conscience and conflict darwin freud and the origins of human aggression

Conscience and conflict: Darwin, Freud, and the origins of human aggression

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Emotion,Evolution,andRationalityDylanEvansandPierreCruse

Printpublicationdate:2004PrintISBN-13:9780198528975PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:March2012DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528975.001.0001

Conscienceandconflict:Darwin,Freud,andtheoriginsofhumanaggression

JIMHOPKINS

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528975.003.0012

AbstractandKeywords

Thischapterarguesthatevolutionaryconsiderationscanbecombinedwithpsychoanalyticinsightstoexplainthewayinwhichhumansacquirearangeofemotionaldispositionsrelatedtothewaytheydirectaggressiontowardsothers—perhapsaparadigmof‘irrational’emotion.ItarguesthatDarwinianinsightscoincidewithFreudiantheoriesofidentificationandprojectiontoshowthataggressiontowardsout-groupmembersisanecessaryconcomitantofthedevelopmentof‘conscientious’ormoralemotionstowardsingroupmembersrelatingtoblame,punishmentandguilt,whichareessentialtogroupcohesion,andconfersubstantialselectiveadvantages.ThechaptershowsthatDarwinianandFreudiantheoriesbothtracetherootsoftheseemotionstothecompetitionforresourcesbetweenmotherandchildinearlyinfancy,andinparticularthechild'sresponsetoitsinitialdevelopmentofaconceptofitsmotherasadistinctcontinuingindividual.

Keywords:conscience,humanaggression,psychoanalysis,moralemotions,out-groupmembers,ingroupmembers

MyselfagainstmybrotherMybrotherandIagainstmyfamilyMyfamilyagainsttheclanMyclanagainsttheenemy.1

Introduction:usandthemAstrikingfeatureofhumanlifeisthedivisionweimposeuponourpsychologicalandsocialworldsbetweenaselforuswhichweregardfavourably,andanotherorthemwhichwetakeascorrespondinglybad.2

Thisgivesrisetoaseriesofpsychologicalandsocialphenomena,rangingfromtransientenjoyablerivalriesinvolvingoneshometownorteam,throughseriouscorporatecompetition,totheintractabledestructivehostilitiesoffeud,tribalism,bigotryandracism,nationalism,intolerantaggressivereligiousfundamentalism,individualparanoidpsychosis,anddisputesamongschoolsofpsychology.Andhoweverwemodernsthinkourselvesguardedagainstsuchmodesofthought,therootsremainactive.Thesightofablackfaceisstill(p.226) liabletodistressawhiteamygdala,andconsiderationofpsychoanalysisorculturalanthropologytopromptanevolutionarypsychologisttospleen.3

Socialpsychologistshavedescribedthereadinesswithwhichweformsuchgroups,andthetendencytoingroupcohesionandoutgroupaggressionwhichaccompaniesthis.Alsotheystudytheserialpsychologicalmisrepresentations—includingself-andgroup-servingbiases,mirror-imageperceptions,andsystematicerrorsinpsychologicalattribution—bywhichtheusispreferred,flattered,andexalted,andthethemcorrespondinglydenigrated.4Inrecenttimesthedestructivehatredswhichthesedivisionsfosterhavecometoseemathreattohumanityitself.HencewecanappreciatethequestionwhichEinsteinputtoFreud:

…manhaswithinhimalustforhatredanddestruction.Innormaltimesthispassionexistsinalatentstate,itemergesonlyinunusualcircumstances;butitisacomparativelyeasytasktocallitintoplayandraiseittothepowerofacollectivepsychosis…Isitpossibletocontrolman'smentalevolutionsoastomakehimproofagainstthepsychosesofhateanddestructiveness?(XXIII,200–1)5

(p.227) AndwecancomparethiswithaproblemposedbyWilliamHamilton:…wewouldexpectthegeneticsystem…toprovidenotablanksheetforindividualculturaldevelopment,butasheetatleastlightlyscrawledwithcertaintentativeoutlines.Theproblemfacingahumanecivilisationmaybehowtocompleteasketchsuggestingsomemassiveandbrutaledifice—saytheoutlinesofanAztecpyramid—sothatitreappearsasaParthenonoraTajMahal.6

Progressinthesemattersrequiresbetterunderstandingofhumanaggression.WecangainthisbycombiningaccountsdescendedfromDarwinandFreud.Thefirstconcern

theco-evolutionofingroupcohesionandoutgroupconflict,andthesecondthementalprocessesbywhichindividualscooperatewithingroupstocompetewiththoseoutside.Insofaraswecanalignourunderstandingoftheforceswhichhaveshapedtheoverallground-planofthehumanmindwithourknowledgeofthedepthpsychologyofindividualmotive,wecanhopetotriangulatemoreaccuratelyonthepointsofconnectionbetween.

EvolutionaltruismandgroupsDarwinsuggestedthataltruisticmoraltendenciesevolvedviatheadvantagesthesegavetocompetinggroups.Atribepossessing‘ahighstandardofmorality’wouldbeVictoriousovermostothertribes'.Thiswouldhaveselectiveforce,since‘Atalltimesthroughouttheworldtribeshavesupplantedothertribes;andthiswouldbenaturalselection…’7Darwin'senthusiasmformoralityremainedunqualifiedbyitsroleinperpetuatingconflict;andhisargumenthasrecentlybeencontinuedbySoberandWilson8,whodedicatetheiraccountofmulti-levelselection‘toaltruistseverywhere’,whilecitingasfavourableevidencetheconquestoftheDinkabytheNuer.(Hamiltonlikewiseemphasized‘theselectivevalueofhavingaconscience’,whilelinkingthegroupbehavioursfacilitatedbyconsciencewithracism,xenophobia,andecologicaldisaster.)

(p.228) Alsorecentworkhasconsideredthelikelyroleofgroupselectiononculturalasopposedtogeneticvariation.9Withthishasgoneanemphasisonthetransmissionofculturewithingroups,andtheuseofculturalsymbolstomarktheirboundaries.ThusaccordingtoBoydandRichersen,

…Thepropensitytocooperatewithsympathy-inspiringingroupmembers,andtousesymbolicmarkerstodefineingroups,isliketheinnateprinciplesoflanguage.Thespecificmarkers,sizeofgroup(s),andinternalstructureofthegroup(s)towhichindividualsbelongareculturallyvariableparametersthatgenerateaspecificfunctioninginstanceoftheinnatepropensities.Likeinnatelanguagestructuresandadultlactoseabsorption,thesocialdecision-makingprinciplesmostlikelycoevolvedasadaptationstoanemergingculturalenvironmentinwhichco-operationwithinculturallymarkedgroupswasbecomingimportant.Successinintergroupcompetitioncametodependuponwithingroupco-operation;anevolutionaryarmsracearose.Thescaleofco-operation-to-competemightescalateuntilecologicalratherthanevolutionaryconstraintsbringahalt.10

Suchworkhasalsofocusseduponthedarkersideofmoralityandconscience.ThusRichersenandGil-Whitestresstheroleofbothpunishmentandmoralanger.

…Ifmuchgroupcompetitionisactiveratherthanpassive(e.g.violentcombatforland),thenwithingroupaltruisticnormsmaintainedbypunishmentwillconferdramaticadvantages.Thiscouldmaketheproductionofnewaltruisticgroupsfasterthantheprocesseswhichdilutealtruismwithinthegroup…Theresultwouldbeapanhumanselectionpressureforcognitiveadaptationsreducingthelikelihoodof‘mistakes’inordertoavoidcostlypunishment(prosocialemotionssuchasduty,patriotism,moraloutrage,etc.thatcommitustopredominantsocialnormsevenintheabsenceofcoercion)…

Clearly,theothersideofthecoinofgroupcooperationisgroupconflict.Groupsthatdevelopnormsthatchanneltheirwithingroupco-operationtowardsoutwardbellicositywillforceothergroupstodevelopthesame(orbetter)orgoextinct.Thisprocessselectsforever-strongerformsofwithingroupcooperation(p.229)andoutwardaggressionandislikelyanimportantforceresponsibleforthecreationofeverlargerandmorecomplexsocialhumangroups.11

Psychologicalmechanisms:identificationandprojectionHowshouldweunderstandthepersonalmotivesandmechanismswhichregulateingroupco-operationandoutgroupconflict?Theideaaboveisthattogetherwith‘thepropensitytocooperatewithsympathy-inspiringingroupmembers’therehasbeenaco-evolutionoftwoformsofaggression.Ingroupmoralaggression,involvingingrouppunishment,hasevolvedintheserviceofoutgroupaggression,involvingpotentiallyviolentconflict.Thesedevelopmentsshouldthereforeappearintheindividualastwosidesofthesameevolutionarycoinage;andifsopsychologicalinvestigationshouldrevealconnectionsbetweeningroupco-operation,cohesion,andmoralangerontheonehandandoutgroupviolenceontheother.Asweshallsee,theseconnectionscanbetracedindetailbyconsideringthepsychoanalyticmechanismsofidentificationandprojection,whichinformtheindividual'simagesofselfandother,andusandthem.12

Identificationeffects‘theassimilationofoneegotoanother’(XXII,63).Inthisitformsanimageoftheselfaslikeanotherwhoisworthyofemulation,sothatselfandothersharedesirabletraitsandperspectives.13Thisprocessinformsmanykindsofsocializationandlearning,includingthatoflanguage.Wecanregarditasimplementedbysystemslikethe‘mirrorneurons’whichrespondtoobservationsofthebehaviourofothersbyproducingafirst-personimageoftheiractivitiesinone'sownmotorsystem;andthisgoeswith(p.230) othertendenciestolikenourselvestothosewearewith.14ThusasMeltzoffandothersreport,newbornbabiescanimitiateadultswhoopentheirmouths,stickouttheirtongues,etc.Thisindicatestheearlyworkingofanabilitytoassumeanimagepresentedbytheother,whichpsychoanalysisfindsbasictotheformationofourself-imagesandselves.Projection,bycontrast,formsanimageoftheselfasunlikeanother,bydissociatingmotivesortraitsfromtheself.Itrepresentstheselfaslacking,andtheotherashaving,thetraitoraspectinquestion,sothattheotherseemsdifferentandalien.

Thesemechanismsworktogetherinimplementingtheself-andgroup-servingbiasesandmirror-imageperceptionsnotedabove.Weidentifywithaspectsofothersweregardasdesirable,soidentificationcreatesimagesofagoodselfatoneinpurposewithgoodothers.Wetendtoprojectaspectsofourselveswhichwetakeasbadorundesirable,soprojectioncreatesimagesofgoodselfopposedinpurposetobadothers.Sincetheprojectedbadnesslocatedinothersisdissociatedfromtheself,thegoodselfandbadotherstendtoconfrontoneanotherwithmirroringdirectness.Eachparty'sresponsetoitsownprojectionstendstovalidatethoseoftheother,sothatthesemechanismslocksuspicionandhostilityinstep.Asidentificationregulatesco-operationbetweenselfandother,projectionlikewiseregulatesconflict.

Self-esteemandoutgrouphostilityToseethisbetterletusconsideranobservationfromsocialpsychologylinkingself-esteemandimagesofin-andoutgroups.Inseveralexperiments,subjectsaregivenasmallsetbackorhumiliation.Afterthistheyareprobedforattitudestowardspersonsorgroupstheyidentifywithordissociatethemselvesfrom(membersoftheirownordifferentsororities,differingnationalgroups,etc.).Peoplecharacteristicallyrespondbyfeelingmorefavourablytowardstheiringroups,andlesstowardstheiroutgroups,thentheyotherwisewould.15

Suchfluctuationsinrepresentationofusvsthemareunconscious,butwecanreadilyseehowtheymightbeeffectedbyprojection:traitsregardedasbadorquestionablewouldbeunconsciouslyshiftedfromselfandingroupto(p.231) othersandoutgroup,thusmakingtheformerseembetterandthelatterseemworse.RobertTrivers—whotakesprojectionasoneofaseriesofmechanismswhichhaveevolvedintheserviceoftheunconsciousdeceptionofothers—citestheexampleofhomophobicmen.Experimentsindicatethatheterosexualmenwhomostenergeticallydissociatethemselvesfromhomosexuals,andwhoregardhomosexualtraitswithparticulardiscomfortanddisgust—thatis,heterosexualsforwhomhomosexualsareabadthem,asopposedtoagoodheterous—areinfactmorelikelythanotherstogeterectionswhilewatchinghomosexualpornography,andalsotodenythattheyhavedoneso.16Thisisconsistentwiththeideathatincondemninghomosexualitytheycensureinotherstraitsdissociatedfromtheirselves.

Inthiscasewecanseehowidentificationandprojectiononasingletopiccancreatebothacohesiveingroupandawell-markedoutgroup;andhowthetendencytocondemnationandpunishmentmaybemagnifiedbytheidentificationsbindingtheprojectinggroup.17Sowefindgroupphenomenasuchasqueer-bashing,thelegalpersecutionofhomosexuals,theirorganizedmurderbyNazisandFalangists,etc.Alsoitisclearthattheprojectivedefiningofanoutgroupneednotrestonanyparticularinternalconflictsuchaswefindinhomophobia.Forsinceprojectioncanalwaysenhancetheself-esteemoftheprojector,agrouporindividualmarkedoutforhostilityisliabletobetargetedbyawiderangeofprojectionswhichhavelittleincommonbesidesconflictintheindividualsfromwhomtheyemanate.

ConscienceandtheexternalizationofinternalconflictTounderstandprojectioninmoredetailwecanconsiderthefirstspecimenofFreud'sInterpretationofDreams,thatofIrma'sInjection(IV,104ff).TheafternoonbeforethisdreamFreudhadmetOtto,hisfamilydoctor,whohadvisitedthehouseholdofFreud'sformerpatientIrma.FreudhadtreatedIrmaforhysteria,andthoughthehaddoneenoughbyexplainingtoherthecausesofherillness,whichhetooktoincludethesexualfrustrationsofwidowhood.Ottomentionedthathehadbeencalledawaytogiveaninjection,andthisremindedFreudthatanotherpatienthadrecentlybeengiveninjectionsbyanotherdoctor,apparentlywithanunsterilesyringe.Freudhimself,ashehadreflected,wasalwayscarefultokeephissyringesclean.

(p.232) AlsoOttosaidsomethingwhichimpingedonFreud'sself-esteem.Heremarked

thatIrmalooked‘better,butnotyetwell’,andFreudthoughtthisareproof.HespentthateveningwritingupIrma'scasehistory,soastojustifyhimselfbydiscussingitwiththeirseniorcolleagueM.ThatnightFreuddreamtthatheandhiswifewerereceivingguests,includingIrma.OnmeetingIrmahesaidtoherthatifshestillgotpains,itwasherownfault,fornotsufficientlyattendingtohis‘solution’.Sherepliedthatherpainswerebad,andFreud,worriedthathehadfailedtodiagnoseaphysicalillness,conductedanexamination.TheywerejoinedbyanumberofcolleaguesfromFreud'smedicalcircle,includingM;anditemergedthatIrmaindeedsufferedphysicalillness.Ottohadgivenheraninjectionofthetoxicchemicaltrimethylamine.AtthecloseofthedreamFreudcensuredOtto,stressingthat‘Injectionsofthatkindoughtnotbemadesothoughtlessly.Andprobablythesyringehadnotbeenclean.’18

Nowthisdreamdealtwithtopics—illnessofafriendandpatient,misdiagnosis,malpracticebythefamilydoctor,etc.—whichweresourcesofanxietytoFreud.Still,bytakingthecontextprovidedbyFreud'smemoriesandassociations,wecanseethatitwaswishful,inthesensethatitactuallyrepresentedthingsasFreudwouldpartlyhavewishedthemtobe.FreudhadgonetosleepwantingtojustifyhimselftoMinrespectofwhathefelttobeOtto'saccusationofbadmedicalpractice,andinthedreamhereceivedthemostthoroughjustification,andinthepresenceofMandothermedicalcolleagues.ThepsychotherapyaboutwhichFreudwasnowsoenthusiasticcouldnotbeblamedforIrma'scontinuedsuffering,norcouldFreudhimself:forIrmahadaphysicalillness,andthiswascausedbyOtto'sdirtytoxicinjection.FreudhadfeltguiltyandprivatelyreproachedbyOttoduringtheday;butbytheendofhisdreamhewaspubliclyvindicated.

FurtheranalysisshowedthatFreud'sfavourablerepresentationofhimselfasopposedtoOttoalsotouchedonguiltswhichwereolder,deeperandfarmoreserious.ForIrmawaslinkedinhismindwithanotherfriendandanotherpatientfromyearsbefore.ThepatientwasawomanFreudhadkilled,byrepeatedlygivingherwhathetooktoberoutineinjections;andinthatcase,asdetailsofthedreamremindedhim,hehadconsultedwithMaswell.Thefriendhadsufferedfromincurablenervepainandwasaddictedtothemorphineheusedtotreatit.Freudhadbeenanenthusiasticadvocateofthemedicaluseofcocaine,andhadurgedonhisownexperiencethatitwasnot(p.233)addictive.Thiserror,asheremembered,hadbrought‘seriousreproachesdownuponme’.Hehadpersuadedhisfriendtousecocaineinplaceofmorphineonthisbasis;andhisfriendbecameaddictedanddiedalingeringandmiserabledeathfromcocaineinjections.Sobyendinghisdreamwith‘Injectionsofthatkindoughtnotbemadesothoughtlessly’,FreudwasturningtowardsOttoareproachwhich,ashecouldrealizeonanalyzingthedream,hemightwellhavedirectedagainsthimself.

Finally,themisrepresentationofOttowentfurtherstill,andinawaywhichtouchedonsexualityandtheboundariesoftheselfandbody.Freudhadplacedparticularemphasisinthedreamonthechemicaltrimethylamine,andnotedinhisassociationsthatitwasconnectedwithsexualmetabolism.(Itwasthoughttobeadecompositionproductofsemen.)Sexuality,asheobserved,wasalsolinkedwithIrma'sillness,whichhetooktobe

partlyduetoherwidowhood.ButashelaterconfidedtoAbraham,furtheranalysisofthedreamrevealedhisown‘sexualmegalomania’.Thewomeninthedream,includingIrma,wereallwidows,andFreudhadthemall.Ashesaid,echoingaphysicians'jokecommonatthetime,‘Therewouldbeonetherapyforwidowhoodofcourse.Allsortsofintimatethings,naturally.’19Freudneverseemstohaveactedinappropriatelyonsexualdesireforapatient;butinthedreamitwasOttoratherthanhimselfwhoharbouredsuchdesire,andOttowasdepictedassatisfyingitsymbolically,byinjectingIrmawithaproductofdecomposedsemen.

Takingthisinrelationtoourpresenttheme,wecansaythatOtto'sremarkprickedFreud'sself-esteem,byremindinghimoftraitsandactionswhichhewasliabletocondemninhimself.InwakinglifeFreuddealtwiththisinanostensiblyrealisticandrationalway,bywritingacasereportwhichwouldjustifyhispresentbehaviour.Inhisdream,bycontrast,hisreactionwassimplerandmorecomprehensive.HeprojectedthecharacteristicsinquestionintoOtto,andself-righteouslycensuredthemthere.Thisuseofprojectionthustransformedaninternalandmoralconflict(Freud'sknowledgeofhisownunthinkingandoccasionallylethalmedicalpracticevs.hisownstandardsonthematter)intoasocialconflictconcerningtheconductofanother(DoctorFreudvs.DoctorOtto,aswitnessedbytheirmedicalcolleagues.)

(p.234) IngroupcohesionandoutgrouphostilityWecanseeclearlyhowthiswayofthinkingleadstoanimageofagoodselfasopposedtoanotherwhomaybecensuredordenigrated.Suchthinkingmayalsobeco-ordinatedwithinagroup,aswasthatdepictedinFreud'sdream.FreudandOttobelongedtothesamemedicalingroup,whosememberswereidentifiedwithoneanotherinrespectofsharedvaluesrelatingtomedicalpractice,andalsoformedanuswithrespecttolocalculturegenerally.ThisidentificatorynexusenabledFreudtousehisdreamtofindasatisfactory(imaginary)solutiontohisowninternalconflict,by(imaginarily)havingIrmaexaminedinthepresenceofagroupofhismedicalcolleagues.

Whereindividualsareboundtooneanotherbyidentificationinthisway,projectionservestobalanceeachindividualsliabilitytopersonalcondemnation,guilt,shame,andlossofself-esteem,bydirectingmoralaggressionawayfromtheselfandtowardsothersinthegroup,andinaccordwiththeindividual'spersonalversionofthenormsofthatgroup.Projectionthusworkstogetherwithidentificationtocreateagroupwhosemembersarereadytofeelguiltandshameinrelationtooneanother,andalsoreadytoallocatecensureorpunishmenttooneanother,byreferencetomotivesandstandardswhicharepsychologicallysharedasobtainingamongthem.

Inherentinthis,however,isatendencytorepresentothersandoutgroupsasliabletocondemnationbythestandardswhichgiveorderbothtotheselfandthegroupswithwhichtheselfidentifies.AsFreudobserved,‘Itisalwayspossibletobindtogetheraconsiderablenumberofpeopleinlove,solongasthereareotherpeopleleftovertoreceivethemanifestationsoftheiraggressiveness.’(XXI,114).Sothefamily—whichformostindividualsconstitutestheirfirstandmostbasicingroup—alsoappearsasthefirstofaseriesofsocialunitswhich,liketheindividual,tendtomaintainanidealizedandco-

operativeimageofthingswithin,andacorrespondingdenigratoryandconflict-inducingimageofthosewithout.AsFreudremarks,

Everytimetwofamiliesbecomeconnectedbymarriage,eachofthemthinksitselfsuperiortoorofbetterbirththantheother.Oftwoneighbouringtownseachistheother'smostjealousrival;everylittlecantonlooksdownupontheotherswithcontempt.Closelyrelatedraceskeeponeanotheratarmslength…Wearenolongerastonishedthatgreaterdifferencesshouldleadtoanalmostinsuperablerepugnance,suchastheGallicpeoplefeelfortheGermans,theAryanfortheSemite,andthewhiteracesforthecoloured.(XVIII,101;cfalsoXVIII,102)

Andinaccordwiththeroleofprojectionhestressesthat…WhenoncetheApostlePaulhadpositeduniversallovebetweenmenasthefoundationofhisChristiancommunity,extremeintoleranceonthepartofChristendomtowardsthosewhoremainedoutsideitbecametheinevitable(p.235) consequence…NeitherwasitanunaccountablechancethatthedreamofaGermanicworld-dominioncalledforanti-Semitismasitscomplement;anditisintelligiblethattheattempttoestablishanew,communistcivilisationinRussiashouldfinditspsychologicalsupportinthepersecutionofthebourgeois.(XXI,114–5)

Freuddevelopedhisthinkingaboutthisonlyinaschematicway.Heheldthatthecohesivenessofmanygroupsresultsfromtheirtakingaparticularidealizedfigure—suchasacharismaticleader(orinthecaseofgroupswhicharenotledbyindividualsacreedorsetofnorms)—asrepresentingwhattheyregardasgood(XVIII,67ff).Thisidentificationensuresthateachindividualsself-esteemisregulatedbyreferencetotheidealizedpersons,creed,ornormswhichbindthegroup,sothataggressioninserviceoftheseisasourceofprideratherthanguiltorshame.Individualsmayalsobecomeidentifiedbyothermeans,suchastheprojectionoftheirbadaspects—andinparticulartheirhostileandaggressivemotives—intosomecommonlocus,whichthereforebecomesafocusoflegitimatedandcollectivehate.Infindingorcreatingsuchinternalgoodand/orexternalbadobjectsmembersofagroupfeelatonceunified,purified,andabletofocusaggressionwhichisvalidatedbycommonideals.Thusthesameformationsofconsciencewhichregulateaggressionwithinthegroupalsoprovideforitsunbridledexpressionagainstothersoutside.EvenwithoutexploringthewaytheseideashavebeenrefinedbyFreud'ssuccessors20,wecanappreciatethattheycomplementtheevolutionaryconsiderationsnotedatthebeginningininterestingdetail.SoletusnowseektogainbetterfocusonthesemattersbytakingupsomefurtheraspectsofDarwiniantheory.

ParentalinvestmentandfamilyconflictThefamilyseemsthemostbasicofhumangroupswhichcoheretocompete;andfamilyco-operationisunderlainbygeneticrelatedness,sothatcompetitionamongfamiliesisreproductivecompetitionaswell.Parentssharehalftheirgeneswitheachchild,sothatfullsiblingssharehalftheirgenesaswell.Fromtheperspectiveofthegenomeofaparenteachchildconstitutesaninstanceofreproductivesuccess;andfromthatofeachchildthereproductivevalueoftwosiblingsorfourhalf-siblingsapproachesone'sown.Thisgenetic

overlapprovidesabasisfortheunityofpurposeshownbymembersofthesamefamily,butalsounderwritesdivergences.Thesecanbeinvestigatedviathenotionofparentalinvestment,whichencompassesanybenefitprovidedby(p.236) aparenttowardsthereproductivesuccessofoneoffspringasopposedtothatofothers.21Thisincludestheeffortsofamother'scarryingachildinherbody,thoseofprovidingfood,shelter,protection,etc.—allaspectsofparentalcarewhichmakeforthesuccessofonechildratherthananother.

AsTrivershasargued,parentalinvestmentisanintrinsicsourceofconflictwithinthefamily.Forroughly,whereasparentsareselectedtoallocateinvestmenttoanumberofoffspringoverthecourseoftheirreproductivelives,offspringareselectedtoseekbenefitsimmediatelyandtothefullextentoftheirindividual(genetic)interests.Accordinglyeachinfantseeksmorefromitsparents—particularlythemother—thantheyareinclinedtogive,andattheexpenseofitsownsiblings,whetheractualorpotential.Theseconflictsmayinturnbeexacerbatedbythosebetweentheparentsthemselves,forasthemodesofinvestmentofmenandwomendiffersodotheirreproductivestrategies.Forexampleitmaybetotheadvantageofeitherparenttoshiftburdensofinvestmenttotheother,oragaintoreproduceelsewhere.Inconsequencethemeansbywhichmenandwomenallocateparentalinvestmentseemtoincludenotonlypromiscuity,infidelity,andthedesertionofpartners,butalsoabortion,infanticide,abandoningchildren(e.g.tofoundlinghomes),andvarietiesofselectiveneglect.22

Theseconflictsareinterwoven,andcanbeobservedfromconceptionintheinvasionofthemother'sbodybytheplacenta.Theplacentaisconstructedbytheactivityofthefather'sgenometoextractmaternalinvestmentonbehalfofthefoetus,discountingotherchildrenthemothermighthave.Theplacentathusdevelopsas‘aruthlessparasiticorganexistingsolelyforthemaintenanceandprotectionofthefoetus,perhapstoooftentothedisregardofthematernalorganism.’23So,e.g.,theplacentaboresintothemother'sbloodvessels,secretinghormoneswhichraiseherbloodpressureandbloodsugarsinwaysmayinjureherbutbenefitthefoetus;herbodyrespondsbyproducinghormoneswhichcounteractthese;andsoon.Hereconflictbetweentheparentsbecomesconflictbetweenmotherandchild;andtheplacentamaybe(p.237) involvedinsiblingrivalrymoredirectly,aswhenoneofapotentiallymultiplebirthabortsothers.

Conflictcontinuesafterbirth,forobtainingmaternalcare—atwhatevercosttoothers—isamatteroflifeordeathfortheinfant.Itmaybeintheinterestofeitherparenttoabandonachildfromthestart,asoftenhappenswithbabiesdeemeddefective.Feedingonechildmayentailneglectinganother,andnursingtendstospaceconception,andsotodelaytheemergenceofyoungerrivals,aswouldsuittheinterestsofthemotherasopposedtothefather.Soinsuckingatthebreastababymayalreadybeenforcingitsownentitlementsagainsttheinterestsofitsfatherandsiblings;andifitstayslongthereitwillconflictwiththoseofitsmotheraswell.Bythetimeababyisweaneditsgeneticinterestsareliabletohavebeenopposedtothoseofeveryothermemberofthefamily,inconflictconcerningtheusesofthemother'sbodyandpotentialrivalsinsideher.24

Infantileemotionandparentalinvestment

Wecanseetheemotions,inDamasio'sphrase,as‘partofamulti-tieredandevolutionarilysetneuralmechanismaimedatmaintainingorganismichomeostasis’.25ThisisroughlytherolewhichFreudassignedtowhathecalleddrives;26andthetiersincludeinbuiltcapacitiesfordistressathunger,thirst,(p.238) andotherformsofbodilydisequilibrium,andalso‘emotionalcommandsystems’,whichwesharewithothermammals,andwhichdirectmanifestationsofrageandfear,sexuality,maternal(andpaternal)nurturance,separationdistressandsocialbonding,andplayandsocialaffection.Theseinturnintegratewithageneral‘seekingsystem’,marked,asPanksepphasurged,bythemesolimbicdopaminepathway,whosenocturnalactivationseems,inconsiliencewithFreud,tobeacontent-specificcauseofdreaming.27

Thusmanyofthesubcorticalbasicsofdriveandemotionareworkingatbirth,andpreparedforexpressionthroughthebaby'sface,voice,andmovements.Thesestarttoobtainthefocusandorchestrationofthecomplexandthought-saturatedformsofemotionwhichwefindinadultlifeduringthefirstyear.Thisseemsmainlyaccomplishedbythedevelopment,undertheimpactofexperience,ofrepresentationsoftheself,theworld,andothers,whicharerealizedmainlyinthecerebralcortex.Sowhilethesubcorticalmechanismscomewithcertaininbuiltrelationsofexcitationandinhibition,theyattainfurtherco-ordinationandintegrationasthecortexdevelopsthroughcriticalphasesofsynapticextension,myelination,andexperience-dependentneuralpruning;andthesecoincidewiththeinfant'susingitsexperienceofrelatingwithothers—andparticularlytheinvestingmother—tobuildincreasinglycomplexrepresentationsoftheobjectstowardswhichitsemotionsaredirected.Thisdevelopmentofemotionviathatofthe(p.239) representationofitsobjects,inturn,seemsshapedbythedemandsofparent-offspringconflict,andofparentalinvestmentmoregenerally.

Theinfantselectedforsuchconflict—andforlateroutgroupconflictaswell—isdependentuponitsmother'swill,andsomustpursueitsinterestsbypsychologicalmeans.Sincemothersareselectedtorespondsensitivelytotheirchildrensneedsandcondition,theinfantdoesthisbyexpressingandelicitingemotion.Hencethisaspectofevoultionarytheoryleadsustoexpectthattheinfant'semotions,andtheneuralsystemswhichrealizethem,canbeunderstoodasselectedinitiallytoextractmaternalinvestment.Speakingveryroughly,itseemsthattheinfanthastwowaysofsecuringwhatitneeds:co-operatively,viatheelicitationofaffectionandlove;orcoercively,viatheinflictionofanxietyandguilt.Hencethemotheristhemainfocusbothforthenewborn'saffectionandgratitude,andalsoforitsuniquelyarrestingandmotivatingexpressionsofrage,hunger,pain,andfear.(Alsothisextractionmaybesettoproceedinaparticularway.Preliminaryfindingssuggestthatthefather'sgenomemaybeprimarilyresponsiblenotonlyfortheplacentabutalsoforthesubcorticalbasicsofemotion,whereasthemother'sispivotalforthecortex,whichremainstobecompletedbyherpost-natalinvestingattentions.28Ifso,thenwecanseethesubcorticalmechanismsofemotionasassumingatbirththeegotisticextractiveroleofthediscardedplacenta,andthereafterbeingmodifiedasthecortex,undertheinfluenceofthemother'scare,takesforwardthetaskofdirectingco-operationwiththemotherandothermembersofthefamily.29)

Sincenothingintheinfant'slifewillbemoreimportantthangettingwhatthemotherhastoprovide,weshouldexpectbothsetsofemotionstobeveryfullyengaged.Fromanevolutionaryperspectivethedistresswhichsuchexpressionscausetoparentsarepartoftheirefficacyasinstrumentsof(p.240) duressontheinfant'sbehalf.Wittgensteinremarkedthatinaninfant'scryonecoulddiscern‘terribleforcesdifferentfromanythingcommonlyassumed.Profoundrage,painandlustfordestruction.’30Butinsofarassuchforceshaveenabledtheirpossessorstothrivebycoercingmothers(orothers)toprovidemorethantheyotherwisewould,weshouldnotbesurprisedattheirexistenceevenintheadorablebaby.Also,itseems,weshouldnotbesurprisedifthesefirstengagementsofemotionwereguidedbyinfantileversionsofidentificationandprojection,aswefindlatertobethecase.

Thisaccordswithpsychoanalytichypothesesabouttheinfantilerootsofadultaggression.Freudfoundthattheearliestandmostbasicoftheunconsciousimageswhichdrovesocialcohesionandconflictderivedfromtheinfant'srelationswithitsmother.Theseshowedaparticularlyradicalopposition,asstructuredbyidentificationandprojection.Theidentificatory,affectionateandco-operativeaspectoftherelationshipapparentlybeganwithsatisfactionatthebreastandwasextendedtothecaringmotherasawhole.Thisaspectwas‘laiddownunalterablyforawholelifetime,asthefirstandstrongestlove-objectandastheprototypeofalllaterloverelations—forbothsexes.’(XXIII,188)Ontheotherhand,therewereprojectiveimages—involving,asFreudstressed,‘theearliestparentalimagoes’(XXII,64)—oftheselfasinconstantconflict,eitherdisguisedoropen,withaparentalotherwhowasharsh,punitive,andcruel.Theseimagesmadeupthemostprimitiveaspectsofthesuper-ego,andFreudregardedthemassosuffusedwith‘mercilessviolence’(XIX,53)astosuggestthattheywereformedundertheinfluenceofaninnatecapacityforlethalaggression,whichwouldlatershowitselfbothinsuchextremetiesofconscienceasdepressionandsuicide,andalsointheaggressionsandcrueltiesofwarfareandconquest,asnotedabove.

ParentalinvestmentandemotionaldevelopmentThedifferingpositionsofparentandoffspringasregardsparentalinvestmentalsohavefar-reachingconsequencesforpsychologicaldevelopment.Theinfant'sroleasaselfishextractorofinvestmentisbynaturepreparationforalaterroleasanaltruisticprovider;andthistransitionismediatedbyexperienceinafamilyinwhichparentstendtoallocatebenefitstochildren(andencouragethemtoacttowardsoneanother)inawaywhichisfairerthantheinfant'sowngenomewoulddictate.Soweshouldexpectpsychological(p.241) developmentoveralltohaveanintrinsiccharacterwhichpsychoanalysishaslongemphasized.Itinvolvesatransition,facilitatedbyparentalcareandfamilylife,fromsomethinglikeinfantileegotism(ornarcissism)towardsacapacityfornon-self-regardinglove(oraltruism)forthosewithwhomitisinrelationsofreproductiveandingroupco-operation,andalsotowardsincreasinglymatureexpressionsofcompetitionandaggression.

Accordinglythegrowthofmotivationoverthelifespanshouldshowaparticularkindofcontinuity-in-difference,whichthevariousformsofpsychologyshouldchart.Continuity

wouldcomefromthemoreorlessconstantroleofthedeepsubcorticalbasesofmotivation,anddifferencesanddevelopmentfromthewaythesecomponentswerereworkedandreintegratedasrepresentationsoftheobjectsofemotionchange(andwiththeobjectsthemselves)overthelifespan.Thesechangesshouldbothreflectanddrivethetransitionfrominfantileegoisticextractionofparentalinvestmentthroughtheco-operationrequiredforfamilylifetothereproductive,investment-contributing,andgroup-competitivestancesofadulthood.31Sothekindsofloveorotheremotionsofco-operationstartedininfancywithparents,siblings,andotherrelativesorcarers,shoulddevelop,withchangesinrepresentationsandobjects,fromearlyself-regardingformstowardsotherswhicharemorealtruistic,andinwhichreproductioncomestoplayanincreasinglydominantrole.Andearlyaggressionsshouldlikewisebecomerepresentationallyfocussedonfamilyandlaterreproductiverivalries,andfinallyoncompetingoutgroups.32Suchadevelopmentalprocesswouldenablematernalcare,familylife,and(p.242) latergroupinteractionstoproduceavarietyofpsychologicaltypessuitedtolocalconditions.33

Takingthisintermsofidentificationandprojection,weshouldexpecttheinfantreceivingparentalcaretoidentifywiththeadultwhoprovidesit,thuslayingdownimagesofitselfascloselyassociatedwithanotherwhosewaysofcaring,relating,andloving,itcanultimatelyassumeasitsown.Thesebasicearlyimagesshouldthencontributetolaterformsofidentificationandreproductiveco-operationovertheremainderoflife.Atthesametime—andasweshallseeinmoredetailbelow—theinfantshouldcreateprojectiveimagesofotherswhicharedissociatedfromthisearlyus,andarepotentiallybad.Asthisdialecticproceedstheinfantcanagainidentifywiththeseothers,andthusrepresentitselfinamoremorallyandmotivationallycomplexway.Thustheinitialfocusofloveandaffectiontowardsthemotherwillbecarriedforwardbyidentificationintolaterrelationsofreproductiveco-operation,whilethatofangerandaggressionwillbechannelledbyprojectiontowardsingroupmoralco-ordinationintheformofguilt,shame,andreadinessforpunishment,andtowardsoutgroupconflictunrestrictedbyidentificationormoralemotion,andapparentlycharacterizedbyspite.34

ConsolidationandcontinuityofattachmentTofocusmorespecificallyontheinfantilerootsofoutgroupaggressionwemayconsidertheappearanceoftheinterrelatedphenomenaofseparationdistress,strangeranxiety,andsocialreferencing.AsSchafferobserved:

…cryingorsomeotherformofprotestonterminationofcontactwithanadultwasapparentfromtheearlymonthson…inthefirsthalf-yearinfantswerefoundtocryforattentionfromanyone,familiarorstrange,andthoughresponsivenesstostrangerstendedtobelessimmediateandlessintensethantothemother,bothcouldquietentheinfantandthedepartureofbothcouldevokeprotest.Attheageofapproximatelysevenmonths,however,achangetookplace.Theinfantsstillprotestedatthesamesituations,butnowtheirprotestsweredirectedsolelyatcertainspecificindividuals.Thedepartureofthesealoneelicitedcryingandonlytheirrenewedattentionterminatedtheinfants'distress.Strangers,quiteonthe

contrary,upsettheinfantbyapproachinghim.35

(p.243) Atthistimeinfantsalsobegintorelyontheirmothersastrustedsourcesofinformationaboutwhatissafeasopposedtodangerous,andhenceaboutstrangers.AsCamposreports,

…thecommunicationbetweenmotherandinfantbecomesextendedtoincludeawholeeventintheenvironment.Duringthisperiodtheinfantcanappreciatewhatintheenvironmentisthetargetoftheotherperson'semotionalreaction,muchastheinfantatthisagecanappreciatethereferentofthemother'spointingorgazebehaviour…Accordingly,duringthisperiodsocialreferencingbegins…thedeliberatesearchforemotionalinformationinanotherperson'sface,voice,andgesture,tohelpdisambiguateuncertaintiesintheenvironment…atwo-personcommunicationaboutathirdevent…36

Thesedevelopmentsmarktheconsolidationofattachment,asstudiedincontemporarydevelopmentalpsychology.37Theiremergencejustprecedesthetimeatwhichinfantsstartreliablytoshowthevaryingresponsestobeingleftalonewithastrangerwhicharecharacteristicofempiricallywell-definedcategoriesofsecure,avoidant,ambivalent,anddisorganizedattachment.Theseresponsescaninturnbeseentoreflecttheinfants'differinginitialresolutionsoftheirowninternalemotionalconflicts,andhencethewaytheyprojecttheseconflictsintosociallife38;andasawiderangeofempiricalstudiesarebeginningtodemonstrate,theymarktheinceptionofbasicandpotentiallyenduringpatternsofrelationshiptoothers.

(p.244) Thesepatternsofearlyfeelingseemtoshowthemselvesinawholerangeoflatertransformations:inchildhoodphantasyandart,andrelationstoteachersandotherchildren;inadolescentsocialbehaviour,incourting,choiceofreproductivestrategy,andsexualpartnership;inparenting;inadultpatternsofgrievingandotherresponsestoabandonmentandloss;andinthetendencytovariouskindsofpsychopathology.Sotracingthesepatternsthroughtimeenablesustotrackthedevelopmentofemotionandrelateittoearlyconflict.Asregardsaggressionwecannotethatchildrenwhoaresecurelyattached—andthereforerelativelyfreeofemotionalconflictwithinthemselves—donotseempronetoaggressiveconflictwithothers.Whensecurechildrenplayinpairswithothersofanycategory,theyneithervictimizetheirplaymatesnorbecomevictimsthemselves.Bycontrastpairsofinsecurelyattachedchildrenalmostalwaysfallintosuchpatterns;andthosewhoseinitialrelationtothemotherissoconflictedastobedisorganizedtendtobecomecontrollingandcoerciveaschildhoodunfolds.

Alsothepatternspassfromparenttoinfant.Thecategoriesofsecureandinsecureattachmentobservedforyear-oldbabiesmap,amongothers,tocounterpartsdiscernibleinthewaysadultstalkandthinkabouttheirownchildhoods.Thecategoryofaninfant'sattachmentcanbepredictedwithimpressiveregularityfromthecounterpartcategoryassignedtoitsmother(oradoptivemother),evenbeforetheinfantisborn.Thebestexplanationforthiswouldseemtobethatinfantsstarttoacquirebasicpatternsofemotionalexpressionandrelationshipbyidentificationwiththeirparents,asconsidered

above.

Firstrepresentations:selfandother,usandthemThecorrelationbetweentheseven-month-infant'snewlyaffectionateandcommunicativerelationwithmotherontheonehandanditsnewfearofstrangersontheotherindicatesthattheinfanthasnowimposeduponitsexperiencebothaformofdistinctionbetweenselfandother,andarelateddistinctionbetweenagoodusandapotentiallybadthem.Thesearelinked;forastheemergingIoftheinfantselfisalocusofindividualfeelingandwill,sotheemergingweofthemother/infantpairisalocusofsharedfeelingandcollectivewill,particularlyinrelationtothreatsfromoutside,suchasstrangersapparentlyrepresent.Theinfant'semergingdistinctionbetweenselfandotherthusresolvesoutofapriorbutlessfocussedsenseofcontrastingrelationships,withtheselfalreadyanchoredinaffectionateandinformation-gatheringrelationswithcarers,kin,andotherlocalfamiliars.39

(p.245) Togetherwiththematerialnotedabove,thisstronglysuggeststhattheinnatepropensitywhichBoydandRichersondescribe—‘tocooperatewithsympathy-inspiringingroupmembers,andtousesymbolicmarkerstodefineingroups’—beginswithrelationsofidentificationwiththemother,andhasitsinitialparameterssetbeforetheendofthefirstyear.40Thesameappliestotheothersideofthecoin,theinfants'projectivedistrustofthealien.Butalthoughthisdevelopmentseemsclearlymarkedintheinfant'sbehaviour,weshouldnotethatthereissomethingparadoxicalaboutit.Theinfantdistinguishesitsmotherfromotherpeoplefrombirth,andbythefourthmonthhasdevelopedmanyspecialwaysofrelatingtoher,includingelaborateandaffectionate‘proto-conversations’,whichitconductsonlywithher.41Sothequestionarises:iftheseven-monthinfantalreadyhasalongstandingspecificrelationshipwithitsmother,whydoesitnowsosharplydistinguishbetweenmother(andotherfamiliars)andstrangers?Andwhydoesitsovigorouslyprotestthedepartureoftheone,andsoreadilyfeartheapproachoftheother?

Thebestexplanationforthisseemstobethattheinfant'spriorsenseofrelationshipincludesitsdirectingbothitsstrongestaffectionsandfiercesthostilitiestowardsthemotherherself,butwithoutyetgraspingthattheseemotionsaredirectedtowardsoneandthesameenduringindividualorindeedtowardsapersonatall.Thechangeobservableatsevenmonthswouldthusresultfromtheinfant'sworkingoutthatitsmotherwasasinglecontinuingcommunicatingbeing,andthusuniqueandirreplaceable,sothatherpresencebecameuniquelyvaluableandherabsencelikewisethreatening.

ThisisineffectthehypothesisadvancedbyMelanieKlein,inheraccountoftheparanoid/schizoidanddepressivepositionsofinfancy.42Fromourcurrentperspectivewhatismostimportantaboutthisdevelopmentisthatitrepresentstheinfant'sbringingtogetherintherepresentationofasingle,uniqueandlastingotherbothidentificatoryandtheprojectiveimagesoftheother(p.246) whichithasnotpreviouslyhadoccasiontounify.Thustheinfant'sinitialconsolidationofanimageofitselfasinaco-operative(asopposedtoanhostile)relationwithitsmother,whichweseeinseparationdistressandsocialreferencing,hasasitsprojectivecorollarytheinitialconsolidationofanimageof

otherswhowerebadandthreatening,whichweseeinfearofstrangers.Theworkwehaveconsideredabovegivesusreasontosupposethatthisoriginal(andKantian)synthesisoftheobjectintheimaginationplaysasignificantroleinthewaytheinfanthenceforthconceivesitselfandothers.Theoppositionbetweengoodusandbadthemwouldthuslienearthecoreofhumanindividuality.Itwouldbeaconsequenceoftheinteractionofidentificationandprojectionwiththeinfant'sattainmentoftheabilitytorepresentitselfandothersassingleandcontinuouslyexisting.

SpecificbehaviouralmanifestationsofthisdevelopmentmaybeobservableinexperimentsconductedbyBowerandBell.43Bowerdescribes

…Asimpleopticalarrangementthatallowsonetopresentinfantswithmultipleimagesofasingleobject…Ifonepresentstheinfantwithmultipleimagesofitsmother—saythree‘mothers’—theinfantoflessthanfivemonthsisnotdisturbedatallbutwillinfactinteractwithallthree‘mothers’inturn.Ifthesetupprovidesonemotherandtwostrangers,theinfantwillpreferentiallyinteractwithitsmotherandstillshownosignsofdisturbance.However,pasttheageof5months(aftertheco-ordinationofplaceandmovement)thesightofthree‘mothers’becomesverydisturbingtotheinfant.Atthissameageasetupofonemotherandtwostrangershasnoeffect.Iwouldcontendthatthisinfactshowsthattheyounginfant(lessthanfivemonthsold)thinksithasamultiplicityofmothers,whereastheolderinfantknowsithasonlyone.

Thisadmitsinterpretationasshowingthatwhileatfourmonthstheinfanttakesitsmotherasapsychologicalothertowhomitrelates,itdoesnotyetregardherasasingleenduringperson,asopposedtoapotentialmultiplicityofpresenceswhosespatio-temporaldimensionsareasyetindeterminate.Byfivemonths,however,thebabyopposesuniquenesstoepisodicmultiplicity,andstartstoviewthemother(andbyimplication/identificationitsownself)asindividual,continuous,andlasting.

Wecanalsoobserverelatedchangesintheinfant'sexpressionsofemotion.Thuswhensomeonemakesafour-monthbabyangrybyimpedingitsmovements,thebabydirectsitsangerattheimpedinghand.Thefour-month-oldseemsnottohaveworkedoutthatthehandispartof,andsoanimatedby,(p.247) anotherperson.44Aseven-month-old,bycontrast,directsitsangertotheimpedingagent'sface.Bythisagethebabyiscapableofmonitoringothers'expressionsandrespondingincomplexwaystothefeelingstheyshow;andtheidentityofthefrustratingpersonnowapparentlymattersaswell.Theseven-month-oldprotestsatbeingimpededbyeitheritsmotherorastranger;butitapparentlyexpectsitsmothertocomfortitafterfrustrationbythestranger,andsoisespeciallyupsetwhenshedoesnotdothis.45Sobysevenmonthstheinfant'sangertowardsitsmotherhasbeenmodifiedbytherepresentationofitselfasrequiring,andherasproviding,comfortandprotectionwherestrangersareconcerned.Suchrepresentationallyandcorticallymodifiedangerthusalreadydiffersfromthenewborn'sinitialsubcorticalrage.

Beforetheinfantrepresentsitselfanditsmotherintheseways,however,itevidently

makesherthetargetofangerandfear.Anewborn,forexample,canbeprovokedtoragesimplybythesightofitsmother'simmobileface.46Indeedtheyounginfantseemsparticularlypronetoexperienceangerorfearwheneveritsmotherisunresponsiveoralien.(Fewthingsaremoreobjectivelythreateningtoaninfantthanamotherwhowillnotrespond,andsincemotherissuchanimportantcognitive/emotionaltargetherfamiliaritywouldseemimportantalso.)Carpenterdescribeshowinfantspresentedwiththeirmother'sfaceinstrangecircumstances‘wouldtenseastheyavertedtheirgazeappearingtokeepthetargetinperipheralview.Fromthispositiontheywouldfrequentlytakefurtiveglances.Sometimestheywouldturnninetydegreesaway.’Shenotedthatlookingrightaway,asiftryingtoendtheepisode,wasparticularlyfrequentwheninfantswereshowntheirmother'sfacespeakingwithadifferentvoice.Again,CohnandTronickobservedbabiesofjustoverthreemonths,comparingthewaystheyrelatedtotheirmothersinnormalcircumstanceswiththeirresponseswhenthemother'sdeliberatelybehavedinaexpressionlessway.Normallythebabiesalternatedbetweenwatchingthemother,showingpositivefeeling,andplayinginteractivelywithher.Intheabnormalcircumstances,bycontrast,theywerefearfulandsuspicious,andalternatedbetweenattendingwarily,protesting,andturningaway47

(p.248) Thisishowinfantslateractwithstrangers,astheyconsolidatetheirimagesofselfandotherasuniquelastingbeings.Sotheseobservationsareconsistentwiththeideathatstrangers—andbyextensionmembersofoutgroupsgenerally—inheritthefearandragedirectedatmotherswhoseemsstrangeorunresponsiveinthefirstmonthsoflife.Thisprovidesacontinuitybetweenthe‘mercilessviolence’whichFreudascribedtotheearliestparentalimagoesatthebasisofconscience,andtheviolentoutgroupaggressionapparentlycharacteristicofourspecieslife.WenotedattheoutsetthatDarwinandhissuccessorshaveindicatedhowtheformationsofconsciencemighthaveevolvedbybindinghumansininternallycohesiveandexternallyrivalrousgroups.WecannowseethatFreudandhissuccessorshavecomplementedthis,bydescribingindetailhowthesesameformationscreateamoralunityencompassingpunishmentwithingroupswhocooperateviaidentification,andalsosetthesegroupsagainstoneanotherinprojection-drivenconflict.

Ifthepresentdiscussionisontherightlines,psychoanalystsalsohavetracedtheseconflictstotheirindividualpsychologicalroots.Theselieintheinfant'searlypre-personalandfragmentaryprojectiveimagesoftheother,andhenceinitsfirstconfusedunknowingfears,anddesperateprimitiveextractiverage.Ifthisiscorrect,thenworkinpsychoanalysisandattachmentshouldhaveparticularlycentralplaceintheperspectiveofevolutionarypsychology.Forthesedisciplinesareuniqueinaddressingthetaskofmoderatingtheseemotionsininfancy,overseeingtheircontinuitiesinthecourseofdevelopment,andalteringtheimagesthatchannelthemintodestructiveconflictaslifeunfolds.

Notes:

(1)Thisproverbhasmanyversions.ThatquotedisSomali;theBedouinomitsclansbutendswith‘Allofusagainsttheforeigner’.

(2)ThusasPresidentBushremindedtheAmericanelectorate:‘WhenIwascomingup,withwhatwasadangerousworld,itwasusversusthem,anditwasclearwhothethemwere.Todaywe'renotsosurewhotheyare,butweknowthey'reoutthere.’Unfortunatelyhewasright.Theproblemisnotjusttheblindnessofthesemechanismsbutalsotheirubiquity.

(3)ForunconsciousracismandtheamygdalaseePhelpsetal.(2000).‘Performanceonindirectmeasuresofraceevaluationpredictsamygdalaactivation’.JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience12(5),729–38;forevolutionarypsychologyandanthropologyseePinker'scritique—asbased,astonishingly,onaprotocolfromananonymousgraduatestudent—InThelanguageinstinct,Penguin,London.1994at412ff.

AsMillerandothershaveobserved,Pinker'sversionofevolutionarypsychologyisill-equippedtoexplainthevariedandexpressiveaspectsofhumancultureuponwhichthesocialanthropologistsPinkercaricatureshavefocussed.Theserequiretobeunderstoodintermsofsexualselectionandmatechoice,andbyimplicationviathesymbolicvaluesofmanyaspectsofbehaviourandculture.Theselatterseemtomebestunderstoodbycombiningpsychoanalysisandrecentworkinconceptualmetaphor.ForsexualselectionseeMiller,G.(2000).Thematingmind.Doubleday,NewYork,and‘Mentaltraitsasfitnessindicators’.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,907,62–74.ForlinksbetweenpsychoanalysisandconceptualmetaphorseeHopkins(2000).‘Psychoanalysis,metaphor,andtheconceptofmind’.InTheanalyticfreud(ed.M.Levine).Routledge,London.

(4)FordiscussionsandreferencestoempiricalworkongroupsseeforexampleMeyers,D.(1999).Socialpsychology,McGrawHill,Boston.Fortherelationofindividualandgroupidentifyseethisbook(41ff),andforthereadinessforgroupformationandsubsequentingroupbiasseetheworkbyTajfelat(353ff).ForthereadinesswithsuchdivisionscanbecomeviolentseetheexperimentsbySherifandZimbardoat(576)and(138).Fortheself-servingbiasandtheaccompanyingfalseconsensusandfalseuniquenesseffects(51ff);andfortherelatedgroup-servingbiasandthemanipulationofthefundamentalattributionerrorinserviceofit(68)and(371–3),andfortheoutgrouphomogeneityeffectandmirror-imagemisperceptions(365)and(529–31).

(5)ThisreferencetoEinstein,andthosewhichfollowtoFreud,arebyvolumeandpage(inparentheses)toThestandardeditionofthecompletepsychologicalworksofSigmundFreud(trans,anded.J.Stracheyetal.)HogarthPress,London,1958.

(6)Hamilton,W.(1995).‘Innatesocialaptitudesofman:anapproachfromevolutionarygenetics’.InThenarrowroadsofgeneland,p330.SpektumandW.H.Freemanpublishers,Oxford.Hamilton'sreferencetothesocial,otherwiseexplicitinthisessay,ishereconveyedviathefactthatAztectempleswereusedforthebloodsacrificeofcaptivesfromothertribes,sometimesinlargegroups.

(7)CharlesDarwin,asquotedonp.4ofSoberandWilson,citedbelow.

(8)Sober,E.andWilson,D.S.(1998).Untoothers.HarvardUniversityPress.LondonandCambridgeMassachusetts.

(9)Thisdoesnotentailthatgeneticinfluenceshaveplayednorole.Providedthatgeneticrelatednessamongmembersoffamily-composedingroupssufficientlyexceededthatamongmembersofcompetingoutgroups,spitefulaggressionmighthaveevolvedinaccordwiththerulesspecifiedbyHamilton.SeeHamilton,citedabove,‘SpiteandPrice’and‘Selfishandspitefulbehavourinanevolutionarymodel’.

(10)Richersen,P.andBoyd,R.(1998).‘Theevolutionofhumanultra-sociality’.InIdeology,Warfare,andIndoctrinability(ed.I.Eibl-EibisfeldtandF.Salter),pp.71–96.BerghahnBooks,NewYork.

(11)Gil-White,F.andRicherson,P.(2003).‘Co-operationandconflict,largescalehuman’.Encyclopaediaofcognitivescience.Macmillan,LondonandNewYork.SeealsoBoydandRicherson(1992).‘Punishmentallowstheevolutionofcooperation(oranythingelse)insizablegroups.’EthologyandSociobiology,13,171–95.

(12)HereIamtakingprojectiontoencompasswhatisnowcalledprojectiveidentification.FordiscussionofthisseeSegal,H.(1972).IntroductiontotheworkofMelanieKlein.Hogarth,London.

(13)Suchingroupphenomenaasthegroup-servingbias,discussedbyMeyersabove,arereadilyrelatedtoidentification,asareobservationsabouthowwelikethosewetaketobelikeus(614);whileothers,suchasmirror-imagemisperceptions,outgrouphomogeneity,andreadinesstogrouphostility,arelikewiserelatabletoprojection.

(14)OnmirrorneuronsseeRizzolati,Fogassi,andGallesi(Sept2001).‘Neurophysiologicalmechanismsunderlyingtheunderstandingandimitationofaction’Naturereviewsneuroscience,andBlakemoreandDecity(August2001).‘Fromtheperceptionofactiontotheunderstandingofintentionality’.Naturereviewsneuroscience.OntheroleofimitationseeMeltzoffandothersinIntersubjectivecommunicationandemotioninearlyontogeny,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge.S.Braten,ed(1998).OnotherformsofassimilationofselfandotherseeMeyersp.158.

(15)SeeMeyerspp.65–6,361.

(16)SeeTrivers,‘Self-deceptionintheserviceofdeceit’InEvolutionandsocialtheory,OUP2002,Oxford;andAdamsetal.(1996).‘Ishomophobiaassociatedwithhomosexualarousal?’J.Abnorm.Psychol,105,440–5.

(17)ComparethepolarizingeffectofgroupthinkingatMeyers311anddeindividuationat304.

(18)Forafulleraccountofthisdream,andofFreud'smethodofanalysisandthekindofsupportitcanbetakentoenjoy,seeHopkins(1999).‘Patternsofinterpretation:speech,action,anddream’.InCulturaldocuments:theinterpretationofdreams(ed.L.Marcus).

ManchesterUniversityPress,Manchester.

(19)ForthisaspectofFreud'sdreamseeAbraham,H.andFreud,E.(ed.)(1965).Apsychoanalyticdialogue:thelettersofSigmundFreudandKarlAbraham,1907–1926,p20.HogarthPress,London.Thisalsoindicateshowthedreamisconstructedaroundapunon‘solution’,whichisacrossingpointforaconceptualmetaphorwhichmapsmindtobody.FordiscussionoftherelationbetweenpsychoanalyticsymbolismandconceptualmetaphorseeHopkins(2000).‘Psychoanalysis,metaphor,andtheconceptofmind’.InTheanalyticFreud,(ed.M.Levine).Routledge,London.

(20)ForsomemorerecentviewsonthismatterseeSegal(1995).‘FromHiroshimatotheGulfwarandafter:apsychoanalyticperspective’.InPsychoanalysisincontexts(ed.ElliottandFrosch).Routledge,LondonandNewYork.

(21)Theterm‘parentalinvestment’wasintroducedbyTriversin‘ParentalInvestmentandSexualSelection’(1972).Forthispaperaswellas‘Parent-OffspringConflict’andothersdiscussedbelowseeTrivers(2002),Evolutionandsocialtheory,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.TriversalsoprovidesoverviewsinSocialevolution.Benjamin/Cummings,California1985.ForrecentdiscussionseeMockandParker(1997),Theevolutionofsiblingrivalry,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

(22)ForbasictheoryseeTrivers1972,2002,citedabove;forawealthofrelatedbiologicalsocialandpsychologicaldetailseeHrdy(2000),Mothernature,Vintage,London.

(23)QuotedinHrdy,citedabove,p433.FordiscussionseeHaig,D.(1993).‘Geneticconflictsinhumanpregnancy’.QuarterlyReviewofBiology,68,495–532.

(24)Theseconflictsappearvividlyinpsychoanalyticaccountsofinfancy.SeeKlein(1974).Thepsychoanalysisofchildren,InThecollectedworksofMelanieKlein,Hogarth,London;andSegalcitedabove.

(25)Damasioetal.(October2000).‘Corticalandsubcorticalbrainactivityduringthefeelingofself-generatedemotions’,NatureNeuroscience,3(10),1049.

(26)ThisrolewasconstantfromhisProjectof1895onwards,andiscloselyrelatedtothatintermsofwhichDamasioandhiscolleaguesconsideremotion.AsFreuddescribedhisconception,

‘…thenervoussystemreceivesstimulifromthesomaticelementitself—endogenousstimuli…Thesehavetheirorigininthecellsofthebody,andgiverisetothemajorneeds:hunger,respiration,sexuality…Theyonlyceasesubjecttoparticularconditions,whichmustberealizedintheexternalworld(Cf.,forinstance,theneedfornourishment).Inordertoaccomplishsuch…aneffortisrequired…’(1,297)

The‘endogenousstimuli’ofwhichFreudspeakscanbeseenasthosewhichinitiate

processesforreturningtoequilibrium,andthe‘effort’isthatexpendedinattainingit.HowFreudtookthisprocesstoworkanddevelopcanbeseenbyconsideringwhathesaysaboutthehungerdriveinthehumaninfant.Theinternalstimuliwhichresultfromalackofnutrientsconstituteadeparturefromequilibrium,whichisfeltasunpleasurable;andtherequisiteequilibriumcannormallyberestoredonlybythesatisfactionoftheneed.Duringrestoration,saybyfeeding,theneuralpathwaysactivatedbythedisequilibrat-ingstimuliareperforcelinkedintoafullernetworkwiththoseactivatedbytheprocessesthroughwhichneedissatisfied;andtheseincludetheperceptualnetworksactiveinperceptionoftheexternalsatisfyingobject,theintermediatenetworksinvolvedinsynthesizinginformationaboutthis,andthenetworksforgeneratingthemotoractivitiesofmeetingthebreast,suckingfromit,andsoon.Theprocesseswhichleadtotherecoveryofneuralequilibriumarefeltaspleasurable,andstrengthenneuralconnectionsthroughoutthesenetworks.Thustheneuraldisequilibrationcausedbyunmetneedcomestocausethekindofactivitiesthroughwhichtheneedissatisfiedintheexternalworld,sothatsuchdisequilibriumcomestobeself-righting.

(27)ThisparticularsetofdesignationsistakenfromWatt,D.(2000)‘Thedialoguebetweenpsychoanalysisandneuroscience:alienationandreparation’,Neuro-Psychoanalysis,2(2),187;InternationalUniversitiesPress.Suchterms,ofcourse,giveonlyaverytentativeandapproximateindicationofthenatureoftheneuralsystemsinquestion.Forafulleraccount,withreferencetoarangeofneuroscientificresearch,seePanksepp,J.(1998).Affectiveneuroscience,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.ThecircuityofsexualmotivationisdiscussedinmoredetailinPfaff(1999),Drive,MITPress,LondonandCambridgeMassachusetts.ForanoverviewofthesetopicsanddiscussionoftheroleofdreamsseeSolmsandTurnbull(2002),Thebrainandtheinnerworld,Karnac,London.

(28)Foraccountsofinfancywhichbringouttheroleofmaternalinvestmentvis-à-visthecortexseeSchore,A.(2001).‘Effectsofasecureattachmentrelationshiponrightbraindevelopment,affectregulation,andinfantmentalhealth’.InfantMentalHealthJournal,22(1–2),7–66;andTrevarthan,C.andAitken,K.(2001).‘Infantintersubjectivity:research,theory,andclinicalapplications’,JournalofChildPsychologyandPsychiatry,CambridgeUniversityPress.Formoreonintersubjectivityandtheinfant'ssenseofselfseetheessaysbyTrevarthanandothersinS.Braten,ed,citedabove.

(29)OnthemechanismresponsibleforthisseeReik,W.andWalter,J.(January2001).‘GenomicImprinting:ParentalInfluenceontheGenome’NatureReviewsGenetics;asregardsimprintingandthecortexseeTrivers,R.andBurt,A.(2000).‘Kinshipandgenomicimprinting’,inGenomicimprinting(ed.R.Ohsson).SpringerVerlag.Thissuggeststhatpsychologicalconflictwithintheindividualmaybeacontinuationofthatbetweenmaternalandpaternalgenes.ThisisdiscussedbyChristopherBadcockinhisEvolutionarypsychology:acriticalintroduction,Oxford:Blackwell,2000.

(30)Wittgenstein,L.(1977).Remarksoncultureandvalue.Tr.P.Winch,BlackwellPublishers,Oxford2e.

(31)Thisbearsonthethesisof‘massivemodularity’sometimesassociatedwithevolutionarypsychology.Whiletheemotionsmightberegardedasmodular(butnotencapsulated)intheirbasicsubcorticalorganization,theyclearlyserveanumberofdifferingandinteractingrolesthroughoutthelifespan,asmediatedbythekindsofmaturationandchangesinrepresentationdiscussedhereandbelow.Wecanclearlygaindeeperunderstandingofemotionbystudyingthese,aspsychoanalysis,neuroscience,attachmenttheory,andotherformsofdevelopmentalpsychologyaimtodo.Whetherfurtheremphasisonmodularitywillcontributetoactualresearch,asopposedtoideologicalgroup-marking,remainsquestionable.

(32)Sullowayhasstressedhowcompetitionamongsiblingswithintheoverallco-operativestructureofthefamilyresultsintheallocationofindividualrolesorniches,whichdifferaccordingtosex,orderofbirth,etc.Thisinvolvesadialecticbetweenidentificationanddifferentiationsimilartothatdiscussedhere,exceptthatSullowayconcentratesonidentificationandignoresprojectionandthedevelopmentofaggression.Thushestressesthatfirst-bornstendtobehighlyidentifiedwiththeirparents,whilelaterborns,havingeldersiblingsalsotoidentifyandcompetewith,arelessso.SeeF.Sulloway,Borntorebel:birthorder,familydynamics,andcreativelives,NewYork:RandomHouse.

(33)Thismightbedone,forexample,byinteractionswhichselectivelyencourageorarrestthegrowthofoneoranotheremotionalcomponent,orbyalteringthewayemotionsareintegratedbyrepresentationsoftheirobjects.Themaintenanceofconflict,oragainofearlyorregressiveformsoffeeling,wouldthusbeamongthewayssuchvariationmightbeproduced.

(34)Forspiteseethematerialscitedinfootnote9.

(35)Schaffer,H.R.(1971).Thegrowthofsociability,p117,Penguin,Harmondsworth,Middx.Fortheculturaluniversalityofstrangeranxiety(anditsrelationtomenwithbeards)seeHrdy,citedabove,pp414ff.

(36)Camposetal.(1983).‘Socioemotionaldevelopment’.InHandbookofchildpsychology,vol.3(ed.P.Mussen),p825.JohnWiley,NewYork.

(37)FortworecentsurveysofempiricalworkonattachmentwhichbearontheclaimsmadeinthissectionseeCassidy,J.andShaver,P.R.(1999).Handbookofattachment,GuilfordPress,NewYorkandLondon,andGoldberg,S.(2002).Attachmentanddevelopment,Hodder,London.ForintroductiontotheStrangeSituationprocedureandthecategorieslinkedwithitseetheHandbookCh14andthesummarytables14.1and14.2;forrelationstoteachersandchildhoodbullyingetc.seeCh4,andforthedevelopmentofdisorganizationintocoercion,andsomeexamplesofphantasyseeCh23;fortheadultattachmentinterviewandcorrelationsbetweenadultandinfantcategoriesseeCh19andthesummarytable19.2.;andforfurtherdiscussionofattachmentandevolutionseeCh6,whichincludesadiscussionofparent-offspringconflict,andCh7whichbothconsidersheritabilityandlinksattachmentcategoriestoreproductivebehaviour.Goldberg'seconomicandthoughtfulpresentationcoversmostofthesame

topics,andhertable3.1perspicuouslydisplayssomeoftheworkoncontinuityofattachmentpatterns.

(38)ThisclaiminparticularneedsmoreexplicationandjustificationthanIcanprovidehere.Stilltheconnectionbetweenavoidant/dismissingandconflictaboutthemother'ssignificancehaslongbeennoted,andthoseforambivalent/preoccupiedanddisorganized/unresolvedareexplicitinthedescriptionsofthecategoriesthemselves(seeChapters14,19,and23intheHandbookcitedintheFootnote39).

(39)Onthesocialbackgroundoftheinfant'ssenseofselfseetheessaysinBraten(ed.),citedabove.

(40)Takingthisfurther,andinconnectionwiththetheoryofconceptualmetaphor,wecanglimpsethepossibilitythatmarkersofethnicboundariesultimatelysymbolizethoseoftheinfant'sormother'sownbodies(‘motherland’etc.).Againthismayseemincredible,butthemostbasicformsofpunishmentandaggressionarebodily,andthehypothesisunderconsiderationisthattheregulationofingrouppunishmentandoutgroupaggressionisformativeoftheindividual(andbody-protecting)mind.

(41)FordescriptionofthesedevelopmentsseeTrevarthanandAitkencitedabove,andforafulleraccountseeTravarthanandothersinS.Braten(ed.),citedabove.

(42)FormoredetaileddiscussionoftheseseeSegal,citedabove,andHopkins(1987).‘Synthesisintheimagination:psychoanalysis,infantileexperience,andtheconceptofanobject’.InPhilosophicalperspectivesondevelopmentalpsychology(ed.J.Russell),Blackwell,Oxford.

(43)SeeBower,T.Developmentininfancy,p217.W.H.Freeman,SanFrancisco;andBell,S.‘Thedevelopmentoftheconceptoftheobjectasrelatedtoinfant-motherattachment’ChildDevelopment,40,291–311.

(44)Thisisalsoaninstanceofthepsychoanalyticnotionofanemotionalrelationtoapart-object,whichappliestothemothergenerally,includingthebreast.

(45)SeeCamposetal.,citedabove,p824andSternbergetal.,inMussen(ed.),citedabove,p181.

(46)Personalcommunication,ProfessorPeterMolnar.

(47)Cohn,J.F.andTronick,F.Z.(1983).‘Three-month-oldinfants'reactiontosimulatedmaternaldepression’.ChildDevelopment,54,185–93.Travarthancitesanumberofrelatedexperimentsin‘Theconceptandfoundationsofinfantintersubjectivity’atp31ofBraten(ed.),citedabove.

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