encyclopaedias.
2.16 I suggest language learning
websites to my students to develop
language skills.
341
Section III: Implications of Learner Autonomy in your Teaching Practices
3. Indicate below as to what extent you agree that you encourage students to
develop Learner Autonomy.
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Not
Sure Agree
Strongly
Agree
3.1. The willingness to learn indicates
learner autonomy.
3.2. The capacity to take control of
one's own learning shows learner
autonomy.
3.3. The skill to evaluate what one has
acquired is learner autonomy.
3.4. The ability to monitor one’s
learning is central to learner autonomy.
3.5. Learner autonomy can only be
developed in student-centred
classroom.
3.6. Learner autonomy means
traditional teacher-led ways of teaching
must be abandoned.
3.7. Learners develop autonomy when
they are allowed to work
independently.
3.8. Browsing World Wide Web for
completing tasks develop learner
autonomy.
3.9. If learners decide about what to
342
learn they become autonomous
learners.
3.10. Learner autonomy is developed
when learners make decisions for how
to learn.
3.11. Learners cannot develop
autonomy without teacher's help.
3.12. Use of technology motivates the
ESL learners to develop autonomy.
3.13. Motivated language learners are
more likely to develop learner
autonomy.
3.14. Learner autonomy is promoted
through regular opportunities for
learners to complete tasks alone
3.15. Learner autonomy is promoted
when learners have some choice in the
kinds of activities they do.
3.16. Learner autonomy requires the
learner to be totally independent of the
teacher.
3.17. Learning to work alone is central
to the development of learner
autonomy.
3.18. Computers positively affect ESL
learners attitude to develop autonomy.
3.19. Use of technology greatly
benefits shy or inhibited learners to
343
develop learner autonomy.
3.20. Computers assist the high
achievers to realize their potential by
working on their own pace.
3.21. High achievers can develop
autonomy without preventing their
peers from working on their own pace.
3.22. Differences in development of
autonomy are due to difference of
gender.
3.23. Development of learner
autonomy is gender specific.
3.24. Female beginner learners being
part of Pakistani male dominating
society lack autonomy.
3.25. Computers in and outside
institutions provide an opportunity to
female learners to develop autonomy.
344
APPENDIX B
Participants’ Institution
Institutes’ Name
Number of
participants
1 National University of Science and Technology 2
2 Lahore College for Women University 2
3 Government College University Faisalabad- Sahiwal Campus 2
4 Lahore Leads University 4
5 The Islamia University of Bahawalpur 8
6 Superior College Bahawalpur 1
7 Modern College 2
8 University of Education Lahore 3
9 International Islamic University Islamabad 6
10 The Bacha Khan University 1
11 FAST National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Peshawar
1
12 CMH Lahore Medical College 1
13 Government College for Women Baghbanpura 1
14 National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad 9
15 COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore 4
16 The Best College Bahawalpur 1
17 Punjab College Bahawalpur 2
18 Government College University, Faisalabad 4
19 Superior College Lahore 2
20 Government City College Gujranwala 2
21 Lahore University 2
22 NCBA & E Bahawalpur 2
345
23 Karachi University 1
24 Fatima Jinnah Women University 3
25 University of the Punjab, Lahore 2
26 Federal Government college 2
27 University of the Arts London, Rawalpindi 1
28 Greenfield College 1
29 Punjab College Lahore 2
30 University of Sargodaha 1
31 Superior College Bahawalpur 1
32 COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad 3
33 National University of Modern Languages, Lahore 2
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