campbell's paradigm
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Campbell's ParadigmA teleological not a causal
(environmental) attitude-behavior link
Florian G. KaiserOtto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg
Presentation at the British Psychological Society Seminar "The Psychology of Sustainability" at the University of Surrey, January 27, 2011
Acknowledgment
Terry HartigWes SchultzMark WilsonGary EvansCees MiddenJaime BerenguerAnders BielHeinz Gutscher
Renate CervinkaFranz BognerGundula Hübner Carmen TannerUrs FuhrerEinar StrumseVictor Corral-Verdugo und einige mehr
Katarzyna ByrkaAntal HaansJacqueline FrickHannah ScheuthleNina RoczenAdrian BrüggerKarin SmoldersBritta Oerke
ColleaguesStudents
• Attitudes: Definition & Measurement– once: key concept to psychologically explain behavior– still: central in applied research - environmental psychology
• Misconceptions w/in the Behavior-Explanation Paradigm– #1: complex multifactorial behavior models
…within a heterogeneous set of behavioral classes– #2: limited behavior relevance – even a gap– #3: moderated attitude-behavior relationship– #4: "evaluative inconsistency"
• Campbell's Paradigm: Alternative Set of Axiomatic Beliefs– recollection of an atypical notion of what attitudes are– message: attitude & behavior - not two but one
• Specifically: Environmental Attitude & Behavior
Today's Presentation
This [the Campbell paradigm] does not work, however
If we treat attitudes as behaviors, we cannot address one of the central questions of attitude research, including environmental attitudes: What
is the nature of the relationship, if any, between attitudes and behavior? To equate the two, causes this central question to evaporate… and
repudiates decades of research tradition within the study of attitudes
A Typical Response to the Campbell Paradigm
Alice Eagly & Shelly Chaiken (1993)
Definition & Measurement of Attitudes
A PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY that is expressed by evaluatinga particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor
Evaluative statements e.g.:
I would prefer, if no [...]came to live in my neighborhood. I felt somewhat anxious, if I danced with a [...] in public.
attitude
behavior
verbal behavior
verbal behavior
"actual" behavior
verbal behaviorobject/entity:
STRENGTH OF AN ASSOCIATIONbetween an evaluation and an object
Russell Fazio (2008)
(1)
(2)
THEORY OF TRYINGRichard P. Bagozzi &Paul R. Warshaw (1990)
PROTOTYPE/WILLINGNESS MODELFrederick X. Gibbons, Meg Gerard,Hart Blanton, & Daniel W. Russell (1998)
THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIORIcek Ajzen (1991)
attitude
behavior
attitude
behavior
attitudebehavior
HEALTH ACTION PROCESS APPROACHRalf Schwarzer (2008)
attitude2
behavior
attitude3
attitude1Behavior-ExplanationParadigm: Separation of…
Behavior-Explanation in Environmental Psychology
META-THEORETICAL SYNTHESISSebastian Bamberg & Guido Möser (2007)
THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIORIcek Ajzen (1991)
VALUE-BELIEF-NORM THEORIEPaul Stern (2000)
29%
22 Studien29 unabhängige Stichproben175 < N < 8516
attitude
behavior
attitude behavior
attitude
behavior
Multifactorial, more or less complex behavior models
…even distinct for various pro-environmental behaviors
…often with rather limited explanatory power
Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein (2005)
Kaiser & Gutscher (2003) Kaiser, Schultz, & Scheuthle (2007)
Explaining Pro-Environmental Behaviorwithin the Theory of Planned Behavior
CONSISTENCYON THE GENERAL LEVEL
CONSISTENCYON THE SPECIFIC LEVEL
WHAT CAN BE EXPECTED?LITERAL CONSISTENCY - NO GAP
η2 = 91%.60
.35
.94
- η2 = 88%
incompatible model
.08ns
N = 787; age: 46.2; 58.0% femalesN = 895; age: 46.4; 54.7% females
Psychology the Science of Behavior:All or Only Special Kinds of Behavior?
Gluttony (psychological factor) CANNOT accountfor wearing hats (observable behavior),
but for holding hams (intentional behavior)Mental concepts can only but be relevant for intentional behavior
Werner Greve (2001)
aggressive behaviorantisocial behavior
deviant behaviorhyperactive behavior
transportation behaviorconsumption behavior
"bike riding"
competitive behaviorhealth behavior
pro-environmental behavior
Overt Behavior & Intentional BehaviorObservable, Overt Behavior
Intention, personal Goalwining/participating in a competition
reinforcing one's healthprotecting the environmental
Intentional, Goal-Directed Behavior
The Technical Challenge:Axiomatic Link Between Intention and Behavior
Werner Greve (2001)
Ultimately, psychology cannot attain betterthan predicting intentions
Psychological models, thus, must stop with intention
?
…because we, in psychology, cannot measure intentional behaviorw/o inquiring intentions
The Technical Challenge:Axiomatic Link Between Intention and Behavior
Werner Greve (2001)
Ultimately, psychology cannot attain betterthan predicting intentions
Psychological models, thus, must stop with intention
Measuring Intentional Behaviorw/o Inquiring Intentions
• Assumption: Pro-Environmental Intentions …show directly in people's pro-environmental actions …necessarily in multiple such behaviors
commuting by bike
owning solar panels
taking showers not bathsno convenience food
refraining from car use
recycling glass
active environmentalism
• Assumption: Pro-Environmental Intentions …show directly in people's pro-environmental actions …necessarily in multiple such behaviors
• The more Determined, the… …more and the more difficult…
B
easy
difficult
Acommuting by bike
owning solar panels
taking showers not bathsno convenience food
refraining from car use
recycling glass
active environmentalism
Measuring Intentional Behaviorw/o Inquiring Intentions
commuting by bike
owning solar panels
recycling glass
difficult
easy
• Assumption: Pro-Environmental Intentions …show directly in people's pro-environmental actions …necessarily in multiple such behaviors
• The more Determined, the… …more and the more difficult…
• Engagement in a Difficult Act,… demands easier activities as well
X
√
Measuring Intentional Behaviorw/o Inquiring Intentions
• Assumption: Pro-Environmental Intentions …show directly in people's pro-environmental actions …necessarily in multiple such behaviors
• The more Determined, the… …more and the more difficult…
• Engagement in a Difficult Act,… demands easier activities as well
• "Intentional Behavior"– a class of behaviors
(not single acts)– transitively ordered class
(if A>B and B>C then A>C)low high
Intention
difficult
easy
AB
C
Measuring Intentional Behaviorw/o Inquiring Intentions
Predicting Intentional Pro-Environmental Behaviorw/in the Theory of Planned Behavior
.60
.35
.94η2 =88%
.08ns
η2 =91%
-
• Good News for the Measure − intentions show in our behavior
measure (GEB) …nearly perfectly− possible to measure "intentional
behavior" w/o inquiring intentions
• "General Ecological Behavior"…homogenous, ordered class
− multiple successful model testsEJPA, PAID, JEP, JASP
Predicting Intentional Pro-Environmental Behaviorw/in the Theory of Planned Behavior
.60
.35
.94η2 =88%
.08ns
η2 =91%
-
• Good News for the Measure − intentions show in our behavior
measure (GEB) …nearly perfectly− possible to measure "intentional
behavior" w/o inquiring intentions
• "General Ecological Behavior"…homogenous, ordered class
− multiple successful model testsEJPA, PAID, JEP, JASP
• Bad News for Explanation− a trivial (i.e., a tautological)
behavior explanation− intention = intentional behavior
A ≈ Abehavioralintention
intentional behavior≈
Melvin L. DeFleur & Frank R. Westie (1963)
An INFERRED PROPERTY… [that] is equated with theprobability of recurrence of behavior forms of a given type or direction
Recollection of an Atypical Attitude Definition…and of Some Old but Fundamental Ideas
Attitude
Behavioral D
ifficulty
Donald T. Campbell (1963) high low
difficult
easy
Behavioral Class
TRANSITIVE ORDER OF BEHAVIORS DEFINITION OF INCONSISTENCY
…attitudes need challenge to show
inni
ni
pp
δθ -=1ln -pni: probability of person n to engage
in behavior iθn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)
The Campbell ParadigmExample: Environmental Attitude
• Environmental Attitude is Equated w/ the Probabilities……of the behaviors directed at environmental protection
• Likelihood of Engaging in Pro-Environmental Behavior……is an unmoderated function of one's environmental attitude…and of the specific behavioral difficulty (i.e., compound of all costs)
• Behavioral Means to Realize a Personal Protection Goal• Relation Mathematically Captured w/ Rasch Model
inni
ni
pp
δθ -=1ln -pni: probability of person n to engage
in behavior iθn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)
The Campbell ParadigmExample: Environmental Attitude
• Environmental Attitude is Equated w/ the Probabilities……of the behaviors directed at environmental protection
• Likelihood of Engaging in Pro-Environmental Behavior……is an unmoderated function of one's environmental attitude…and of the specific behavioral difficulty (i.e., compound of all costs)
• Behavioral Means to Realize a Personal Protection Goal• Relation Mathematically Captured w/ Rasch Model
inni
ni
pp
δθ -=1ln -
The Campbell ParadigmExample: Environmental Attitude
pni: probability of person n to engage in behavior i
θn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)
• Environmental Attitude is Equated w/ the Probabilities……of the behaviors directed at environmental protection
• Likelihood of Engaging in Pro-Environmental Behavior……is an unmoderated function of one's environmental attitude…and of the specific behavioral difficulty (i.e., compound of all costs)
• Behavioral Means to Realize a Personal Protection Goal• Relation Mathematically Captured w/ Rasch Model
pni: probability of person n to engage in behavior i
θn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)
inni
ni
pp
δθ -=1ln -
The Campbell ParadigmExample: Environmental Attitude
• Environmental Attitude is Equated w/ the Probabilities……of the behaviors directed at environmental protection
• Likelihood of Engaging in Pro-Environmental Behavior……is an unmoderated function of one's environmental attitude…and of the specific behavioral difficulty (i.e., compound of all costs)
• Behavioral Means to Realize a Personal Protection Goal• Relation Mathematically Captured w/ Rasch Model
Implication: Unmoderated Efficacy of Attitudes
p (behavior)
attitudeextremely positivepositivenegativeextremely negative
low behavioral difficulty high
behavior = (attitude + behavioral difficulty)
attit
ude-
beha
vior
rela
tions
hip
0405060708090100
Unmoderated Efficacy of AttitudesDepicted Differently…
r (attitude-behavior) = const.independent of the behavioral difficulty
102030 0
low behavioral difficulty high
0405060708090100
low-cost hypothesis
Status-Quo Environmental Attitude Research:Moderated Efficacy of Attitudes
r (attitude-behavior | behavioral difficulty)
challenge hypothesis
optimal conditions hypothesis
102030 0
low behavioral difficulty high
attit
ude-
beha
vior
rela
tions
hip
0405060708090100
Diekmann & Preisendörfer (1998)
Schultz & Oskamp (1996)
Stern et al. (1995)
102030 0
low behavioral difficulty high
attit
ude-
beha
vior
rela
tions
hip
Status-Quo Environmental Attitude Research:Moderated Efficacy of Attitudes
r (attitude-behavior | behavioral difficulty)
0
.2
.4
.6
.8
102030405060708090100 0
The Empirical Test:41 Attitude-Behavior Pairs
Kaiser & Schultz (2007)
5 studiesN = 3338; age: 46.5; 54.2% females
behavioral difficulty
attit
ude-
beha
vior
rela
tions
hip
p = .95 p = .05
0
.2
.4
.6
.8
102030405060708090100 0
0.54
behavioral difficulty
attit
ude-
beha
vior
rela
tions
hip
The Empirical Test:41 Attitude-Behavior Pairs
attitude behavior
Environmental Attitudes…Universally Effective Irrespective of the Behavior
Conclusions about the Attitude-Behavior Relationship?
Environmental Attitudes are Unconditionally(i.e., Universally) Behavior-Relevant…Irrespective of how Demanding a Behavior (Difficult)…as Implied by the Rasch Model
inni
ni
pp
δθ -=1ln -
…Which Leads to the Following Definition of Attitudes(within the Campbell Paradigm)…
commuting by bike
owning solar panels
taking showers not bathsno convenience food
refraining from car use
recycling glass
active environmentalism
the higher…, the more probable...
.23
.12
.94
.86
.67
.99
.59
environmental attitude
B
high
A
low
Redefinition of Environmental Attitude
.16
.05
.87
.75
.47
.93
.39
…recurrence probabilities of behaviors of a given class
inni
ni
pp
δθ += 1ln -
a specific difficulty-based transitive order of behaviors of a given class
(1)
(2)
• Axiomatic Attitude-Behavior Relationship equating attitudes with behaviors (engagement probabilities) mathematical formalization: Rasch model
• Individual Attitude Simultaneously……mental, latent, psychological entity (i.e., trait, propensity) and…material, objective reality as transitively ordered behavioral class one not two categories (Gilbert Ryle, "Concept of Mind" 1949)
…category mistake: mind does NOT inhabit and govern body
• Understandable as Teleological Not Causal Relationship as behavioral means to realize a personal protection goal
…irrespective of whether one is aware of the goal or not
• Non-trivial Consequence: "Evaluative Consistency" general attitude's relevance for specific behavior specific behavior's relevance for general attitude
Implications of Campbell's Paradigm
Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein (2005)
Russia-devotee
RUS decoration
EVALUATIVE INCONSISTENCY
Johnny Weir... The 21 year-old American figure skater [is] a great admirer of ... Russia ...; Weir is a Russia-devotee.At home in Newark, New Jersey, he owns a DVD about Russian culture and history. He learns Russian and during practice in Turin, Italy, he wears a sweater with the CCCP logo imprinted. His training's bag is tagged with a RUS sticker.
(Gijs van Oosten (Eindhovens Dagblad, Feb. 17, 2006, p. 18); translation and emphases fgk)
Evaluative Consistency - A Challengefor Behavior-Explanation Paradigm
Daryl J. Bem (1967)
Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein (2005)
Russia-devotee
RUS decoration
EVALUATIVE INCONSISTENCY
Johnny Weir... The 21 year-old American figure skater [is] a great admirer of ... Russia ...; Weir is a Russia-devotee.At home in Newark, New Jersey, he owns a DVD about Russian culture and history. He learns Russian and during practice in Turin, Italy, he wears a sweater with the CCCP logo imprinted. His training's bag is tagged with a RUS sticker.
(Gijs van Oosten (Eindhovens Dagblad, Feb. 17, 2006, p. 18); translation and emphases fgk)
Causal Direction - Another Challengefor Behavior-Explanation Paradigm
Self-Perception Theory
Kaiser, Byrka, & Hartig (2010)
General Attitude's Relevancefor Specific Behavior
generalenvironmental attitude
low
high
n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28
type of resource (points/energy)
low high
n = 131 / n = 502 / N = 1746;age: 54.9; 39.7% females
line of social justice
General Attitude's Relevancefor Specific Behavior
generalenvironmental attitude
low
high
n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28
type of resource (points/energy)
General Attitude's Relevancefor Specific Behavior
generalenvironmental attitude
low
high
n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28
type of resource (points/energy)
line of social justice
Specific Behavior's Relevancefor General Attitude
general environmental attitudemeasured within
Campbell's Paradigm (i.e., GEB)
general environmental attitude measured traditionally
w/ evaluative statements (NEP)
gene
ral
envi
ronm
enta
l atti
tude
vegetariansnon-vegetarians
n = 45 n = 50 n = 60 n = 67
N = 222; age: 39.3; 89.3% females
Kaiser, Byrka, & Hartig (2010)
BASE RATE VEGETARIANS 4-7%
• The Campbell Paradigm: Equating Attitude w/ Behavior attitudes transitively ordered classes of behavior
…real as recurrence probabilities of behavior of a given class attitudes as behavioral means to realize a personal goal
…latent as a teleological not a causal attitude-behavior link
• Campbell's in Place of Behavior-Explanation Paradigm …at least within environmental-attitude research possible
challenge to how many see the attitude-behavior relationship
• Some Advantages of Paradigm Change unconditional behavior relevance of attitudes evaluative consistency (explicit link between general & specific) simple, two-factorial behavioral models: B = f (Attitude, Situation)
…practical use of models depends on their simplicity
Reviving Campbell's Paradigmfor Attitude Research
Questions?Florian G. KaiserOtto-von-Guericke UniversityInstitute of PsychologyP.O. Box 4120D-39016 Magdeburg - Germany
fon: +49 391 671 8470 email: florian.kaiser@ovgu.deweb: www.ipsy.ovgu.de/en/fgk.html
Paper is available upon request
It's not because things are difficult that we dare not venture.It's because we dare not venture that they are difficult.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca
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