chapter 5 the integumentary system

Chapter 5The Integumentary System

Exam Two Material Covers Chapter 5, 6, & 7

Skin (Integument)

• Consists of three major regions–

• outermost _–

• middle region– Hypodermis (superficial fascia)

•

Epidermis

Dermis

Hypodermis(superficialfascia)

Hair root

Hair shaft

Pore

Dermal papillae (papillary layer of dermis)Meissner's corpuscle

Free nerve endingReticular layer of dermis

Sebaceous (oil) gland

Arrector pili muscleSensory nerve fiberEccrine sweat glandPacinian corpuscle

ArteryVein

Adipose tissue

Hair follicle receptor(root hair plexus)

Hair follicleEccrine sweatgland

Epidermis• Composed of keratinized _

– consisting of ________________ distinct cell types•

– produce the _________________________________ protein keratin • Melanocytes

– produce the ______________________________________ melanin • Merkel cells

– function as _____________________________________________ in association with sensory nerve endings

• Langerhans’ cells– epidermal _________________________________________ that

help activate the immune system

– And four or five layers

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)

• • firmly attached to the dermis• single row of the _

– Cells undergo _• stratum germinativum

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)

• Cells contain a weblike system of __________________________________ attached to desmosomes

• Melanin _______________________ and Langerhans’ cells are abundant in this layer

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)

•

• three to five cell layers

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

• • superficial to the stratum granulosum

• Consists of a few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes

• Present only in _

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)

• ____________________________________ of keratinized cells

• Accounts for three quarters of the epidermal thickness

• Functions include:– – Protection from _– Rendering the body relatively

______________________________________ to biological, chemical, and physical assaults

Dermis

• Second major skin region containing _• Cell types include

– – – – White blood cells

• Composed of two layers– papillary and reticular

Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer

• __________________________ layer– Areolar connective tissue

• with _– Its superior surface contains _

– Dermal papillae contain • capillary loops• •

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

• Reticular layer– Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness

of the skin

– Collagen fibers add _

– Elastin fibers provide _

Hypodermis

• Subcutaneous layer ________________ to the skin

• Composed of _____________________________ connective tissue

Skin Color

• Three pigments contribute to skin color–

• yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment, responsible for dark skin colors

–

– • yellow to orange pigment

– most obvious in the _

– • reddish pigment responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin

Sweat Glands

• Different types prevent overheating of the body; secrete cerumen and milk– ________________________________ sweat glands

• found in _– ________________________________ sweat glands

• found in _– Ceruminous glands

• modified apocrine glands in ________________________ that secrete _

– Mammary glands• specialized sweat glands that _

Sebaceous Glands

• Simple _________________________________ found all over the body

• _____________________________ when stimulated by hormones

• Secrete an _

Hair

• Filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles

• Contains _– tougher and more durable than soft keratin of the skin

• Made up of – –

• Pigmented by melanocytes at the base of the hair

Hair Function and Distribution

• Functions of hair include:

– Helping to _

– _____________________________________ to presence of insects on the skin

– _______________________________________ against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight

Hair Function and Distribution

• Hair is distributed over the entire skin surface except:– – – – – Portions of the _

Hair Follicle

• Root sheath extending from _

• Deep end is expanded forming a hair bulb

• A knot of sensory nerve endings (____________________________) wraps around each hair bulb– Bending a hair stimulates these endings, hence our

hairs act as _

Types of Hair

• – pale, ___________________________________

found in children and the adult female • Terminal

– _______________________________________ of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions

Hair Thinning and Baldness

• Alopecia – hair thinning in both sexes– Alopecia areata:

• • May be _

• True, or frank, baldness – Genetically determined and sex-influenced condition –

• caused by follicular response to DHT

Structure of a Nail

• Scalelike ________________________________ on the distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes

Functions of the Integumentary System

• – chemical, physical, and mechanical barrier

• Body _______________________________ is accomplished by:– – _______________________________________ of

dermal vessels– Increasing sweat gland secretions to cool the body

• Cutaneous sensation– exoreceptors sense touch and pain

Functions of the Integumentary System

• Metabolic functions – synthesis of ____________________________ in

dermal blood vessels•

– skin blood vessels store up to 5% of the body’s blood volume

• Excretion – limited amounts of

___________________________________ are eliminated from the body in sweat

Skin Cancer

• Most skin tumors are _____________________ and do not metastasize

• A crucial risk factor for non-melanoma skin cancers is the _

• Newly developed skin lotions can fix damaged DNA

Skin Cancer

• The three major types of skin cancer are:– Basal cell carcinoma– Squamous cell carcinoma– Melanoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma

• • ________________________________ skin cancer• ___________________________________ cells

proliferate and invade the dermis and hypodermis– Slow growing– do not often metastasize

• Can be cured by _________________________ in 99% of the cases

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

• Arises from keratinocytes of _• Arise most often on _

– Grows rapidly – metastasizes _

• Prognosis is good if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically

Melanoma

• Cancer of ______________________________ is the most dangerous type of skin cancer

–

– Resistant to _

Melanoma• Melanomas have the following characteristics

(ABCD rule)– A:

• the two sides of the pigmented area do not match – B:

• irregular • exhibits indentations

– C: • black, brown, tan, and sometimes red or blue

– D: • larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil eraser)

Melanoma

• Treated by _______________________________ accompanied by immunotherapy

• Chance of survival is poor if the lesion is _

Burns

• First-degree–

– Symptoms • localized _• •

Burns

• Second-degree –

– Symptoms mimic first degree burns• ______________________

also appear

Burns

• Third-degree – ________________________

of the skin is damaged– Burned area appears gray-

white, cherry red, or black• there is no _ •

– nerve endings _

Rule of Nines•

• Burns considered critical if:– Over 25% of the body

has second-degree burns– Over 10% of the body

has third-degree burns– There are third-degree

burns on face, hands, or feet

Classification of Bones

• – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

• – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and

hip

Classification of Bones: By Shape

• – longer than they are wide

–

Classification of Bones: By Shape

• – Cube-shaped bones of

the _

– Bones that form within tendons _

Figure 6.2b

Classification of Bones: By Shape

• • thin, flattened,

and a bit curved – – most

Figure 6.2c

Classification of Bones: By Shape

• – bones with

complicated shapes

– –

Figure 6.2d

Function of Bones

• – form the framework that supports the body and

cradles soft organs•

– provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs

• – provide levers for muscles

Function of Bones

• – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and

phosphorus•

– hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

Bone Markings

• Bulges, depressions, and holes that serve as: –

– Joint surfaces

– Conduits for blood vessels and nerves

Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

• – rounded projection

• – narrow, prominent ridge

of bone•

– large, blunt, irregular surface

• – narrow ridge of bone

• – small rounded projection

• – raised area above a

condyle•

– sharp, slender projection•

– any bony prominence

Bone Markings: Projections – Projections That Help to Form Joints

• – bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

• – smooth, nearly flat articular surface

• – rounded articular projection

• – arm-like bar of bone

Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings

• – canal-like passageway

• – cavity within a bone

• – shallow, basin-like

depression

• – furrow

• – narrow, slit-like opening

• – round or oval opening

through a bone

Bone Textures

• Compact bone –

• Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae _

Structure of Long Bone

• Long bones consist of a _

• Diaphysis– Tubular shaft – Composed of _

• surrounds the medullary cavity– Yellow bone marrow in the medullary cavity

Structure of Long Bone

• Epiphyses– ________________________________ of long

bones– Exterior is compact bone, and the _

– Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage

– Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

Bone Membranes

• ______________________________ – double-layered protective membrane– Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and

lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via _

– Secured to underlying bone by _

Bone Membranes

• – delicate membrane

covering internal surfaces of bone

Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

• Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone on the inside

• Have _

• Contain bone marrow between the trabeculae

Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)

• In infants– Found in the _– all areas of spongy bone

• In adults– Found in the _– the head of the femur– the head of the _

Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

• _________________________, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone–

• weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen

– Haversian, or _ • containing blood vessels and nerves

– • channels lying at right angles to the central canal,

connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

• Osteocytes–

• Lacunae– ______________________________ in bone that

_• Canaliculi

– ___________________________________ that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

• Osteoblasts–

• Osteocytes– mature bone cells

• Osteoclasts– large cells that resorb or _

Bone Development

• Osteogenesis and ossification – the _________________________________, which leads to:– The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos– Bone growth until early adulthood– Bone thickness, _

Formation of the Bony Skeleton

• Begins at ______________________ of embryo development

• Intramembranous ossification– bone develops from a _

• Endochondral ossification – bone forms by _

Intramembranous Ossification

• Formation of most of the _

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

• An _____________________________ appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane

• Bone matrix is secreted within the fibrous membrane

• Woven bone and periosteum form • Bone collar of _

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

Figure 6.7.1

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

Figure 6.7.2

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

Figure 6.7.3

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

Figure 6.7.4

Endochondral Ossification

• Begins in the _

• Uses ____________________________” as models for bone construction

• Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification

Stages of Endochondral Ossification

• Formation of bone collar• Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage• spongy bone formation• Formation of the medullary cavity;

appearance of _

• Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates

Postnatal Bone Growth

• Growth in length of long bones

– Cells of the epiphyseal plate proximal to the resting cartilage form three functionally different zones:

• • •

Functional Zones in Long Bone Growth

• Growth zone – ____________________________________,

pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis• Transformation zone

– older cells enlarge, the matrix becomes calcified, cartilage cells die, and the _

• Osteogenic zone– new _

Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth During Youth

• During infancy and childhood, epiphyseal plate activity is stimulated by _

• During puberty, _– Initially promote adolescent growth spurts

– Later induce epiphyseal ___________________________, ending longitudinal bone growth

Response to Mechanical Stress

• Wolff’s law – a bone grows or remodels _

• Observations supporting Wolff’s law include– Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft

(where bending stress is greatest)– Curved bones are thickest where they are most

likely to buckle

Bone Fractures (Breaks)

• Bone fractures are classified by:– The _____________________________ of the

bone ends after fracture– The _______________________________ of the

break– The ______________________________ of the

bone to the long axis– Whether or not the bones ends penetrate the skin

Types of Bone Fractures

• – bone ends retain their normal position

• – bone ends are out of normal alignment

Types of Bone Fractures

• – bone is broken all the way through

• – bone is not broken all the way through

• – the fracture is

___________________________________ of the bone

Types of Bone Fractures

• – the fracture is

__________________________________to the long axis of the bone

• Compound (open) –

• – bone ends do not penetrate the skin

Common Types of Fractures

• Comminuted– bone fragments into __________________________

common in the elderly•

– ragged break when bone is _____________________________________ common sports injury

• – broken bone portion pressed inward; typical skull fracture

Common Types of Fractures

• Compression – ___________________________________;

common in porous bones•

– epiphysis separates from diaphysis along epiphyseal line; occurs where cartilage cells are dying

• – incomplete fracture where one side of the bone

breaks and the other side bends; _

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

• – Torn blood vessels

hemorrhage– A mass of clotted

blood (_______________) forms at the fracture site

– Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed

Figure 6.13.1

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

• Fibrocartilaginous _• Granulation tissue (soft

callus) forms a few days after the fracture

• __________________________________ and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris

Figure 6.13.2

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

• The fibrocartilaginous callus forms when:– ___________________________________

migrate to the fracture and begin reconstructing the bone

– Fibroblasts secrete __________________________________ that connect broken bone ends

– Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

• Bony callus formation– New bone trabeculae

appear in the fibrocartilaginous callus

– Fibrocartilaginous callus _

– Bone callus _____________________________________, and continues until firm union is formed 2-3 months later

Figure 6.13.3

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

• Bone remodeling– Excess material on the

bone shaft exterior and in the medullary canal is removed

– ________________ is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls

Figure 6.13.4

Homeostatic Imbalances

• – Bones are inadequately mineralized causing

softened, weakened bones– Main symptom is pain when weight is put on the

affected bone– Caused by insufficient _

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Rickets– Bones of children are inadequately mineralized

causing softened, weakened bones– ________________________________ and

deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common

– Caused by insufficient _

Isolated Cases of Rickets

• Rickets has been _

• Only isolated cases appear

• Example: Infants of breastfeeding mothers deficient in Vitamin D will also be Vitamin D deficient and develop rickets

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Osteoporosis– Group of diseases in which _–

– Occurs most often in postmenopausal women

– Bones become so fragile that sneezing or stepping off a curb _

Osteoporosis: Treatment

• • Increased _• Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy

(HRT) slows bone loss• Natural progesterone cream prompts new

bone growth• Statins increase bone mineral density

Chapter Seven

The Axial Skeleton

• Eighty bones segregated into three regions– – –

The Skull• ______________________________ bony structure• formed by the _ • Cranium

– protects the brain and is the site of attachment for head and neck muscles

• Facial bones– Supply the framework of the _

– Provide openings for the passage of air and food– Anchor the facial muscles of expression

Anatomy of the Cranium

• The eight cranial bones thin and remarkably strong for their weight– two _– two _– – – Sphenoid– ethmoid

Wormian Bones

• _________________________________ that appear within sutures

Facial Bones

• __________________________ of which only the mandible and vomer are unpaired

• The paired bones are – – Zygomatics– – – Palatines– inferior conchae

Mandible and Its Markings• The mandible is the

_____________________ bone of the face

• Its major markings include the – – mandibular condyle, – alveolar margin, and – – mental foramina

Maxillary Bones• upper jaw and the central

portion of the facial skeleton•

• Their major markings include – palatine, – frontal, – zygomatic processes– the alveolar margins– inferior orbital fissure– the maxillary sinuses

Orbits

• Bony cavities in which the eyes are firmly encased and _

• Formed by parts of seven bones – – – Zygomatic– – Palatine– Lacrimal– ethmoid

Hyoid Bone

• – lies just inferior to the mandible in the anterior

neck• Only bone of the body that

__________________________________ directly with another bone

• Attachment point for neck muscles that raise and lower the larynx during swallowing and speech

Vertebral Column• Formed from 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)

connected in such a way that a flexible curved structure results– Cervical vertebrae

• _____bones of the neck– Thoracic vertebrae

• _____ bones of the torso– Lumbar vertebrae

• _____ bones of the lower back– Sacrum

• bone inferior to the lumbar vertebrae that articulates with the hip bones

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

• – cervical and lumbar– Secondary curvatures – cervical and lumbar – are convex anteriorly and are _

• – thoracic and sacral– present at birth– convex posteriorly

• causing the infant spine to arch like a four-legged animal

Vertebral Column: Intervertebral Discs

• Cushion-like pad composed of two parts–

• inner gelatinous nucleus that gives the disc its elasticity and compressibility

– • surrounds the nucleus

pulposus with a collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage

General Structure of Vertebrae

• – disc-shaped, weight-bearing region

• – composed of pedicles and laminae that, along

with the centrum, enclose the vertebral foramen•

– make up the vertebral canal through which the spinal cord passes

General Structure of Vertebrae

• – project posteriorly,

• – project laterally

• Superior and inferior _– protrude superiorly and inferiorly from the pedicle-lamina

junctions• Intervertebral foramina

– ________________________________ formed from notched areas on the _

General Structure of Vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae

• Seven vertebrae (C1-C7) are the _

• C3-C7 – oval body– short spinous processes, – large, triangular vertebral

foramina• Each transverse process

contains a _

Cervical Vertebrae: The Atlas (C1)

• The atlas has ___________________ and ______________________

• It consists of anterior and posterior arches, and _

• The superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with the _

Cervical Vertebrae: The Axis (C2)

• The axis has a body, spine, and vertebral arches as do other cervical vertebrae

• Also has the _______________________ – projects superiorly from the body and is cradled in

the anterior arch of the atlas• The dens is a ______________ for the rotation

of the atlas

Thoracic Vertebrae• 12 Thoracic vertebrae• • Major markings include

– two _– two demifacets on the heart-shaped

body, – _______________ vertebral foramen– transverse processes, –

• facets prevents flexion and extension– ____________________________ of

this area of the spine

Lumbar Vertebrae

• five lumbar vertebrae – have an enhanced _

• They have – __________________________ pedicles and

laminae– _______________________ hatchet-shaped

spinous processes, – triangular-shaped vertebral foramen

• Orientation of articular facets locks the lumbar vertebrae together to _

Sacrum

• Sacrum– five fused vertebrae (S1-S5

• shape the _

– It articulates with L5 superiorly, and with the auricular surfaces of the hip bones

– Major markings include • • transverse lines• • dorsal sacral foramina• •

Coccyx

• Coccyx (Tailbone)– The coccyx is made up of

_____________________ that articulate superiorly with the sacrum

Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)• The thoracic cage is composed of

– the _

– ____________________________ laterally

– ____________________________________ anteriorly

Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)• Functions

– Forms a ____________________________ around the heart, lungs, and great blood vessels

– Supports the _________________________ and upper limbs

– Provides attachment for many neck, back, chest, and shoulder muscles

– Uses _______________________________ to lift and depress the thorax during breathing

Sternum (Breastbone)

• A dagger-shaped, _– lies in the anterior midline of the thorax

• Results from the fusion of three bones – – Superior: _– the _– Inferior: _

• Anatomical landmarks include the jugular (suprasternal) notch, the sternal angle, and the xiphisternal joint

Ribs• There are twelve pair of ribs • All ribs attach _

• The superior 7 pair – – attach directly to the sternum via costal

cartilages• Ribs 8-10 (

– – attach indirectly to the sternum via

costal cartilage • Ribs 11-12

– – have no anterior attachment

Structure of a Typical True Rib

• Bowed, flat bone consisting of a _

Appendicular Skeleton

• The _____________________________ skeleton is made up of – the bones of the _– and their _

• – attach the upper limbs to the body trunk

• – secures the lower limbs

Pectoral Girdles (Shoulder Girdles)• The pectoral girdles

consist of the ____________________ and the _

• They provide attachment points for muscles that move the upper limbs

• Arrangement allows _

Clavicles (Collarbones)

• Slender, doubly curved long bones lying across the _

– The ______________________________ end articulates with the scapula

– The sternal (medial) end articulates _

Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)

• Triangular, flat bones lying on the _

– between the _

• Scapulae have three borders and three angles

Figure 7.22d

• Major markings include the suprascapular notch, the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae, the spine, the acromion, and the coracoid process

The Upper Limb

• The upper limb consists of the – – forearm – hand

• Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb

Arm

• The ______________________________ is the sole bone of the arm

• It articulates with the ________________________________ at the shoulder, and the radius and ulna at the elbow

Arm

• Major markings– Proximal humerus includes the head, anatomical

and surgical necks, greater and lesser tubercles, and the intertubercular groove

Humerus of the Arm• Distal humerus

includes the – – – medial and lateral

epicondyles, – the coronoid –

• Medial portion includes the – radial groove – deltoid process

Forearm

• The bones of the forearm are the _• They articulate proximally with the humerus

and _• They also

_________________________________ proximally and distally at small radioulnar joints

• _______________________________ connects the two bones along their entire length

Ulna• The ulna lies _____________ in

the forearm and is slightly longer than the radius

• Forms the major portion of the _______________________ with the humerus

• Its major markings include the olecranon, coronoid process, trochlear notch, radial notch, and the styloid process

Radius

• The radius lies opposite ___________________ the ulna and is thin at its proximal end, widened distally

• The superior surface of the head articulates with _

• Medially, the head articulates with the _

• Major markings include the radial tuberosity, ulnar notch, and styloid process

Hand

• Skeleton of the hand contains – – bones of the palm_

– bones of the fingers _

Carpus (Wrist)

• Consists of eight bones– ____________________, lunate,

___________________, and pisiform proximally

– Trapezium, ___________________, capitate, and _________________________ distally

Metacarpus (Palm)

• Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal bones radiate from the wrist to form the palm– Their ____________________________________

proximally, and with each other medially and laterally

– Heads articulate with _

Phalanges (Fingers)

• Each hand contains 14 miniature long bones called phalanges

• Fingers (digits) are numbered 1-5, beginning with the _

• Each finger (except the thumb) has three phalanges – _

• The thumb has _

Pelvic Girdle

• The hip is formed by a __________________________ (os coxae, or coxal)

• Together with the ________________________________ these bones form the bony pelvis

Pelvic Girdle (Hip)

• The pelvis– Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with

the strongest ligaments of the body–

– Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis

Ilium

• The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the coxal bone

• It consists of – – a superior _

• The broad posterolateral surface is called the gluteal surface

Ilium• The

___________________ articulates with the sacrum (sacroiliac joint)

• Major markings include the iliac crests, four spines, greater sciatic notch, iliac fossa, arcuate line, and the pelvic brim

Ischium

• The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone

• The ______________________________, and the thinner ramus articulates with the _

• Major markings include the ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch, and the ischial tuberosity

Pubis

• The pubic bone forms the anterior portion of the hip bone

• It articulates with the _

– Major markings include superior and inferior rami, the pubic crest, pubic tubercle, pubic arch, pubic symphysis, and obturator foramen (along with ilium and ischium)

Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure

• Female pelvis– Tilted forward, _– True pelvis defines birth canal– Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has

greater capacity• Male pelvis

– Tilted less forward– Adapted for support of _– Cavity of true pelvis is _

Characteristic Female Male

Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother Heavier, thicker, and more prominent markings

Pubic arch/angle 80˚–90˚ 50˚–60˚

Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together

Sacrum Wider, shorter; sacral curvature is accentuated

Narrow, longer; sacral promontory more ventral

Coccyx More movable; straighter Less movable; curves ventrally

Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure

The Lower Limb

• The three segments of the lower limb are the _

• They carry the weight of the erect body, and are subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or runs

Femur

• The sole bone of the thigh is the femur, the _____________________________ bone in the body

• It articulates _______________________ and _

Femur• Major markings include the

– head, – fovea capitis– greater and lesser

trochanters– gluteal tuberosity– lateral and medial condyles – Epicondyles– linea aspera– patellar surface, – intercondylar notch

Figure 7.28b

Leg

• The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg

• They are connected to each other by the _

• They articulate with the femur proximally and with the _

• They also articulate with each other via the _

Tibia• ____________________ of the

body from the femur and _

• Major markings include medial and lateral condyles, intercondylar eminence, the tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus, and fibular notch

Fibula

• Sticklike bone with slightly expanded ends located _

• Major markings include the _

Foot

• The skeleton of the foot includes the – – –

• The foot supports body weight and acts as a lever to propel the body forward in walking and running

Tarsus

• Composed of seven bones that form the posterior half of the foot

• Body weight is carried _

• Talus articulates with the tibia and fibula superiorly, and the calcaneus inferiorly

• Other tarsus bones include the cuboid and navicular, and the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms

Calcaneus

• Forms the _

• Carries the _

• Point of attachment for the __________________________________ of the calf muscles

Metatarsus and Phalanges

• _– Five (1-5) long bones that

articulate with the proximal phalanges

– The enlarged head of ________________________ forms the “ball of the foot”

• Phalanges– The 14 bones of the toes– Each digit has three phalanges

except the _