by william frederic spohk n - open collections

THOMAS HOBBES AND HIS MECHANISTIC PHYSIOLOGY:

FACTORS IN THE RECEPTION OF THE MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY

IN SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ENGLAND

WILLIAM FREDERICK SPOHN B.Sc. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1976 B.A. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Depar tmen t . o f H i s t o r y )

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g

t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1979

(c) W i l l i a m F r e d e r i c k Spohn, 1979

I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t

t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y .

I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s

f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my D e p a r t m e n t o r

by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n

o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

D e p a r t m e n t o f H i s t o r y

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 2075 W e s b r o o k P l a c e V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a V6T 1W5

D a t e A p r i l 8, 1979

D E - 6 B P 75-51 1 E

ABSTRACT

Thomas Hobbes i s the g e n e r a l l y acknowledged pre-eminent E n g l i s h

p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r i n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and the p o l i t i c a l

a r e a s o f h i s work have been much s t u d i e d . H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the

f i e l d o f p h y s i o l o g y has remained l a r g e l y u n a p p r e c i a t e d , and i n f a c t

has been deemed t o be l a r g e l y n e g a t i v e by tho s e s c h o l a r s who have

examined i t . By e x a m i n i n g Hobbes' p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y and comparing

i t t o t h a t o f o t h e r contemporary p h y s i o l o g i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , t h i s s t u d y

r eaches the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Hobbes was w o r k i n g v e r y much as a p a r t

o f the d e v e l o p i n g m e c h a n i c a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

the b a s i s f o r making a case f o r a p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i v e r o l e f o r Hobbes

in the encouragement and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f me c h a n i c a l p h y s i o l o g y i n

England i s f o r m u l a t e d . The reasons why such a p o s i t i v e r o l e i s not

at f i r s t a p p a r e n t a r e found t o i n c l u d e the t h e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i o n s

t o any m a t e r i a l i s t i c d o c t r i n e and Hobbes 1 r e p u t a t i o n as an a t h e i s t

e n t a i l e d by h i s p h i l o s o p h y . The c l i m a t e o f s c i e n t i f i c and c l e r i c a l

o p i n i o n s u r r o u n d i n g Hobbes 1 i d e a s i s a l s o examined. The s e e m i n g l y

p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n wh i c h Hobbes c o u l d make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i

b u t i o n t o E n g l i s h s c i e n c e and y e t g a i n no o v e r t r e c o g n i t i o n f o r

t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT • i i TABLE OF CONTENTS i i i PHOTOGRAPH OF HOBBES i i i a EPIGRAPH iv

CHAPTER I HOBBES ' MECHANICAL PHYSIOLOGY 9 II HOBBES AND THE ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS 26 III HOBBES* ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY 69

l i i a

" I know a l r e a d y , by e x p e r i e n c e , how much g r e a t e r thanks w i l l be due than p a i d me, f o r t e l l i n g men the t r u t h o f what men a r e . "

Hobbes

INTRODUCTION

In an i m p o r t a n t a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n 1977, T.M. Brown d i s c u s s e d

the development o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y i n England from 1640 t o 1660,

w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o the r e c e p t i o n o f the new m e c h a n i c a l p h i l

osophy a p h i l o s o p h y o f n a t u r e w h i c h Brown i d e n t i f i e d w i t h D e s c a r t e s .

He found t h a t England e x p e r i e n c e d a " m u l t i p l y a m b i v a l e n t i n c u r s i o n "

o f C a r t e s i a n m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y . He found t h a t "even w i t h i n

u n i v e r s i t y p h y s i o l o g y e n t h u s i a s m was q u a l i f i e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e ,

and t h e r o l e o f the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y was c a r e f u l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d . " '

S e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r such an a m b i v a l e n c e toward m e c h a n i c a l p h i l

osophy were o f f e r e d , i n c l u d i n g the c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f the neo

c l a s s i c a l m e d i c a l t r a d i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y W i l l i a m Harvey's o r t h o d o x

a u t h o r i t y , and contemporary t h e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i o n s t o m a t e r i a l i s m .

As a f i n a l p o s s i b l e reason f o r t h e h e s i t a n c y on the p a r t o f the E n g l i s h

s c i e n t i s t s t o embrace a p h y s i o l o g y based on t h e m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y

o f n a t u r e Brown s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s p h i l o s o p h y had become a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h the i d e a s o f Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes had p u b l i s h e d L e v i a t h a n (1651)

and De C orpore (1655) and i n t h a t and t h e n e x t decade r e c e i v e d much 2

a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n t o h i s moral and p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i e s . As Hobbes

was a l s o a f e r v e n t proponent o f the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , Brown argued

t h a t i t may have become d i f f i c u l t f o r anyone t o a c c e p t f r e e l y the

m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y w i t h o u t r i s k i n g c e n s u r e by a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

Hobbes. 1

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o - a s s e s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Thomas Hobbes i n t h e

p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t , f o r the r e c e n t l y i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n Hobbes'

s t u d i e s has c e n t r e d o v e r w h e l m i n g l y on the p o l i t i c a l , moral and r e l i g i o u s

a s p e c t s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y , f o r the most p a r t o m i t t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f

h i s b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t . The few a u t h o r s who have

d i s c u s s e d Hobbes 1 n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y have f o r the most p a r t done so

in o r d e r t o e x p l i c a t e some moral o r p o l i t i c a l p o i n t . The o n l y n o t a b l e

e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s F r i t h i o f B r a n d t who gave a m e t i c u l o u s and i n v a l

u a b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e development o f Hobbes' t h o u g h t s on n a t u r a l p h i l o s -3

ophy and o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o contemporary n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , f o r our p u r p o s e s , B r a n d t d i d not examine Hobbes 1 p h y s i o

l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s .

I t seems c l e a r t h a t the d i s c u s s i o n o f Hobbes i n h i s contemporary

p h i l o s o p h i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l e n v ironment i s i n c o m p l e t e . There a r e

perhaps s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . The image o f Hobbes as the b e t e n o i re o f

E n g l i s h moral and p o l i t i c a l c r i t i c s as o u t l i n e d by Samuel M i n t z may

have become something o f a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g t r u i s m . The i d e a s f o r

wh i c h Hobbes was denounced w i t h such a s p e r i t y i n h i s own time seem

to have g e n e r a t e d most o f the d i s c u s s i o n i n the p r e s e n t c e n t u r y as

w e l l . Hobbes' t h e o r i e s o f b i o l o g y have been l a r g e l y n e g l e c t e d by

h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , and t h i s i s a response t h a t modern w r i t e r s have

seen f i t t o f o l l o w .

Whereas s e v e r a l a u t h o r s have d e a l t w i t h Hobbes 1 thought i n the

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o n t e x t , most r e c e n t l y and n o t a b l y Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r ,

none have p r o p e r l y examined h i s p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l i d e a s

3 In t h i s f a s h i o n . T h i s i s s u r e l y a l a c u n a t h a t s h o u l d be f i l l e d .

A f i r s t r e a c t i o n t o the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t Hobbes' p h y s i o l o g y and p s y c h o l o g y

a r e an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f h i s thought and o f the development o f t h e s e

d i s c i p l i n e s i n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , might be t h a t he no more

made a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o b i o l o g y than he d i d t o m a t h e m a t i c s , and, i n

any c a s e , the p o l i t i c a l s e c t i o n s o f h i s w r i t i n g s a r e the t r u l y i m p o r t a n t

ones. To i g n o r e t h e s e p o o r l y e x p l o r e d a r e a s o f Hobbes' thought as

t r i v i a l o r as p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i s o l a t e d would be an e r r o r f o r s e v e r a l

r e a s o n s . To do a t r u l y c omplete c o n t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f Hobbes and

h i s w o r k s , a l l p o r t i o n s o f t h a t work must be c o n s i d e r e d on Hobbes 1

own terms, as a l l p a r t o f a d e v e l o p i n g whole. Not o n l y i s Hobbes 1

m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i m p o r t a n t t o the h i s t o r y o f s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y

p h y s i o l o g y i n the manner s u g g e s t e d by Brown, but : i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r i t s

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y a c c o r d i n g t o

Hobbes h i m s e l f .

In o r d e r p r o p e r l y t o compare Hobbes' work w i t h t h a t o f h i s contem-

o r a r i e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o c l o s e l y examine t h e s e works and

summarize h i s th o u g h t s on m e c h a n i c a l p h y s i o l o g y , s e n s a t i o n and p s y c h o l o g y .

These c o n c l u s i o n s w i l l then be compared w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r p h i l o s o

phers and m e d i c a l s c i e n t i s t s o f the l a t t e r s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n

o r d e r t o see i f Hobbes has any p a r t i n the i n c u r s i o n o f s o - c a l l e d

' C a r t e s i a n p h i l o s o p h y ' i n Eng l a n d . I t w i l l be shown t h a t Hobbes 1

thought was i m p o r t a n t not o n l y f o r i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the development

o f p h y s i o l o g y and p s y c h o l o g y , but a l s o t o the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l development

o f E n g l i s h s c i e n c e .

A case w i l l be made t h a t c o n t r a r y t o Brown the development o f

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e c h a n i s t i c t r e n d s i n E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y was

in a s i g n i f i c a n t way due t o Hobbes. W h i l e Brown i s c o r r e c t i n s t a t i n g t h a t Hobbes may have had a p a r t i n the a m b i v a l e n c e o f the i n c u r s i o n

o f mechanism i n t o E n g l i s h t h o u g h t , he s t r e s s e s o n l y the n e g a t i v e c o n t r i b

u t i o n o f Hobbes. The p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f Hobbes'thought on h i s f e l l o w

s c i e n t i s t s may ou t w e i g h the n e g a t i v e , and much o f the s o - c a l l e d C a r t e s i a n

d o c t r i n e o r E p i c u r e a n t h e o r y adopted by t h e s e s c i e n t i s t s c o u l d j u s t

as a p t l y be d e s c r i b e d as Hobbesian. The reasons why such an a p p e l a t i o n

was a l m o s t u n t h i n k a b l e t o Hobbes' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d .

Thomas Hobbes was as e x c e p t i o n a l f o r h i s l o n g e v i t y as f o r h i s

i d e a s . Born i n the y e a r o f the S p a n i s h Armada, 1588, he l i v e d t o

see h i s n i n e t y - s e c o n d y e a r , d y i n g i n 1679- Hobbes was e d u c a t e d i n

a t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o l a s t i c manner and r e c e i v e d h i s B.A. from O x f o r d

a t t he age o f n i n e t e e n . H i s l i f e f o r the n e x t t h r e e decades was an

i t i n e r a n t one, as he s e r v e d as companion and t u t o r t o noblemen's sons

t a k i n g the grand t o u r o f t h e C o n t i n e n t . A l t h o u g h he spent some time

as F r a n c i s Bacon's s e c r e t a r y , none o f the c h a n c e l l o r ' s i d e a s seem t o

have impressed Hobbes g r e a t l y . H i s p e r s o n a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t came l a t e

i n l i f e , when i n 1629, a t t h e age o f Ul, he was abroad on h i s second

t r i p t o t h e C o n t i n e n t . Aubrey d e s c r i b e d how Hobbes chanced upon some

E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and was much taken w i t h the mathem

a t i c a l method o f d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . ^ Hobbes h i m s e l f e l s e w h e r e r e c o u n t s

the i n c i d e n t i n w h i c h he became c o g n i z a n t o f the im p o r t a n c e o f sens

a t i o n t o p h i l o s o p h y , and he had f o r m u l a t e d a t h e o r y o f s e n s a t i o n by

1630, u s i n g m e c h a n i s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s . 7 These two e l e m e n t s , d e d u c t i v e

l o g i c and an i n t e r e s t i n human p s y c h o l o g y , were t o form t h e b a s i s

f o r the development o f Hobbes' p h i l o s o p h i c a l system.

A l t h o u g h somewhat a s o l i t a r y man, Hobbes n e v e r t h e l e s s made a

few i m p o r t a n t f r i e n d s i n s c i e n t i f i c c i r c l e s . A f t e r I63O, Hobbes was

the i n s t r u c t o r and f r i e n d o f W i l l i a m C a v e n d i s h , E a r l o f N e w c a s t l e

( l a t e r M a r q u i s and Duke) and o f h i s b r o t h e r S i r C h a r l e s C a v e n d i s h .

When i n the autumn o f 1 6 4 0 , Hobbes f l e d t o F r a n c e , he renewed k i s a c q u a i n

t a n c e w i t h the i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e i n P a r i s o r g a n i z e d by F a t h e r M a r i n

Mersenne. Hobbes had f r e q u e n t e d t h i s group on h i s p r e v i o u s c o n t i n e n t a l

s o j o u r n ( 1 6 3 4 - 1 6 3 7 ) i n the c o u r s e o f w h i c h he a l s o met G a l i l e o i n

F l o r e n c e . W h i l e back i n England he had been a member o f a n o t h e r group

o f s c i e n t i f i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l amateurs c e n t r e d around N e w c a s t l e and

h i s b r o t h e r . When some o f the o t h e r members o f the N e w c a s t l e c i r c l e

f l e d England i n the e a r l y 1 6 4 0 s , i t was n a t u r a l t h a t they w o u l d convene

once more i n P a r i s , where Hobbes p l a y e d a p a r t i n the exchange o f i d e a s

between E n g l i s h and French t h i n k e r s . *

P i e r r e Gassend ( G a s s e n d i ) , f o r i n s t a n c e , was a good f r i e n d o f

Hobbes, and i n 1644 showed him the m a n u s c r i p t o f the f i r s t major p r e s e n t -q

a t i o n o f h i s p h y s i c s . Hobbes saw more m e r i t i n G a s s e n d i ' s E p i c u r e a n

m e c h a n i s t i c atomism than i n D e s c a r t e s ' work w h i c h Hobbes r e p e a t e d l y

c r i t i c i z e d . Gassendi b e l i e v e d . ( c o n t r a r y to Descartes* opinions)

t h a t i t i s o n l y t h r o u g h t he senses t h a t knowledge o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d

can come.'^ T h i s v i e w was b a s i c a l s o t o Hobbes' t h e o r y , and t h e i r

p h i l o s o p h i c a l agreement had i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t he r e c e p t i o n

o f G a s s e n d i ' s work i n E n g l i s h c i r c l e s . Hobbes i s p r o b a b l y r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r f i r s t i n t e r e s t i n g the members o f the Ne w c a s t l e c i r c l e i n E p i c u r e a n

atomism, and i n i n t r o d u c i n g h i s f r i e n d W a l t e r C h a r l e t o n t o t h i s p h i l o s

ophy.'' C h a r l e t o n was l a t e r t o become an a v i d exponent o f Gassendi 12

and an i n f l u e n t i a l man i n c i r c l e s o f l e a r n i n g i n R e s t o r a t i o n E n g l a n d ,

Hobbes took f a r l e s s i n t e r e s t i n D e s c a r t e s as a f r i e n d o r p h i l o s

opher than as a geometer. A l t h o u g h Hobbes c a s t i g a t e d him f o r p a n d e r i n g

to r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y and f o r d e t a i l s o f t h e o r y on w h i c h t he two

d i f f e r e d , he seems n e v e r t h e l e s s t o have had an open mind on the s u b j e c t

o f t h e mechanical p h i l o s o p h y and was w i l l i n g t o c o n s i d e r the C a r t e s i a n 13

v e r s i o n on i t s m e r i t s . He c o u l d n e v e r agree, on the n e c e s s i t y o f

p o s t u l a t i n g a r a t i o n a l s o u l t o e x p l a i n r a t i o n a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomena.

By h i s v e r y d i s a g r e e m e n t , Hobbes i n s t i g a t e d d i s c u s s i o n o f D e s c a r t e s

as w e l l as o f Gassendi among h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e .

Thus the 16k0s saw i n P a r i s the f o r m a t i o n o f an u n o f f i c i a l u n i v e r

s i t y , (an ' i n v i s i b l e c o l l e g e ' ) c o n c e r n e d w i t h the new m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s

ophy, c e n t r e d around Hobbes, Mersenne, D e s c a r t e s , and G a s s e n d i , i n c l u d i n g 14 •

b o t h E n g l i s h and c o n t i n e n t a l components. The t a s k here .'.includes :.the

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l a t e r e f f e c t s o f t h i s ' u n i v e r s i t y ' on E n g l i s h

p h y s i o l o g y and p s y c h o l o g y , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r o l e t h a t Thomas

Hobbes was t o p l a y i n the p h y s i o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n o f the l a t t e r h a l f

o f the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

FOOTNOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. Theodore M. Brown, " P h y s i o l o g y and the M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y i n M i d - S e v e n t e e n t h Century E n g l a n d , " Bui 1 . H i s t . Med. 51 ( 1 9 7 7 ) : 5 ^ .

2 . For an a c c o u n t o f t h i s c r i t i c i s m see Samuel I. M i n t z , The H u n t i n g o f L e v i a t h a n (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) .

3 - F r i t h i o f B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes' M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y o f N a t u r e , (Copenhagen: L e v i n & Munksgaard, 1 9 2 8 ) . B r a n d t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m -a t i v e on Hobbes 1 o p t i c a l t h e o r y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a c c o r d i n g t o Kargon, the t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s work from the o r i g i n a l D a nish i s a v e r y poor one r e n d e r i n g the t e x t o f d o u b t f u l v a l u e . See Robert H. Kargon, Atomism i n England from Ha r i o t t o Newton, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966) p.5 ^ .

4 . Robert Kargon, Atomism i n England from H a r i o t t o Newton, 1 9 6 6 , was the f i r s t t o deal a t any l e n g t h w i t h Hobbes' m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , e s p e c i a l l y h i s atomism, i n an E n g l i s h c o n t e x t . He d e a l t o n l y i n p a s s i n g w i t h the p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f Hobbes. More a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t o f Hobbes 1 p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , n o t a b l y by S k i n n e r , "The I d e o l o g i c a l C o n t e x t o f Hobbes' P o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , " H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 9 ( 1 9 6 6 ) and by J.A.W. Gunn i n P o l i t i cs and the P u b l i c I n t e r e s t i n the S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y (London: R o u t l e d g e £ K. P a u l , 1 9 6 8 ) . .

5 . The b e s t b i o g r a p h y o f Hobbes remains t h a t o f G.C. R o b e r t s o n , Hobbes ( E d i n b u r g h & London: Blackwood and S o n s ) , 1 8 8 6 , a l t h o u g h M i r i a m ;

R e i k has done an i n f o r m a t i v e i f u n e x c e p t i o n a l r e v i s i o n o f t h a t a c c o u n t o f Hobbes 1 l i f e i n The Golden Lands o f Thomas Hobbes ( D e t r o i t : Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1-977).

6 . John Aubrey, B r i e f L i v e s , ed. A. C l a r k ( O x f o r d : The C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 9 8 ) .

7- T h i s t h e o r y i s t h e S h o r t T r a c t on F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s w h i c h Hobbes never p u b l i s h e d . The r e v i s e d i d e a s o f t h i s t r a c t were p u b l i s h e d i n Elements o f Law, i n E n g l i s h Works, ed. S i r . W. M o l e s w o r t h (London: John Bohn, 1839) v o l . IV. The S h o r t T r a c t i t s e l f was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d by F e r d i n a n d T o n n i e s i n 1 8 8 9 , Elements o f Law , (London:. Frank Cass & Co, L t d . , 1 9 6 9 ) .

8 . W h i l e Hobbes, N e w c a s t l e , C h a r l e s C a v e n d i s h and o t h e r s l i v e d i n P a r i s , some o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s r e s i d e d i n o t h e r a r e a s , such as John P e l l i n the N e t h e r l a n d s .

9- T h i s work was A n i m a d v e r s i o n e s i n Decimum L i b r u m D i o g e n i s L a e r t i i , p u b l i s h e d i n 1649- C a v e n d i s h n o t e d the f r i e n d s h i p o f Hobbes and Gassendi i n a l e t t e r t o P e l l , 10 O c t o b e r 1644 ( H a l l i w e l l , C o l l e c t i o n o f L e t t e r s I l l u s t r a t i v e o f the P r o g r e s s o f S c i e n c e i n England (London: H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f S c i e n c e , 1644 p.85) and Robert Kargon, d i s c u s s e s t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n Atomism i n E n g l a n d , 1966 p . 6 0 f f .

10. C. B r u s h , S e l e c t e d Works o f P i e r r e Gassendi (New Y o r k : Johnson R e p r i n t C o r p o r a t i o n , 1972) p.86, Gassendi a l s o i n c l u d e d d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n as a p o s s i b l e s o u r c e f o r knowledge, I b i d , , p.13.

11. Robert Kargon, Atomism i n E n g l a n d , p.60.

12. A n o t a b l e work by C h a r l e t o n i s Phys i o l o g i a E p i e u r o - G a s s e n d - C h a r i t o n i a n a (1654), an u p d a t i n g o f G a s s e n d i ' s t h e o r i e s . Hobbes may a l s o have i n t r o d u c e d W i l l i a m P e t t y t o G a s s e n d i ' s w r i t i n g s .

13. A u s e f u l work on Hobbes and D e s c a r t e s as seen through contemporary c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s Helen Hervey, "Hobbes and D e s c a r t e s i n the L i g h t o f some U n p u b l i s h e d L e t t e r s o f t h e Correspondence between S i r C h a r l e s C a v e n d i s h and Dr. John P e l 1," O s i r i s X (1952):67"90.

14. Robert Kargon, Atomism i n E n g l a n d , pp.68-69.

CHAPTER I

HOBBES 1 MECHANICAL PSYCHOLOGY

The q u e s t i o n o f the p l a c e o f Hobbes 1 m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l

p s y c h o l o g y w i t h i n the grand scheme o f h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o r p u s has

been a c o n t r o v e r s i a l one. Hobbes h i m s e l f e n v i s i o n e d a t r i p a r t i t e whole

w h i c h he d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s : '

In the f i r s t (parO I would have t r e a t e d o f body and i t s g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s ( j . e , the - p h y s i c s t ) , i n the second o f man and h i s s p e c i a l f a c u l t i e s and a f f e c t i o n s ' Q .e. p h y s i o l o g y and p s y c h o l o g y } ; jn the t h i r d o f c i v i l government and t h e d u t i e s o f s u b j e c t s . "

C.B. MacPherson has s t a t e d t h a t most o f Hobbes 1 i n t e r p r e t e r s and

c r i t i c s "have proceeded by b r e a k i n g up what Hobbes had p r e s e n t e d as a

m o n o l i t h i c s t r u c t u r e . . . a s o f t e n as t h i s has been done t o Hobbes, the

r e s u l t s have been i n c o n c l u s i v e , and i t may be doubted whether t h e 2

p r o c e s s has f u r t h e r e d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Hobbes's t h e o r y . " The

case f o r s t u d y i n g Hobbes 1 p h y s i o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y appears d o u b l y s t r o n g .

Such a st u d y would not o n l y s e r v e t o p l a c e Hobbes i n t h e c o n t e x t o f

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a

t i o n , as i s the aim o f t h i s p a p e r , but a l s o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y i n i t s own terms may a l l o w a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t Hobbes i n t e n d e d i t t o have t o the o t h e r two

p a r t s o f h i s work.

Hobbes c o n s i d e r e d the " s c i e n c e o f man's body (j.o be3 t h e most 3

p r o f i t a b l e p a r t o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , and y e t he was d e s t i n e d t o spend

an amount o f e f f o r t i n d e v e l o p i n g a f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e p h y s i o l o g y l e s s

than commensurate w i t h the a p p a r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p h y s i o l o g y t o 9

h i s p h i l o s o p h y . T h e e a r l i e s t e v i d e n c e o f H o b b e s ' t h o u g h t o n p h y s i o l o g y

i s t h e S h o r t T r a c t , w r i t t e n a b o u t 1 6 3 0 , i n w h i c h , a f t e r l a y i n g d o w n

t h e e l e m e n t s o f a t h e o r y o f o p t i c s , H o b b e s d i s c u s s e d s e n s a t i o n a n d

t h e b a s i c s o f a p s y c h o l o g y . T h e e a r l i e s t w o r k i n v o l v i n g p h y s i o l o g y

t o b e p u b l i s h e d b y H o b b e s w a s T h e E l e m e n t s o f L a w , t h e f i r s t p a r t o f

w h i c h d e a l s w i t h m a n a n d n a t u r e . A l t h o u g h H o b b e s w r o t e t h i s t r e a t i s e

b e f o r e 1 6 4 0 , i t w a s n o t p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 6 4 9 - 1 6 5 0 , a n d t h e n i n a c o r r u p t

v e r s i o n . T h i s w o r k w a s n o t p r i m a r i l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d p a r t

o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f m a n , b u t w i t h t h e t h i r d , o f c i v i l m e n . I t t h u s

a l s o m a r k s t h e f i r s t d e v i a t i o n f r o m a s y s t e m a t i c e x p o s i t i o n a c c o r d i n g

t o h i s o w n p l a n . T h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n E n g l a n d b e t w e e n 1637 a n d

1 6 4 0 , d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e H o b b e s c o m p o s e d t h e E l e m e n t s , w a s d i r e ; t h e

w i d e n i n g r i f t b e t w e e n K i n g a n d P a r l i a m e n t c a u s e d H o b b e s t o n e g l e c t

t h e f i r s t t w o p a r t s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y , t h e p h y s i c s a n d p s y c h o l o g y ,

a n d i n s t e a d t o p r o v i d e a b r i e f t r e a t i s e o n p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h

w o u l d b e o f m o s t i m m e d i a t e u s e t o E n g l a n d .

T h e p r e c e d e n t o f d e f e r r i n g a f u l l e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l

p h i l o s o p h y w a s t o b e f o l l o w e d t h r o u g h m u c h o f t h e E n g l i s h p o l i t i c a l

1- c r i s i s . H o b b e s p u b l i s h e d a t r a n s l a t i o n o f D e C i v e i n 1651, t h e s a m e

y e a r t h a t h e p u b l i s h e d L e v i a t h a n . I n o r d e r t o m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

o f t h e E n g l i s h p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , h e c o m p o s e d t h e L e v i a t h a n , h i s

g r e a t e s t p o l i t i c a l w o r k a n d r e n o v a t e d a n d t r a n s l a t e d D e C i v e , f i r s t

p u b l i s h e d i n L a t i n 1 6 4 2 , w h i c h i n c l u d e d h i s e a r l i e r p o l i t i c a 1 t h o u g h t .

O n c e m o r e t h e n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y h a d t o b e d e f e r r e d . D e C o r p o r e ,

t h e f i r s t p a r t o f H o b b e s 1 p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m , w a s n o t f i n i s h e d u n t i l

1 6 5 4 , a n d w a s p u b l i s h e d i n L a t i n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . D e H o m i n e ,

w h i c h H o b b e s s a i d i n c l u d e d t h e m o s t p r o f i t a b l e p a r t o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ,

and upon w h i c h he had worked s i n c e a t l e a s t 1646, was n o t p u b l i s h e d

u n t i l I658, a g a i n i n L a t i n . The L a t i n works were a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o l a r s

and s c i e n t i s t s ; t h e p o l i t i c a l works were p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h i n o r d e r

t o r e a c h a l a r g e r and l e s s e d u c a t e d a u d i e n c e , ^

The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f Hobbes 1 Elements o f P h i l o s o p h y , De C o r p o r e ,

d e a l s o n l y b r i e f l y w i t h s e n s a t i o n and animal m o t i o n . De Homine, i n

w h i c h Hobbes had pro m i s e d h i s long d e f e r r e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l

d i s c u s s i o n o f man, proved t o be a c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s e a r l y o p t i c a l

t h e o r y w i t h , a c c o r d i n g t o R o b e r t s o n , "a few c h a p t e r s on t o p i c s o f

human n a t u r e appended i n excuse o f the t i t l e " i n w h i c h " t h e r e was l i t t l e g

i f a n y t h i n g , t o w h i c h he had not g i v e n r e p e a t e d e x p r e s s i o n before, 1' 1 I t

i s p o s s i b l e t h a t Hobbes had d e f e r r e d work on De Homine f a r too l o n g .

W h i l e he l i k e l y s t a r t e d t h i s s e c t i o n o f h i s work as e a r l y as 1646,

n o t h i n g was r e a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d f o r a l m o s t ten y e a r s , by w h i c h time

Hobbes was not o n l y a p a l s i e d o l d man, but he was a l s o u s i n g much o f

h i s energy d e b a t i n g and d e f e n d i n g h i s p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y a g a i n s t h i s many c r i t i c s , and h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y a g a i n s t h i s opponent Dr.

W a l l i s . I t i s not so s u r p r i s i n g t h e n , t h a t the work on human n a t u r e

and t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f human n a t u r e t o c i v i l

government do not appear t o f u l f i l l Hobbes' e a r l i e r p r o m i s e s . In o r d e r

t o g a i n some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p s y c h o l o g y and p h y s i o l o g y , i t i s

n e c e s s a r y t o g l e a n the p a r t s o f t h i s t h e o r y from t h e v a r i o u s works i n

w h i c h they r e p o s e . T h i s i s not t o s u g g e s t t h a t such s e c t i o n s a r e

i n s i g n i f i c a n t o r too s p a r s e however, f o r even i n h i s most p o l i t i c a l l y

d i d a c t i c work,. L e v i a t h a n , Hobbes remained t r u e t o h i s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n s

and gave a d e s c r i p t i o n o f p h y s i o l o g y t h a t i s v e r y d i r e c t and unambiguous,

i f f a r from c o m p l e t e .

The S h o r t T r a c t on F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s shows Hobbes u s i n g m e c h a n i s t i c

axioms and p r o c e e d i n g l o g i c a l l y t o c o n c l u s i o n s about p h y s i c s and about

man. The t h i r d s e c t i o n o f t h i s s h o r t paper o f f e r s ten p r i n c i p l e s c o n c e r n i n g

s e n s a t i o n and t e n c o n c l u s i o n s based on t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s . ' ^

He t h e o r i z e s t h a t the motion o f t h e b o d i e s o f l i v i n g t h i n g s , ('animate

m o t i o n ' ) , must r e s u l t from some i n t e r i o r m o t i o n s , and he c a l l s t h e s e

m a t e r i a l i n t e r n a l m o t i v e a g e n t s 'animal s p i r i t s ' . S i n c e the (human)

body moves sometimes but not a l w a y s , the motions t h a t the animal s p i r i t s

i mpart come not from an i n h e r e n t power t o move, but r a t h e r from some

where e l s e , t h a t i s the animal s p i r i t s a r e moved by some e x t e r n a l

m a t t e r and i n t u r n move p a r t s o f the body. Hobbes c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t

i s the ' s p e c i e s ' o f e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s , t h a t i s , the m a t e r i a l e m i s s i o n s

from o b j e c t s t h a t make c o n t a c t and c o l l i d e w i t h the b o d i e s ' s u b s t a n c e

and cause m o t i o n s i n t h e organs o f sense which i s s e n s a t i o n and v a r i o u s l y

w i t h as w e l l as w i t h o u t the m e d i a t i o n o f the b r a i n cause motion o f 12 . . . 1 3

the animal s p i r i t s . S e n s a t i o n , i n f a c t , i s the motion o f the s p i r i t s .

S i m i l a r l y , comprehension o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s d e f i n e d i n terms o f motion

o n l y s i n c e comprehension and u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e n o t h i n g more than s e n s a t i o n s .

Good and Bad (Mallum) a r e d e f i n e d as m o t i o n s ; something, i s good w h i c h

causes motion toward i t s e l f , something i s bad w h i c h causes a r e p u l s i o n

i n the body. M o t i o n toward an o b j e c t i s c a l l e d a p p e t i t e . Hobbes

has, i n the S h o r t T r a c t , d e v e l o p e d the m e c h a n i s t i c b a s i s o f h i s p s y c h o l

o g i c a l t h e o r y . He began w i t h t h e p o s t u l a t e t h a t s e n s a t i o n i s m e r e l y

l o c a l m o t i o n , the animal s p i r i t s moved by e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s , and s i n c e ,

Hobbes s a y s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and comprehension a r e s i m p l y c o m b i n a t i o n s

o f i d e a s w h i c h a r e i n t u r n m erely c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s e n s a t i o n s , under

s t a n d i n g i s l o c a l motion i n the body. He had taken the f i r s t s t e p

toward e x p l a i n i n g a l l o f human m e n t a t i o n and ' s o u l ' i n terms o f m a t t e r

i n m otion.

The p e r v a d i n g theme o f the S h o r t T r a c t may be summed up t h u s :

" b o t h the e x t e r n a l and the i n t e r n a l a c t o f sense and t h e h i g h e r , p s y c h i c

f u n c t i o n s d e r i v e d t h e r e from a r e l o c a l motion and n o t h i n g but l o c a l

m o t i o n . " ^

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t Hobbes had d e v e l o p e d t h e s e

c o n c l u s i o n s a t an e a r l y s t a g e i n h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l c a r e e r , perhaps

by 1630, and p r i o r t o h i s e n l i g h t e n i n g t h i r d t r i p t o t h e C o n t i n e n t 16

(1634-1637) on w h i c h he met G a l i l e o , The b a s i s f o r Hobbes 1 m e c h a n i c a l

c o n c e p t i o n o f n a t u r e was l i k e l y a r r i v e d a t about t e n y e a r s b e f o r e the

p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s f i r s t p o l i t i c a l work.

The m e c h a n i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f Hobbes' p h i l o s o p h i c a l p l a n i s a p p a r e n t

i n the Elements o f Law, d a t e d i n the d e d i c a t o r y l e t t e r May 9, 1640.

Hobbes d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l the m e c h a n i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n o f e v e n t s t h a t

r e s u l t s i n s e n s a t i o n . A l u c i d o b j e c t c o n t r a c t s and d i l a t e s p h y s i c a l l y

(Hobbes s a i d ) , and moves the medium around i t , w h i c h motion proceeds

to the eye, the s p i r i t s i n the o p t i c n e r v e , and t h e n c e the b r a i n .

From the b r a i n t h e s e motions o f f l u i d s rebound outward through t h e n e r v e s

and t h u s , because o f the rebound, a l t h o u g h the motion i s a c t u a l l y w i t h i n

our b o d i e s , the s e n s a t i o n seems t o have a s o u r c e o u t s i d e , the o b j e c t 17 18 o f sense. The s u b j e c t i v i t y o f s e n s a t i o n i s summarized i n t h i s way:

Whatsoever a c c i d e n t s o r q u a l i t i e s o u r senses make us t h i n k t h e r e be i n t h e w o r l d , they a r e not t h e r e , but a r e seemings and a p p a r i t i o n s o n l y . The t h i n g s t h a t r e a l l y a r e i n the w o r l d w i t h o u t us, a r e t h o s e motions by w h i c h t h e s e seemings a r e caused.

Hobbes n e x t c a r r i e s mechanism i n t o the e x p l a n a t i o n o f the h i g h e r

f a c u l t i e s o f the mind. He e x p l a i n e d i m a g i n a t i o n as " c o n c e p t i o n r e m a i n i n g ,

and by l i t t l e and l i t t l e d e c a y i n g from and a f t e r the a c t o f s e n s e . "

The m o t i on w i t h i n o u r b o d i e s was thought t o r e v e r b e r a t e , d e c a y i n g

s l o w l y , sometimes overwhelmed by f r e s h e r m otions o r s e n s o r y s t i m u l i ,

and o t h e r t i m e s , as i n s l e e p , a p p e a r i n g as dreams. He e x p l a i n e d memory 20

as r e p e a t e d sense: •'j When the c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e same t h i n g cometh a g a i n , we t a k e n o t i c e t h a t i t i s a g a i n * t h a t i s t o s a y , t h a t we have had the same c o n c e p t i o n b e f o r e ; w h i c h i s as much as t o imagine a t h i n g p a s t ; w h i c h i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s e n s e , w h i c h i s o n l y o f t h i n g s p r e s e n t .

The s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n c e p t i o n s i n t h e mind, When o r d e r l y i n manner,

i s d i s c o u r s e o f the mind. When such d i s c o u r s e i s remembered i t i s

c a l l e d e x p e r i e n c e , and from e x p e r i e n c e c o n c l u s i o n s may be made, Hobbes

went on t o o u t l i n e h i s t h e o r y o f knowledge and language, a n o m i n a l i s t i c

t h e o r y w h i c h depends upon m e c h a n i s t i c bases. T h i s t h e o r y w i l l be d i s

c u s s e d i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n .

Of more immediate imp o r t a n c e t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y i s the

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a p p e t i t e and a v e r s i o n . T h i s i d e a , o u t l i n e d i n t h e

S h o r t T r a c t , i s expanded and used t o d e s c r i b e human m o t i v a t i o n s .

The m otions w h i c h cause c o n c e p t i o n o r s e n s a t i o n a r e thought not t o

s t o p i n the b r a i n , but t o f o l l o w a p a t h t o the h e a r t , and once t h e r e 21

e i t h e r h e l p o r h i n d e r 'i'tbat motion w h i c h i s c a l l e d v i t a l . " I f v i t a l

m o tion i s enhanced, the s e n s a t i o n i s p l e a s u r a b l e , i f " i t i s h i n d e r e d

then p a i n i s f e l t . The tendency to draw p h y s i c a l l y toward p l e a s u r a b l e

and away from p a i n f u l ' o b j e c t s o f sense' i s termed (as i n o r d i n a r y

speech) ' a p p e t i t e ' o r ' [ a v e r s i o n 1 , A l l o f the f e e l i n g s o r p a s s i o n s

o f man can be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f the v a r i o u s a v e r s i o n s o r a p p e t i t e s ,

and Hobbes goes on t o d e s c r i b e shame, c o u r a g e , a n g e r , l o v e , l u s t and

many o t h e r human p a s s i o n s and emotions i n t h e s e terms, r e d u c i n g them

a l l t o a p p e t i t e and a d v e r s i o n , w h i c h i s i t s e l f reduced t o t h e a c t u a l

p h y s i c a l enhancement o r i n h i b i t i o n o f v i t a l m o t i o n . I t i s t h i s mechan

i s t i c b a s i s o f the l i f e o f men and the w o r k i n g s o f men's minds t h a t

Hobbes uses t o f o r m u l a t e a s c i e n c e o f human i n t e r a c t i o n o r p o l i t i c s 22

i n t he l a t t e r h a l f o f Elements o f Law.

Thus i n the Elements o f Law, Hobbes de m o n s t r a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t

t i me h i s f u l l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p l a n . J u s t p r i o r t o 1640, w r i t i n g contemp

o r a r i l y w i t h D e s c a r t e s , Hobbes had formed h i s own t h e o r y i n the emerging

t r a d i t i o n t h a t B o y l e would l a t e r name t h e "mechan i c a l f o r c o r p u s c u l a r )

p h i l o s o p h y o f n a t u r e , " i n w h i c h a l l n a t u r a l phenomena woul d be e x p l a i n e d 23

i n terms o f the "two c a t h o l i c p r i n c i p l e s " , m a t t e r and m o t i o n .

There a r e some p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t developments i n Hobbes'

thought from 1630 t o 1640. In 1630 Hobbes was t a k i n g h i s f i r s t s t e p s

away from s c h o l a s t i c i s m , s t i l l u s i n g some s c h o l a s t i c language and

t r a d i t i o n a l l o g i c a l methods but r e j e c t i n g A r i s t o t e l i a n forms and q u a l -24

i t i e s . By 1640 Hobbes had taken the i m p o r t a n t l o g i c a l s t e p ( n ot

ye t c l e a r l y s t a t e d i n the S h o r t T r a c t ) , o f e x t e n d i n g mechanism t o

a l l phenomena o f animate b o d i e s i n c l u d i n g l i f e , t h o ught and mind.

Whereas Hobbes' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s such as D e s c a r t e s and Gassendi

m a i n t a i n e d the e x i s t e n c e o f an i m m a t e r i a l s o u l , f o r r e l i g i o u s as w e l l

as p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e a s o n s , Hobbes saw no need f o r such c o n s t r u c t s and 25

was a p p a r e n t l y u n a f r a i d t o say so. F u r t h e r m o r e , w h i l e D e s c a r t e s

gave us the d e s c r i p t i o n o f a m e c h a n i c a l a n a l o g o f Man i n s p i r e d by t h e

h y d r a u l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d automatons a t S t . Germain-en-Laye, he r e s e r v e d

26 f o r t he s o u l t h e g o v e r n i n g , a n i m a t i n g r o l e i n the b o d i l y economy.

Hobbes gave a s i m p l e r m e c h a n i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f man by d e s c r i b i n g a

mechanism as s e l f g o v e r n i n g ; an o r g a n i s m w i l l move toward s t i m u l i

w h i c h enhance i t s v i t a l motion and away from t h o s e t h a t reduce t h i s

m o tion. L i k e a machine w i t h f eedback mechanisms, o r g a n i s m s seek t o

enhance t h e i r v i t a l m o t i o n s .

C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , L e v i a t h a n was the n e x t p u b l i s h e d o f Hobbes 1

works d e a l i n g w i t h p h y s i o l o g y . T h i s work was w r i t t e n p r i m a r i l y

as Hobbes 1 p o l i t i c a l magnum opus i n re s p o n s e t o the i n c r e a s i n g s t r i f e

i n E ngland i n 1651. Hobbes c a l l e d i t a " d i s c o u r s e o f c i v i l and e c c l e s i a s

t i c a l government, o c c a s i o n e d by the d i s o r d e r s o f the p r e s e n t t i m e "

i n t e n d e d " t o s e t b e f o r e men's eyes the mutual r e l a t i o n between p r o t e c -28

t i o n and obedience.';' A l t h o u g h Hobbes s t a t e d i n the c o n c l u s i o n t o

L e v i a t h a n , " I hope t o r e t u r n t o my i n t e r r u p t e d s p e c u l a t i o n o f b o d i e s

n a t u r a l , " he had n e v e r t h e l e s s i n c l u d e d i n L e v i a t h a n a b r i e f o u t l i n e

o f h i s m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i o l o g y as t h e b a s i s f o r h i s s c i e n c e o f human 29

n a t u r e and p o l i t i c s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h the axiom t h a t " l i f e i s but a motion

30 o f the l i m b s " and d i s c u s s e s as:havi:ng an a r t i f i c i a l l i f e automa t a . s i mi 1 a r

31 t o t h o s e mentioned by D e s c a r t e s . "What i s the h e a r t but a s p r i n g and the n e r v e s but so many s t r i n g s ; and t h e j o i n t s , but so many w h e e l s ,

g i v i n g motion t o the whole body." The language used by Hobbes i s

f a m i l i a r ; he has taken the macrocosmic c l o c k metaphor o f a c l o c k w o r k

u n i v e r s e c o n s t r u c t e d and run by the master A r t i f i c e r , and a p p l i e d i t

to t he microcosm o f man's body. T h i s i n i t s e l f was n o t a no v e l i n n o v a t i o n .

D e s c a r t e s had used the language o f the c l o c k metaphor i n much the

same f a s h i o n when d e s c r i b i n g b o d i l y a n i m a t e m o t i o n , D e s c a r t e s ' d e f i n i t i o n

o f a l i v i n g t h i n g r e q u i r e d t h r e e t h i n g s : f i r s t the c o r p o r e a l s t r u c t u r e ,

t h a t 15,3 s u i t a b l e arrangement o f m a t t e r ; second t h e motion o f the

p a r t s o f p a r t i c l e s o f t h a t body i n v o l v e d i n c e r t a i n ' l i f e f u n c t i o n '

(e.g. d i g e s t i o n , r e s p i r a t i o n e t c . ) ; and, f i n a l l y , an i n t e r n a l i z e d

p r i n c i p l e o f motion o f t h e s e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h might be l i k e n e d t o the 33

i n t e r n a l i z e d p r i n c i p l e o f motion o f a wound c l o c k s p r i n g .

Thomas Hobbes' c o n c e p t i o n o f a l i v i n g t h i n g i s s i m i l a r : " l i f e

i s but a motion o f l i m b s , t h e b e g i n n i n g w hereof i s i n some p r i n c i p a l 34

p a r t w i t h i n . " There a r e some v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between

the c o n c l u s i o n s o f Hobbes and D e s c a r t e s , however. For b o t h , t h e e n t i t y

t h a t ^ s o t o speak, winds the m a i n s p r i n g o f both man and u n i v e r s e i s God.

For D e s c a r t e s , God not o n l y c o n s t r u c t s but a l s o r e g u l a t e s and m a i n t a i n s

the u n i v e r s e t h a t He b u i l t . For Hobbes, God must e x i s t s i n c e t h e r e

must be a f i r s t c a u s e , but He m e r e l y assembled the u n i v e r s a l machine

and then gave the macrocosmic pendulum i t s f i r s t p ush, t h e n c e f o r t h 35

a l l o w i n g the u n i v e r s e t o p r o c e e d on i t s m e c h a n i c a l way. D e s c a r t e s

w r o t e to Henry More i n 1649, and s a i d "There a r e two d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s

o f o u r m o v e m e n t — v i z . , one which i s p l a i n l y m e c h a n i c a l and c o r p o r e a l , 36

. . . t h e o t h e r i n c o r p o r e a l , t h a t i s t o s a y , mind...." Hobbes took

the p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t but r e l i g i o u s l y dangerous and p h i l o s o

p h i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t s t a n d t h a t o n l y m a t t e r and motion a r e needed to

e x p l a i n a l l t h i n g s ; t h e r e i s no n e c e s s i t y t o p o s t u l a t e a s o u l o r any

o t h e r i m m a t e r i a l e n t i t i e s . T h i s b e l i e f s e t Hobbes a p a r t from contemp

o r a r y p h i l o s o p h e r s who were u n w i l l i n g t o f o l l o w t h e l o g i c o f t h e m e c h a n i s t i c

p h i l o s o p h y t o such an u n p a l a t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , an i d e o l o g i c a l r e c a l c i

t r a n c e t h a t w i l l be s e e n , i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , t o i n f l u e n c e p h y s i o l o g i s t s

a s w e l 1 ,

H o b b e s p r o c e e d e d t o g i v e a c o n c i s e a c c o u n t o f s e n s a t i o n a n d t h o u g h t

i n L e v i a t h a n w h i c h i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e a s t h a t g i v e n i n t h e

E l e m e n t s o f L a w . T h e n o m i n a l i s t i c a c c o u n t o f s p e e c h a n d n a m e s i s m o r e

f u l l y d e s c r i b e d , a n d t h e s e c t i o n * o f p a s s i o n s * i s e x p a n d e d . T h e p r o s e

o f L e v i a t h a n s e e m s m o r e p o l i s h e d , a n d s o m e o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

p a s s i o n s a r e e n g a g i n g l y a p t . T h e r e i s a s e c t i o n o n k n o w l e d g e w h i c h

w a s n o t a p a r t o f E l e m e n t s o f L a w a n d w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e h a d s o m e

e f f e c t o n d i s c u s s i o n s o f s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o l o g y l a t e i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . T h e m a j o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g y w a s i n t e n d e d f o r D e H o m i n e ,

h o w e v e r , a n d s i n c e H o b b e s t h o u g h t t h e p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y m o s t i m p o r t a n t

a t t h e t i m e , a f u l l e r a r t i c u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y w a s a g a i n

d e f e r r e d .

W h e n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f H o b b e s 1 p h i l o s o p h y w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 1654

a s D e C o r p o r e , t h e e p i s t l e d e d i c a t o r y c i t e d p h y s i c i a n s , " t h e o n l y t r u e

n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y o f o u r m o s t l e a r n e d m e n o f t h e C o l l e g e

o f P h y s i c i a n s i n L o n d o n " a s t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f a d v a n c e i n t h e s c i e n c e

o f h u m a n b o d i e s . F o r h i s o w n p a r t , h o w e v e r , H o b b e s o n c e a g a i n

d e f e r r e d m o s t o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f m a n . H e d i d i n c l u d e s i x c h a p t e r s

o n o p t i c s w h i c h h e h a d w r i t t e n s i x y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y a n d o f t h e r e m a i n i n g 39

p o r t i o n s t i l l t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d h e s a i d : T h e r e s t s h a l l , a s s o o n a s 1 c a n , b e a d d e d t o i t ; t h o u g h b y t h e c o n t u m e l i e s a n d p e t t y i n j u r i e s o f s o m e u n s k i l f u l m e n , I k n o w a l r e a d y , b y e x p e r i e n c e , h o w m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n k s w i l l

b e d u e t h a n p a i d m e , f o r t e l l i n g m e n t h e t r u t h o f w h a t m e n a r e . :

T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f h u m a n n a t u r e t h a t H o b b e s h a d g i v e n i n L e v i a t h a n

h a d a l r e a d y b r o u g h t m u c h c r i t i c i s m f r o m h i s p e e r s .

I n c h a p t e r 25 o f D e C o r p o r e , H o b b e s o n c e m o r e s t a t e s h i s m e c h a n i s t i c

p r i n c i p l e o f the s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l i v i n g b e i n g s . He s a i d t h a t

v i t a l m o t i o n , the motion o f b l o o d c i r c u l a t e d by the h e a r t was a f f e c t e d

by s e n s o r y i n p u t and t h a t the organs " w i l l be d i s p o s e d t o g u i d e t h e

s p i r i t s i n such manner as co n d u c e t h most t o the p r e s e r v a t i o n and

aug m e n t a t i o n o f t h a t m o t i o n . " T h i s s t r i v i n g t o enhance v i t a l m otion

and thus m i n i m i z e p a i n , ( a p p e t i t e and a v e r s i o n ) , i s the g o v e r n i n g

f o r c e i n a l l animal m o t i o n . Men a r e s e t a p a r t not by a s o u l but by

p o s s e s s i n g speech and the a b i l i t y t o name t h i n g s w h i c h e n t a i l s p a s s i o n s

not s h a r e d w i t h o t h e r a n i m a l s . For Hobbes, t h e s o - c a l l e d human s o u l

i s t h e same as l i f e , t h a t i s the c o l l e c t i v e f a c u l t i e s and motions and 4 l

make-up o f an i n d i v i d u a l .

The d o c t r i n e t h a t men a r e r u l e d by a p p e t i t e and a v e r s i o n i n a

s t r i c t l y m e c h a n i c a l f a s h i o n had d i r e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r any b e l i e f i n

f r e e w i l l . Hobbes s a i d t h a t man had no g r e a t e r freedom i n w i l l i n g 4 2

o r not w i l l i n g than a n i m a l s , t h a t i s / h a v e no f r e e w i l l , and such

arguments had b r o u g h t i n t e n s e c r i t i c i s m from c l e r i c s l i k e B i s h o p B r a m h a l l .

Hobbes s t o o d by h i s c o n c l u s i o n s i n the f a c e o f a l l c r i t i c i s m , h o w e v e r ,

and defended h i s views i n Of L i b e r t y and N e c e s s i t y (165*0 and An Answer

to Dr. Bramhal1, r e i t e r a t i n g i n each, the m a t e r i a l i s t and m e c h a n i c a l 4 3

bases f o r h i s p s y c h o l o g y .

F i n a l l y , i n I658, Hobbes p u b l i s h e d De Homine, the second p a r t

o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y . I t c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g new from the p h y s i o l o g i c a l

v i e w p o i n t and, i n f a c t , the f i r s t h a l f o f the work c o n s i s t s o f e s s e n t i a l l y

the same o p t i c a l t h e o r y as was i n c l u d e d i n De C o r p o r e . The second

h a l f i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e l i g i o n and a u t h o r i t y and a c h a p t e r on emotions

w h i c h r e p e a t s e a r l i e r work. The d e d i c a t o r y l e t t e r t o De Homine i s

w o r t h q u o t i n g a t some l e n g t h f o r t h e l i g h t i t c a s t s on Hobbes 1 a t t i t u d e

t o h i s work and the n e c e s s i t y f o r h i s c o n t i n u e d a c t i v e advocacy o f h i s

t h e o r i e s :

The f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s s e c t i o n was long s i n c e ready f o r t h e p r e s s . "Why t h e n , " you may a s k , " s i n c e the remainder was ea s y , have we had t o a w a i t p u b l i c a t i o n so lo n g ? What have you been d o i n g i n the meantime?" I r e p l y , " I have been f i g h t i n g t he b e a s t s . " For I too have my Deme t r i u s e s and A l e x a n d e r s , whose t r i f l i n g works 1 am t h o u g h t , though f a l s e l y , t o w i s h to oppose. Y e t s i n c e I had t o answer t h e i r c l a m o r i n g s and i n s u l t s , t he l o n g , drawn-out c o n t r o v e r s y hath caused e x c e s s i v e ^ d e l a y i n p u b l i c a t i o n . I had d e c i d e d t h a t , when t h e s e Elements were f i n i s h e d , 1 would c a s t my pen a s i d e . But when I see the c u r r e n t manners o f t h o s e t h a t t e a c h s c i e n c e , I c a s t t h i s hope a s i d e and r e t a i n my pen; f o r p e r a d v e n t u r e t h e s e t h i n g s may a l s o have t o be defended.

Hobbes, by 1658, had embarked upon the d i s p u t e s w i t h W a i l i s o v e r

mathematics t h a t would c o n t i n u e f o r twenty y e a r s , and he had become 46

i n v o l v e d i n the c u r r e n t r e f o r m c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s .

Hobbes' mathematics was d o u b t f u l , and the reasons f o r h i s i l l - f o u n d e d

but dogged d e f e n s e a r e a m a t t e r f o r s p e c u l a t i o n . He may have f e l t

t h a t t o be found i n e r r o r i n one a r e a would impugn h i s r e p u t a t i o n

i n o t h e r a r e a s , a r e p u t a t i o n w h i c h he always j e a l o u s l y , i f immodestly 47

guarded. In any c a s e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t Hobbes f e l t v e r y s t r o n g l y

about t h e s e m a t t e r s i n h i s l a t e r l i f e , and w h i l e p o l i t i c a l e x p e d i e n c y

had f o r so long d e f e r r e d h i s f i n a l work on p s y c h o l o g y , so may the

d i s t r a c t i o n o f h i s l a t t e r d ebates have caused an abridgement o f t h e

f i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n .

I f the f i n a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f the l i n k between b i o l o g i c a l and c i v i l

t h e o r y i s w a n t i n g , however, Hobbes n e v e r t h e l e s s was c o n s i s t e n t l y

f a i t h f u l t o h i s g e n e r a l p l a n o f m e c h a n i s t i c b i o l o g y . H i s view o f

mind and s o u l as c o n s i s t i n g o f m a t t e r and motion b r o u g h t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e

c r i t i c i s m . S i n c e the s o u l must cease t o e x i s t when v i t a l motion c e a s e s

( i . e . d e a t h ) , t o be r e c o n s t i t u t e d by God on judgement day a c c o r d i n g 48

t o Hobbes, Hobbes was p a t e n t l y a m o r t a l i s t . S i n c e Hobbes thought

t h a t an ' i m m a t e r i a l s p i r i t ' was a c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n terms and t h a t

God i s s u b s t a n t i a l and m a t e r i a l , he was o p e n l y a s a d d u c i s t .

In s p i t e o f the f u r o r caused by h i s p h i l o s o p h y , "Hobbes a t t e m p t e d

a t a s k w h i c h no o t h e r a d h e r e n t o f the new me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y c o n c e i v e d ,

n o t h i n g l e s s than such a u n i v e r s a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f human knowledge

as would b r i n g s o c i e t y and man w i t h i n the same p r i n c i p l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c

e x p l a n a t i o n as were found a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e .

That t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s r e a c t i o n engendered by Hobbes'

t h e o r y i n h i b i t e d t he w i d e r p u b l i c acknowledgement o f the m e r i t o f

h i s p h y s i o l o g y but not the r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t m e r i t w i l l be shown

in t he f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER J.

HOBBES' MECHANICAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Thomas Hobbes, The E n g l i s h Works o f Thomas Hobbes, ed. S i r W i l l i a m M o lesworth (London! John Bohn, 1839) Vol I I x i x - x x .

2 . C.B. MacPherson, The P o l i t i c a l Theory o f P o s s e s s i v e I n d i v i d u a l i s m (New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962) p.9

3- Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works, p. v i i i .

k. See the t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the S h o r t T r a c t , i n Hobbes, i T h e ' E l e m e n t s o f Law N a t u r a l and P o l i t i c , ed. F~ Tonn i e s (London: Frank Cass & Co. L t d . , 1969) pp.204 - 2 1 0 .

5. Hobbes had d i s t r i b u t e d The Elements o f Law by c i r c u l a t i n g i t i n m a n u s c r i p t b e f o r e he f l e d t o the c o n t i n e n t . I t was n e x t p u b l i s h e d i n two p a r t s i n London and t h i s c o r r u p t v e r s i o n was the b a s i s f o r Molesworth's e d i t i o n i n Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works V o l . IV. The f i r s t v e r s i o n p u b l i s h e d from the o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t was t h a t o f T o n n i e s i n 1889. T o n n i e s ' e d i t i o n was used f o r the purposes o f t h i s p a p e r .

6. On Hobbes' d e f e r a l o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y t o meet p o l i t i c a l e x i g e n c i e s see MacPherson's i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n (London: Penguin Books, 1968) p.19-20 and B. G e r t , Man and Ci t i z e n (New Y o r k : Doubleday S Co. L t d . , 1972) p.35-

7. An E n g l i s h v e r s i o n o f De Corpore p u b l i s h e d i n I656 was o n l y p a r t i a l l y c hecked by Hobbes, and De Homine a p p e a r e d , i n p a r t , f o r the f i r s t t ime i n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1972 i n G e r t , Man and C i t i z e n .

8. George C. R o b e r t s o n , Hobbes ( E d i n b u r g h S London: Blackwood and Sons, 1886) p.178.

9 . Hobbes i n 1658 was s e v e n t y y e a r s o l d . He was i n v o l v e d i n a c o n t r o -v e r y w i t h many churchmen such as Seth Ward and B i s h o p B r a m h a l l , F i l m e r , Ross and Lucy, and the i m b r o g l i o w i t h W a l l i s o v e r geometry was b e g i n n i n g t o heat up. The l a s t p o l e m i c s h o t i n t h i s l a t t e r debate was not t o be f i r e d u n t i l Hobbes' n i n e t i e t h y e a r , I 6 7 8 .

10. Only the f i r s t t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s a r e used t o produce c o n c l u s i o n s ; t h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n i s i n c o m p l e t e o r u n f i n i s h e d , c . f . B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes' M e c h a n i c a l C o n c e p t i o n o f Nature (Copenhagen: L e v i n & Munksgaard, 1928) p.32 .

11 . Hobbes' animal s p i r i t s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l f l u i d s w h i c h performed the t a s k o f moving the body's m u s c l e s , and a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as D e s c a r t e s ' h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s .

12. Though Hobbes l a t e r changed h i s t h e o r i e s o f o p t i c s from an e m i s s i o n t o a m e d i u m i s t i c one, the p r i n c i p l e o f t h e sense organs b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y moved from o u t s i d e remained unchanged.

13- On the complex r e a s o n i n g o f s e n s a t i o n see B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes, p . 3 9 f f ; " A c t u a l sense i s a m o t i o n . . . " , Hobbes, S h o r t T r a c t p.2 0 8 .

14. Hobbes, Elements o f Law, p.2 0 9 .

15- F r i t h i o f B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes', p.4 6 .

16. I f B r a n d t ' s d a t i n g o f t h e s h o r t t r a c t i s c o r r e c t , i . e . c . 1 6 3 0 , then MacPherson's a t t r i b u t i o n o f the d i s c o v e r y o f the b a s i c t h e o r y t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s m a t t e r i n motion t o the p e r i o d o f 1 6 3 4 - 1 6 3 7 i n P a r i s w i t h Mersenne and i n F l o r e n c e w i t h G a l i l e o i s i n c o r r e c t . See B r a n d t , Thomas Hobbes'; c . f . MacPherson ed. L e v i a t h a n , p . l 8 .

17- T h i s n o t i o n o f the e x t e r n a l seeming o f s e n s a t i o n s b e i n g the r e s u l t o f a rebound i n motion w i t h i n the body i s a n o v e l one and perhaps i s o r i g i n a l t o Hobbes. W i l l i s n oted t h a t sense i s m i s t a k e n by us t o be a p e r i p h e r a l p r o c e s s when i t r e a l l y t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e b r a i n , but doesn't g i v e an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s . C e r e b r i Anatome, 1 6 6 4 , c i t e d by H. I s l e r , Thomas W i l l i s , New Y o r k , 1968, p.9 3 -

18. Hobbes, Elements o f Law, p.7-

19. I b i d , p.8 .

2 0 . I b i d , p.11 .

2 1 . I b i d . , p.28 V i t a l m o t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t i s not s t a t e d i n the Elements o f Law, i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e f l o w o f the b l o o d . Hobbes s t a t e s t h i s e x p l i c i t l y , g i v i n g due c r e d i t t o Harvey i n De C o r p o r e , Engl ?sh Works V o l . I , p.407-

22. Hobbes even framed the n e c e s s i t y f o r a prime mover o r cause f o r the u n i v e r s e i n m e c h a n i s t i c t e r m s , thus God must be m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t s may not be i n s u b s t a n t i a l . Hobbes, Elements o f Law, pp. 5 3 - 5 5 .

2 3 . R.S. W e s t f a l l , The C o n s t r u c t i o n o f Modern S c i e n c e : Mechanisms and Mechanics (New York"! John W i l e y and Sons, 1971) p.41 .

2 4 . Robert Kargon, Atomism i n England from Har i o t ;.to;.New.ton ( O x f o r d ; C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966) p. 5 5 .

2 5 . I t may be noted t h a t Hobbes d i d not s t a t e t h i s b e l i e f i n any i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c way u n t i l he had s a f e l y f l e d t o France. Elements o f Law was p u b l i s h e d i n 1649 and 1 6 5 0 , p r o b a b l y w i t h o u t Hobbes p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p . v i .

2 6 . D e s c a r t e s s a i d in< the T r e a t i s e o f L i g h t t h a t he would p o r t r a y a p o s s i b l e w o r l d t h a t God c o u l d have c r e a t e d , . h a d he w i s h e d t o c o n s t r u c t a m e c h a n i c a l a n a l o g o f the w o r l d He c r e a t e d i n f a c t . Thomas H a l l , " D e s c a r t e s P h y s i o l o g i c a l Method" J . H i s t . B i o l . 3 ( 1 9 7 0 ) : 7 8 - 7 9 . He c i t e d the automatons o f S t . Germain i n Tra i t e de 1'Homme, T. H a l l t r a n s . ( 1 9 7 2 ) p . 2 1 f f .

2 7 . Of L i b e r t y and N e c e s s i t y was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 6 5 4 , and bo r e the d a t e o f 1646 i n i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , though l a t e r e d i t i o n s changed t h i s t o 1 6 5 2 . T h i s work w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a f t e r L e v i a t h a n .

2 8 . Thomas Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n , p.7 2 8 .

2 9 . I b i d . , p.729- Hobbes s a i d t h a t he i n c l u d e d t h e a c c o u n t o f s e n s a t i o n to " f i l l each p a r t o f my p r e s e n t method," I b i d . , p.8 5 -

3 0 . I b i d . , p.8 1 .

3 1 . V i d e s u p r a , n . 2 6 .

32 . Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n , p.8 1 .

3 3 - MacKenzie,A."A Word About D e s c a r t e s ' M e c h a n i s t i c C o n c e p t i o n o f L i f e , " J . H i s t . B i o l • 8 ( 1 9 7 5 ) :1 , a l s o see D i s c o u r s e on Method.

3 4 . Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n , p.81

3 5 - For r e f e r e n c e t o the argument f o r the n e c e s s i t y o f a m a t e r i a l prime mover, see above n . 2 2 .

3 6 . E.A. Adam and Paul Tannery e d s . , Oeuvres de D e s c a r t e s ( P a r i s : J . V r i n , 1967) 5 , l e t t e r 5 3 7 -

37- For example, f e a r o f i n v i s i b l e power, f e i g n e d by the mind o r imagined from p u b l i c a l l y a l l o w e d t a l e s i s ' r e l i g i o n 1 , i f imagined from t a l e s n ot a l l o w e d , ' s u p e r s t i t i o n ' . " Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n p. 124. L a u g h t e r i s a grima c e caused by a r e a l i z a t i o n o f 'sudden g l o r y 1 when one sees d e f o r m i t y i n a n o t h e r , by comparison whereof they s u d d e n l y a p p l a u d t h e m s e l v e s , p.1 2 5 .

3 8 . T. Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works V o l . I, p . i x .

3 9 . I b i d . , p . x i i .

4 0 . I b i d . , p.407- Hobbes i n c l u d e d i n the c a t e g o r y o f v i t a l motion o t h e r l i f e f u n c t i o n s l i k e r e s p i r a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n , and e x c r e t i o n . T. Hobbes, L e v i a t h a n Chap. VI.

4 1 . I b i d . , p.4 1 0 . Hobbes c i t e s s c r i p t u r e t o s u p p o r t h i s i d e a t h a t s o u l i s the same as l i f e . T. H0M5.es, L e v i a t h a n , p.4 8 4 .

4 2 . I b i d . , p.4 0 9 -

4 3 . T. Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works Vol IV, p p . 2 2 9 - 4 1 2 .

4 4 . Hobbes r e f e r r e d t o h i s complete work i . e . De C o r p o r e , De Homine, and De C i v e c o l l e c t i v e l y as the Elements o f P h i l o s p h y . W i t h the c o m p l e t i o n o f De Homine, Hobbes f e l t h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l system was a c c o m p l i s h e d . W h i l e De Homine has n o t h i n g o f p h y s i o l o g y not c o n t a i n e d i n e a r l i e r w o r k s , some o f Hobbes' th o u g h t s on the p a r t i c u l a r s o f p s y c h o l o g y a r e an advance and e l a b o r a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s work. B. G e r t , Man and Ci t i z e n (New Y o r k : Doubleday & Co. L t d . , 1 9 7 2 ) p.3 .

4 5 . B. G e r t , Man and Ci t i z e n , p.3 5 - 3 6 .

4 6 . Hobbes was d i s c u s s e d i n V i n d i c i a e Academiarum ( 1 6 5 4 ) i n t h i s c o n t e x t .

4 7 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n upon the R e p u t a t i o n , L o y a l t y , Manners and R e l i g i o n o f Thomas Hobbes, London, 1662 i s a n o t a b l e example o f such d e f e n s i v e e s s a y s . T. Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works V o l . IV.

4 8 . Harvey was s i m i l a r l y a c c u s e d o f m o r t a l i s t i c ' b e l i e f s .

4 9 . T. Hobbes, E n g l i s h Works, V o l . IV, p. 60-61 . Sadducism i s the term g i v e n t o a d i s b e l i e f i n i m m a t e r i a l s p i r i t s .

5 0 . G.C. R o b e r t s o n , "Hobbes" i n E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t t a n n i c a , 1 1 t h e d . , X I I I , p.5 5 2 .

CHAPTER ( I

HOBBES AND THE ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS

The c e n t r e s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l thought i n England i n t h e p e r i o d

1640-1680 were i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y w e l l d e f i n e d . When E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y

began t o grow i n t h e 1650s, i t blossomed p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the u n i v e r s i t y

a t O x ford and under the a u s p i c e s o f t h e Royal C o l l e g e o f P h y s i c i a n s

i n London. P h y s i o l o g i c a l s t u d y grew i n p a r a l l e l w i t h the a c c e p t a n c e

o f t h e new m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y .

W i l l i a m Harvey, an a u t h o r i t y c i t e d by Hobbes i n s u p p o r t o f a p o i n t

i n m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i o l o g y , on the h e a r t and c i r c u l a t i o n , was c e r t a i n l y

not a m e c h a n i s t , though he used some m e c h a n i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s and language

i n h i s s t u d y o f the c i r c u l a t i o n o f the b l o o d J Harvey had been a

G a l e n i s t when f i r s t w r i t i n g i n about 1616, and when he changed h i s

a t t i t u d e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f De Motu C o r d i s i n 2

1628, he changed not t o m e c h a n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y but t o A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m .

The A r i s t o t e l i a n metaphor o f the h e a r t as s o v e r e i g n i n the body was

c e n t r a l t o H a r v e y ' s t h e o r y , and he a l s o used an a s t r o n o m i c a l a l l u s i o n 3

t o the p r i o r i t y o f t h e h e a r t when he compared i t t o t h e sun. I f he

was n e i t h e r f o r nor a g a i n s t mechanism i n the e a r l y y e a r s , by 1649-1651

Harvey had become a devoted a n t i - m e c h a n i s t when t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y

p o p u l a r p h i l o s o p h y c h a l l e n g e d A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m . W h i l e the a u t h o r i t y

and i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by Harvey was n o t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e , the d i r e c t i o n

o f the f u t u r e i n v o l v e d mechanism, T h i s t r e n d Harvey c o u l d o n l y hope

to i n h i b i t t e m p o r a r i l y ; ^ I t became c l e a r t h a t a l m o s t e v e r y p h y s i o l o g i s t a f t e r Harvey t r i e d t o work out some p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the l a t e s t

development i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , and i t was t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , not the a t t e m p t e d s o l u t i o n o f a s e t o f c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h problems, t h a t d e t e r m i n e d the p a t t e r n o f development o f E n g l i s h p h y s i o l o g y i n the l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h and e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . The key t o p o s t - H a r v e i a n p h y s i o l o g y . . . l a y . . . i n the e v o l v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y t o the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the 'animal oeconomy'."^

In 1 6 4 8 , many o f the members o f B o y l e ' s ' i n v i s i b l e c o l l e g e , 1

a group o f s c i e n t i f i c amateurs, were a p p o i n t e d t o O x f o r d c h a i r s .

These i n c l u d e d John W i l k i n s , John W a l l i s , J o n athan Goddard,^ Seth

Ward, and W i l l i a m P e t t y , who, when j o i n e d by B o y l e , c a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s

the ' v i r t u o s \ ) J T h i s was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a blow t o the e s t a b l i s h e d

c h u r c h by t h e p u r i t a n p a r l i a m e n t ; t h e new a p p o i n t e e s g e n e r a l l y

eschewed A r i s t o t e 1 i a n i s m and were a n t i - c l e r i c a 1 i n a t t i t u d e . A f t e r

1 6 5 0 , under the Commonwealth, the w r i t i n g s o f D e s c a r t e s , Gassendi

and o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s became more g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n E n g l a n d ,

and the e n q u i r i e s i n t o r e s p i r a t i o n and n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y a t O x f o r d

began to i n c l u d e C a r t e s i a n ( m e c h a n i c a l ) e x p l a n a t i o n s , though a mixed

a t t i t u d e toward mechanism was a p p a r e n t .

The f l o u r i s h i n g o f m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a t O x f o r d was b r i e f ;

by I667-I668 most o f the l e a d i n g l i g h t s o f the r e s e a r c h t h e r e had g

l e f t f o r London and the Royal S o c i e t y . By the l a t e 1660s and e a r l y

1 6 7 0 s , the Royal S o c i e t y had members whose a t t i t u d e s ranged from

t r a d i t i o n a l H a r v e i a n through f r a n k l y uncommitted l i k e B o y l e t o

a v i d m e c h a n i s t l i k e W i l l i s o r C h a r l e t o n .

The Royal C o l l e g e o f P h y s i c i a n s was i n a somewhat more i n s e c u r e

p o s i t i o n than the Royal S o c i e t y . F i r s t c r e a t e d i n 1518 t o r e g u l a t e

m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e i n London, by the 1650s the C o l l e g e was under a t t a c k

and under t h r e a t o f l o s i n g t h e i r monopoly by a group c a l l e d the

Company o f A p o t h e c a r i e s . T h i s Company was a group o f p h a r m a c i s t s

who w i s h e d t o expand t h e i r b u s i n e s s t o f i l l t h e v o i d l e f t by the

w o e f u l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t numbers o f p h y s t c f a n s . The C o l l e g e demanded

t h a t : 9

Every a p o t h e c a r y must t a k e an o a t h t o c o n f i n e h i s p r a c t i c e t o d i s p e n s i n g the p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c i a n s o f t h e i r C o l l e g e and t h a t he would not presume, e x c e p t i n emergencies t o o f f e r s e r v i c e o r a d m i n i s t e r t r e a t m e n t t o p a t i e n t s .

D u r i n g the C i v i 1 ' W a r , the Royal C o l l e g e was u n a b l e t o e n f o r c e the u s u a l

s t r i c t u r e s and the Company ( l a t e r S o c i e t y ) o f A p o t h e c a r i e s became s t r o n g e r .

There was an i m p o r t a n t group o f Helmontain c h e m i c a l p h y s i c i a n s , i n c l u d i n g

Marchamont Nedham,^ who a l l i e d t h e mselves w i t h the A p o t h e c a r i e s i n

an a t t e m p t t o break the monopoly o f the C o l l e g e .

T h i s amorphous but i n f l u e n t i a l c o a l i t i o n o f c h e m i s t s and d r u g g i s t s

i n c l u d e d i n t h e i r p o l e m i c armamentarium, the arguments t h a t the

C o l l e g e was t r a d i t i o n - b o u n d and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , as

w e l l as the a l l e g a t i o n t h a t i t s members were i n t e l l e c t u a l l y

i n c a p a b l e o f p r o p e r e n q u i r y . One o f the l e a d e r s . o f the C o l l e g e o f

P h y s i c i a n s was Thomas W i l l i s . W i l l i s was an a c q u a i n t a n c e o f B o y l e ,

a member o f the o l d O x f o r d group i n the f i f t i e s , and an a s s o c i a t e

o f the Royal S o c i e t y i n the s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s . He h i m s e l f was

a d e v o t e d m e c h a n i s t and i a t r o c h e m i s t and h i s s t r a t e g y o f d e f e n s e a g a i n s t

the A p o t h e c a r i e s was t o t u r n t h e i r own arguments a g a i n s t them and

demonstrate t h a t i t was the members o f the Royal C o l l e g e who were most

a b l e and w i l l i n g t o c a r r y out m e d i c a l e n q u i r e , and t h a t t h i s e n q u i r y

was ;best p e rformed by i a t r o c h e m i c a 1 methods. By showing t h a t the

Royal C o l l e g e c o u l d p e r f o r m r e s e a r c h i n the new m e c h a n i c a l i d i o m ,

the members o f the C o l l e g e hoped t o b u t t r e s s t h e i r f l a g g i n g r e p u t a t i o n

a g a i n s t t h e i r c r i t i c s . T h i s mode o f d e f e n s e became e s t a b l i s h e d C o l l e g e

p o l i c y , and W i l l i s w r o t e t h a t '-•'•mechanical means-' would save t h e m e d i c a l

a r t from the " . v i l e s t scum o f the p e o p l e who b a r k a g a i n s t and f l i n g 1 2

d i r t upon P h y s i c k 1 1 .

The Royal S o c i e t y and the Royal C o l l e g e were thus two p r i n c i p a l

f o c i o f m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n i n the l a t t e r h a l f o f the

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . There were a l s o , o f c o u r s e , a number o f men

who were not c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i t h e r o f t h e s e c e n t r e s and y e t

p a r t i c i p a t e d i n f u r t h e r i n g the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y . Some o f t h e s e

men were s c i e n t i f i c a mateurs, o t h e r s were m e d i c a l men, and s t i l l o t h e r s

were r e l i g i o u s men pr o p o u n d i n g mechanism t o f u r t h e r t h e i r t h e o l o g i c a l

b e l i e f s .

S i r Kenelm Digby ( l 6 0 3 - l 6 6 5 ) was one o f the s c i e n t i f i c p h i l o s o p h e r s

who i n f l u e n c e d the e a r l y development o f the me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i n

England. He was a Roman C a t h o l i c v i r t u o s o , s e r v i n g a t one ti m e o r

a n o t h e r as p r i v a t e e r , p h i l o s o p h e r , r o y a l c o u n c i l o r , and p l a y w r i g h t .

He was a l s o a good f r i e n d o f Hobbes, and a member o f Mersenne's group

i n P a r i s . Digby's f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Hobbes t r a n s c e n d e d t h e i r b a s i c

p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s ; t o one God was merely the pr i mum mob i 1 e

and a r c h i t e c t o f the w o r l d machine; t o the o t h e r God was t h e a r c h i t e c t 1 3

o f man's d i v i n e s o u l . T h e i r common ground, however, was t h e i r i n t e r e s t

i n G a s s e n d i ' s a t o m i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y and i n D e s c a r t e s ' new p h i l o s o p h y .

W h i l e Digby may have been an i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f the new p h i l o s o p h y i n England though h i s i n f l u e n c e i n the Royal

S o c i e t y and h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e Mersenne and N e w c a s t l e c i r c l e s ,

t h i s i m p o r t a n c e is c e r t a i n l y o ut o f p r o p o r t i o n t o the w o r t h o f h i s

30 1 4 p u b l i c a t i o n s , w h i c h were o f a c o n s i s t e n t l y a m a t e u r i s h q u a l i t y ,

Digby was f u n d a m e n t a l l y an A r i s t o t e l i a n who i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e m e c h a n i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y i n t o a s y n t h e s i s w h i c h a l l o w e d , i n the H e r m e t i c t r a d i t i o n ,

o c c u l t e l ements and i m m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s such as the s o u l . ' " ' W h i l e

an i m m a t e r i a l s o u l would c e r t a i n l y be defended by Mersenne and many

o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s , the m a g i c a l elements o f H e r m e t i c p h i l o s o p h y had

been a t t a c k e d by many churchmen, i n c l u d i n g M e r s e n n e . I n Two T r e a t i s e s

( 1 6 4 4 ) , Digby u n d e r t o o k t o prove the e x i s t e n c e o f an immortal s o u l

u s i n g h i s t h e o r y o f b o d i e s as a b a s i s . He does t h i s by f i r s t showing

the p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g motion o f b o d i e s , and then a t t e m p t i n g t o show

t h a t the o p e r a t i o n s o f the s o u l cannot be e x p l a i n e d by t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s ,

and t h e r e f o r e the s o u l i s i m m a t e r i a l , and, s i n c e not s u b j e c t t o decay,

i m m o r t a l . ' ^ In o t h e r words, Digby argued t h a t s i n c e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e

s o u l l i k e thought and i m a g i n a t i o n d i d not ( c o n t r a Hobbes) seem t o f o l l o w

p h y s i c a l l a w s , then the s o u l , w h i c h Digby n e v e r q u e s t i o n s the e x i s t e n c e

o f , must be i m m a t e r i a l . T h i s s o r t o f t a u t o l o g i c a l argument was a

p i t f a l l o f many who r e g a r d e d f o r one reason o r o t h e r the e x i s t e n c e

o f s o u l t o be a x i o m a t i c .

Digby t r e a t e d b i o l o g y and p h y s i o l o g y i n a m e c h a n i s t i c , a t o m i s t i c

f a s h i o n . Human s e n s a t i o n i s e x p l a i n e d i n an u n r e f i n e d manner somewhat

r e m i n i s c e n t o f Hobbes i n the S h o r t T r a c t . H e a r i n g i s thought t o f u n c t i o n

by a m e d i u m i s t i c m o t i o n , but the o t h e r senses a r e a l l thought t o f u n c t i o n 18

by r e c e p t i o n o f atoms from the p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t i n the sense o r g a n .

The sense o r g a n s themselves do not s e n s e , says Digby, but channel the

s m a l l atoms o r p a r t i c l e s t o t h e b r a i n , h e l p e d and c a r r i e d by " v i t a l s p i r i t s , "

31 19 w h e r e i n they t h e n c e f o r t h r e s i d e . Dighy i s a l i t t l e vague as t o how

s e n s a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o b o d i l y a c t i o n , but he t h i n k s t h a t the p a r t i c l e s

cause some s o r t o f messages t o be s e n t from the b r a i n t o the body.

The p a s s i o n s a r e e x p l a i n e d i n a s t r i k i n g l y Hobbesian manner. P a r t i c l e s

t r a v e l t o the h e a r t and make i t expand ( j o y ) o r c o n t r a c t ( f e a r , h a t e ,

e t c ) . Digby thus agreed w i t h Hobbes t h a t the h e a r t has an i m p o r t a n t 20

r o l e i n p a s s i o n s , but d i s a g r e e d on t h e s p e c i f i c s o f t h a t r o l e .

For both^men the pass i o n s .are::! i n k e d t o motion o f h e a r t and b l o o d ,

but o n l y f o r Hobbes was s e n s a t i o n and p a s s i o n l i n k e d t o the d r i v i n g

f o r c e o f the b e i n g , the v i t a l motion o f the b l o o d . Digby d e s c r i b e s

the o r i g i n a l p a r t i c l e s o f sense as the v e h i c l e o f memory, w h i c h somehow

repose i n the b r a i n , and wh i c h when s t i r r e d up a g a i n cause t h e o r i g i n a l

s e n s a t i o n s once more.

Digby thus f a r was i n agreement w i t h Hobbes; the f u r t h e r s t e p o f

mec h a n i c a l s o u l was, however, u n t h i n k a b l e . In t h i s he s t o o d w i t h

D e s c a r t e s , s a y i n g t h a t the s o u l "apprehends" o b j e c t s i n some i n d e f i n a b l e

s p i r i t u a l manner. To the q u e s t i o n o f how t h i s can come t o pass w i t h o u t

the m e d i a t i o n o f the senses Digby r e p l i e s , " ! c o n f e s s I s h a l l n ot be

a b l e t o s a t i s f y y ou, but must answer t h a t i t i s done, I know not how, 21

by the power o f the s o u l . " Digby's e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e as u n s a t i s f y i n g

t o us as they were t o h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Faced w i t h the t h e o l o g i c a l

n e c e s s i t y f o r an i m m a t e r i a l , immortal s o u l , Digby was f o r c e d t o admit

t h a t he c o u l d not e x p l a i n any c o n n e c t i o n between t h e s o u l and the body

i n terms o f h i s r a t h e r p o o r l y a r t i c u l a t e d m e c h a n i c a l t h e o r i e s .

Devout C a t h o l i c s were not the o n l y ones t o i n s i s t upon the e x i s t e n c e

o f an i n c o r p o r e a l s o u l ? o f c o u r s e , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the group c a l l e d

the 'Cambridge P l a t g n i s t s ' i s Henry More ( .1614-1687) , an e a r l y E n g l i s h

c o n v e r t t o C a r t e s i a n d o c t r i n e . In h i s e a r l y e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e new

p h i l o s o p h y i n the 1 6 4 0 s , More may have been q u i t e i m p o r t a n t i n i t s 22

d i s s e m i n a t i o n i n England. He c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h D e s c a r t e s i n 1648

and 1 6 4 9 , m o s t l y about the i s s u e o f animal motion and automatism and

animal s o u l , and i t was t h i s i s s u e w h i c h g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o More's

l a t e r v o 1 t e - f a c e and h i s subsequent vehement d e r o g a t i o n o f h i s former 23

i d o l ' s t h e o r i e s . T h i s i s s u e o f animal motion and s o u l , b e a r s d i r e c t l y

upon the r e l a t i o n s o f Hobbes and the Cambridge P l a t o n i s t s .

D e s c a r t e s had d e s c r i b e d a n i m a l s , and t o a degree man, as me c h a n i c a l

automata. In the a n i m a l s , w h i c h l a c k a d i v i n e s o u l , the p r o c e s s o f

s e n s a t i o n i s completed when the s e n s i b l e motions reach the b r a i n ; i n

man, i t i s the s o u l w h i c h i s the f i n a l r e c e p t o r o f s e n s a t i o n , and the

b r a i n m erely the agent o r medium o f the passage o f t h a t s e n s a t i o n .

Thus f o r D e s c a r t e s ' animal machine, s e n s a t i o n c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y o f

ma t t e r and m o t i o n , whereas i n man t h e r e i s the p r o b l e m a t i c i n v o l v e m e n t

o f the i n s u b s t a n t i a l s o u l i n the p r o c e s s o f s e n s a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g

q u o t a t i o n shows t h a t D e s c a r t e s and Hobbes agreed c o m p l e t e l y on what

s e n s a t i o n and motion i n a n i m a l s i s ; Hobbes c a r r i e d t h i s on t o a p p l y 24

to man as w e l l . D e s c a r t e s s t a t e d i n 1 6 4 9 , t h a t he: had g i v e n heed t h a t t h e r e a r e two d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f our movements t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d - - v i z . , one w h i c h i s p l a i n l y m e c h a n i c a l and c o r p o r e a l , w h i c h depends upon the s o l e f o r c e o f the animal s p i r i t s and the c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the body,...the o t h e r i n c o r p o r e a l . . . I sought q u i t e d i l i g e n t l y whether animal movements a r i s e from t h e s e two p r i n c i p l e s , o r s i m p l y from one. When I had c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d t h a t a l l movement c o u l d o r i g i n a t e from the one p r i n c i p l e , t h a t i s t o sa y , the c o r p o r e a l and m e c h a n i c a l one, then I h e l d f o r c e r t a i n and proven t h a t we can i n no way demonstrate any r a t i o n a l s o u l i n b r u t e s . For More,the P l a t o n i s t , s p i r i t s and s o u l have p r i o r i t y o v e r the

p h y s i c a l w o r l d , and m a t t e r i s ' s e n t i e n t 1 , W h i l e the C a r t e s i a n

d u a l i s t i c c o e x i s t e n c e o f m a t e r i a l w o r l d and s p i r i t u a l w o r l d a t f i r s t 26

seemed a t t r a c t i v e t o the Cambridge P l a t o n i s t s , i t became a p p a r e n t

t h a t the two p h i l o s o p h i e s were m e t a p h y s i c a l l y a t v a r i a n c e w i t h each

o t h e r . More f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t D e s c a r t e s ' t h e o r i e s were b a s i c a l l y p r e j u d i c i a l t o r e l i g i o n and t h a t no phenomenon c o u l d be p r o p e r l y

e x p l a i n e d i n p u r e l y m e c h a n i c a l terms. In t h i s P l a t o n i c r e j e c t i o n

o f mechanism More was echoed by h i s f r i e n d and compeer Ralph Cudworth

who s a i d t h a t the C a r t e s i a n s "have an u n d i s c e r n e d tang o f the mechan-28

i c a l l y a t h e i s t i c humour ha n g i n g about them."

The n e o - P l a t o n i s t r e p u d i a t i o n o f m e c h a n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y came in

the 1660s and 1670s, a f t e r Hobbes' major works were p u b l i s h e d , and

one must wonder how much th e c r i t i c i s m was due t o D e s c a r t e s and how

much was~a : r e s u l t o f Hobbes showing them c l e a r l y i n what d i r e c t i o n

such m e c h a n i s t i c r e a s o n i n g c o u l d l e a d . I t was perhaps Hobbes who

was t h e major enemy, and who caused most o f the r e a c t i o n , w h i l e

D e s c a r t e s reaped the c r i t i c i s m thus due any m e c h a n i s t . The

c r i t i c i s m o f D e s c a r t e s was enhanced perhaps by a f e e l i n g o f b e t r a y a l

on the p a r t o f t h o s e Cambridge men who had championed h i s p h i l o s o p h y

i n the 1640s and 1650s, o n l y t o f i n d t o t h e i r dismay t h a t mechanism

was not c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e o l o g y as they had f i r s t t h o u g h t . I t

was c e r t a i n l y Hobbes' s t a t e m e n t t h a t s p i r i t i s "a body n a t u r a l . . . t h a t f i l l e t h up the p l a c e w h i c h the image o f a v i s i b l e body might

29 f i l l up" t h a t e l i c i t e d the response from More t h a t " t o r o o t o u t

t h i s s u l l e n c o n c e i t " o f Hobbes was o f h i g h p r i o r i t y . The Cambridge

P l a t o n i s t s might a g r e e w i t h some o f Hobbes' t h e o r i e s on s e n s a t i o n

and n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , but the m a t e r i a l ism w h i c h d e n i e d t he r u l i n g

s p i r i t s o f the w o r l d , the v i t a e mundi, w h i c h were a v i t a l p a r t o f

n e o - P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e , must be d e p l o r e d , j u s t as t h e C a r t e s i a n m e c h a n i c a l

man must be d e p l o r e d f o r i t s m a t e r i a l i s t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s . W h i l e

D e s c a r t e s c o u l d n o t , o f c o u r s e , c a r r y t he m e c h a n i s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n

to t he e x t e n t o f e x p l a i n i n g a l l t h i n g s i n c l u d i n g mind, the P l a t o n i s t s

saw t h i s l o g i c a l s t e p , o r r a t h e r , had i t f o r c e f u l l y p o i n t e d o u t t o

them by Hobbes.

Joseph G l a n v i l l (1636-1680) was not a member o f the Cambridge

group, but was n e v e r t h e l e s s an a d m i r e r o f Henry More. He was a l s o 31

a churchman and member o f the Royal S o c i e t y . In 1661 G l a n v i l l

p u b l i s h e d h i s f i r s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l work, The V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g ,

o s t e n s i b l y i n t e n d e d as a rebuke t o s c h o l a s t i c s . In f a c t t h i s work

pursues a somewhat a m b i v a l e n t c o u r s e , on the one hand p o i n t i n g o u t

the s t a t e o f i g n o r a n c e o f contemporary thought and on the o t h e r hand championing t h e new m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y and the knowledge g a i n e d

from i t . I t i s w r i t t e n in a g e n e r a l l y s c e p t i c a l ve1n, however, and

t h i s a t t i t u d e i s a p p a r e n t as much i n the d i s c u s s i o n o f the hew m e c h a n i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y as i n the c r i t i c i s m o f the a n c i e n t s ' p h i l o s o p h i e s .

G l a n v i l l i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a number o f s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y

t h i n k e r s caught on t h e horns o f the H o b b i s t - C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s t i c dilemma.

D e s c a r t e s ' pure mind-body d u a l i s m became i n c r e a s i n g l y i r r e c o n c i l a b l e

w i t h t he mec h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h he h i m s e l f had propounded. Many

p h i l o s o p h e r s (and c e r t a i n l y G l a n v i l l , as an o r t h o d o x churchman)

were u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t he extreme Hobb'ist view t h a t t h e r e i s no

i m m a t e r i a l s o u l , , and y e t the a l t e r n a t i v e p r e s e n t e d i m p o s i n g l o g i c a l

p r o b l e m s . I f a n i m m a t e r i a l s o u l e x i s t s , h o w c a n i t i n f l u e n c e t h e

m a t e r t a l b o d y , a n d v i c e v e r s a ? N o m a t t e r w h a t t h e o r y o f s e n s a t i o n

i s p u t f o r t h , t h e p o i n t i s a l w a y s r e a c h e d w h e r e o n e c a n n o t l o g i c a l l y

b r i d g e t h e g u l f b e t w e e n m a t t e r - i n - m o t i o n a n d i m m a t e r i a l m i n d ( o r s o u l ) .

T h e n e w m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y h a d b r o u g h t w i t h i t a p r o b l e m w h i c h

m e n s u c h a s D e s c a r t e s c o u l d n ' t s o l v e . I f o n e i s c o m m i t t e d t o t h e

m e c h a n i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f a l l p h e n o m e n a , o n e i s f a c e d w i t h t h e

p r o b l e m o f w h a t t o d o a b o u t s o u l . T h i s i s a p r o b l e m w h i c h d i d n ' t

e x i s t f o r n o n - m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s .

G l a n v i l l w a s v e r y i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p r o b l e m , a n d s t a t e d i t r a t h e r

3 3 c l e a r l y i n T h e V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g :

F o r b o d y c a n n o t a c t o n a n y t h i n g b u t b y m o t i o n ; m o t i o n c a n n o t b e r e c e i v e d b u t b y q u a n t i t a t i v e d i m e n s i o n ; t h e s o u l i s a s t r a n g e r t o s u c h g r o s s s u b s t a n t i a l i t y , a n d b o t h n o t h i n g o f q u a n t i t y . . . a n d t h e r e f o r e h o w c a n w e c o n c e i v e i t u n d e r a p a s s i v e s u b j e c t i o n t o m a t e r i a l i m p r e s s i o n s ?

H e s a y s t h a t i f s o u l i s c o n s i d e r e d a s p u r e m i n d a n d k n o w l e d g e , a s

b y D i g b y , o r a s a t h i n k i n g s u b s t a n c e , " u n e c h o s e q u i p e n s e " , a s b y

D e s c a r t e s , i t m a k e s i t " a s h a r d t o a p p r e h e n d a s t h a t a n e m p t y w i s h

34 s h o u l d r e m o v e M o u n t a i n s " . S i m i l a r l y , h e d e n i e s h i s f r i e n d H e n r y

M o r e ' s n e o - P l a t o n i s t i d e a t h a t s o u l h a s e x t e n s i o n , t h a t i s l o c a t i o n ,

s i n c e i f s o u l i n d e e d i s e v e r y w h e r e , p e n e t r a t i n g a l l b o d i e s , h o w

c o u l d i t i m p a r t m o t i o n t o b o d i e s ?

G l a n v i l l w a s c l e a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n m e c h a n i c a l p s y c h o l o g y . H e

s i n g l e d o u t f o r d i s c u s s i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m t h e m a j o r c o n t e m p o r a r y

t h e o r i e s o f m e m o r y . B o t h D e s c a r t e s ' t h e o r y i n v o l v i n g p a t h s i n a p o r o u s

b r a i n a n d D i g b y ' s i d e a t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s e n s i b l e p a r t i c l e s s o m e h o w 3 6

l a y a b o u t i n t h e b r a i n h e f o u n d ' u n c o n c e i v a b l e ' . I t i s n o t e w o r t h y

t h a t G l a n v i l l e gave Hobbes the same s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n as he d i d

the esteemed D e s c a r t e s , when he d i s c u s s e d Hobbes' t h e o r y o f memory.

T h i s t h e o r y h e l d t h a t memory (and i m a g i n a t i o n ) were ' d e c a y i n g s e n s e 1 ,

the p e r s i s t i n g v i b r a t i o n i n the b r a i n caused by a s e n s o r y s t i m u l u s .

G l a n v i l l d i d not t h i n k t h a t the s u b s t a n c e o f the b r a i n was o f such

n a t u r e as t o m a i n t a i n such v i b r a t i o n s l i k e a q u i v e r i n g mental j e l l y ,

and even i f t h i s p r e c o n d i t i o n was g r a n t e d , he thought t h a t such a s i t u a t i o n would resemble t r y i n g t o " p l a y a thousand tunes on a l u t e

G l a n v i l l propounded h i s b e l i e f i n man's n e c e s s a r y i g n o r a n c e ,

s a y i n g "We a r e i g n o r a n t o f some t h i n g s from our s p e c i f i c a l i n c a p

a c i t y , as men; o f more from o u r c o n t r a c t e d [ i n c a p a c i t y ] as s i n n e r s : 39

and i t i s no f a u l t i n the s p e c t a c l e s t h a t the b l i n d man sees n o t . "

In t h i s l a s t a l l e g o r i c a l p h r a s e G l a n v i l l was u s i n g the s p e c t a c l e s

t o r e p r e s e n t s c i e n c e , and the b l i n d man t o r e p r e s e n t a l l men, b l i n d e d

t o a degree by t h e i r n a t u r e . H i s s u p p o r t o f t h e method o f the new

p h i l o s o p h y by such a p t s i m i l e s and by h i s b e l i e f i n p a r t s o f t h a t

p h i l o s o p h y were s u f f i c i e n t t o cause c h a r g e s o f a t h e i s m t o be a t t a c h e d

t o him i n s p i t e o f h i s f e r v e n t a n t i - s a d d u c i s t o p i n i o n s . ^

G l a n v i l l ' s P l u s U l t r a (1668) was w r i t t e n i n p a r t t o defend the

a u t h o r a g a i n s t charges o f a t h e i s m , an i n d i c t m e n t o f w h i c h the v i r t u o s i h]

o f the Royal S o c i e t y were e x c e p t i o n a l l y wary. He d i d t h i s by

d e f e n d i n g the l e g i t i m a c y o f the me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y and i t s r e c o n c i l

a b i l i t y t o r e l i g i o n , u s i n g Robert B o y l e as a model o f the S o c i e t y ' s

hi a c h i e v e m e n t s . T h i s work d i d not r e c e i v e i t s i n t e n d e d r e a c t i o n

from a l l q u a r t e r s . M e r i c Casaubon, a l e a r n e d d i v i n e , r e s p o n d e d t o

PI us Ul t r a and G . l a n v i l l by d e p l o r i n g t he tendency t o d i s r e g a r d e t h i c s

and to d e f i n e advancement o f knowledge i n p u r e l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c terms.

He f e l t t h a t such an amoral a t t i t u d e would l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n the 43

a t h e i s m a t t a c h e d t o Hobbes 1 m a t e r i a l i s m .

To p r e v e n t such c r i t i c i s m from m i t i g a t i n g the e f f e c t s o f h i s d e f e n s e

o f the S o c i e t y , G l a n v i l l , when he n e x t ro s e t o t h a t d e f e n s e , p o i n t e d l y

s e p a r a t e d Hobbes from the S o c i e t y v i r t u o s i . He n o t e d t h a t a "Modern

Sadducee ("Hobbes^ p r e t e n d s t h a t a l l t h i n g s we do a r e performed by

meer m a t t e r and motion and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h a t t h e r e i s no such t h i n g 44

as an i m m a t e r i a l b e i n g . " He f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t the m a j o r i t y

o f the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a d m i t t e d the e x i s t e n c e o f an i m m a t e r i a l

s o u l : "Thus f a r I dare say I may u n d e r t a k e f o r most o f the

C o r p u s c u l a r i a n P h i l o s o p h e r s o f o u r t i m e s , e x c e p t i n g t h o s e [men] o f 45

Mr. Hobb's way." The f u r y s t i r r e d up by Hobbes had th u s a f f e c t e d

a l l a d h e r e n t s o f the me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f such t h i n k e r s i n the Royal S o c i e t y .

W i l l i a m P e t t y ( 1 6 2 3 - 1 6 8 7 ) , was a n o t h e r member o f the Royal S o c i e t y

who was i n t e r e s t e d i n mec h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y . In the 1640s P e t t y

had been i n t r o d u c e d t o the N e w c a s t l e c i r c l e by h i s f r i e n d John P e l l ,

a m a t h e m a t i c i a n . I t was he r e t h a t he f i r s t d e v e l o p e d an i n t e r e s t

i n p h y s i c s ; he became a good f r i e n d o f Hobbes, and drew t h e diagrams 1 46

f o r Hobbes o p t i c a l t r e a t i s e s . When i n 1674 P e t t y p r e s e n t e d h i s

o n l y n o t a b l e work on mec h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y t o the S o c i e t y , he d e d i c a t e d

i t t o h i s o l d p a t r o n and f r i e n d W i l l i a m C a v e n d i s h , Duke o f N e w c a s t l e .

T h i s t r e a t i s e , A D i s c o u r s e . . , C o n c e r n i n g the Use o f D u p l i c a t e P r o p o r t i o n . . . ,

was w r i t t e n t o encourage members t o a p p l y m a t h e m a t i c s , P e t t y ' s

f o r t e , t o the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a t t e r , The i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t i n

the D i s c o u r s e i s h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y t o the t h e o l o g i a n s ; -

P e t t y was as much con c e r n e d w i t h c h u r c h o p i n i o n as any o f the v i r t u o s i ,

and he was c a r e f u l t o t r y t o l e g i t i m i z e h i s view o f the u n i v e r s e 47

as m e c h a n i c a l '. By a t t r i b u t i n g t o atoms a s e x u a l q u a l i t y , 'maleness' o r ' f e m a l e n e s s j he t r i e d t o show t h a t atoms were indeed mentioned

i n G e n e s i s i n the B i b l e (male and female c r e a t e d He them). Though

he was d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h a l l c u r r e n t p h y s i c a l t h e o r i e s f o r t h e i r l a c k

o f m a t h e m a t i c a l p r e c i s i o n , he drew h i s t h e o r i e s i n l a r g e p a r t from

the men who o r i g i n a t e d them and who i n f l u e n c e d him i n the 1 6 4 0 s , 49

D e s c a r t e s , Gassendi and Hobbes. Hobbes i s c i t e d as a s e r i o u s

c o m p e t i t o r t o Gassendi and D e s c a r t e s .

A d i s c u s s i o n o f the members o f the Royal S o c i e t y and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s

w i t h Hobbes cannot be c o n s i d e r e d complete w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g Robert

B o y l e ( 1 6 2 7 - 1 6 9 1 ) . A l t h o u g h p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n c h e m i s t r y ,

B o y l e p r o b a b l y g a i n e d a c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t i n p h y s i o l o g y d u r i n g a

v i s i t t o I re 1 and i n 1 6 5 3 " 1 6 5 4 wi t h Wi 1 1iam P e t t y . In I re l a n d they

found c h e m i c a l t o o l s and a p p a r a t u s "so u n p r o c u r a b l e t h a t i t was

har d t o have any H e r m e t i c t h o u g h t " and the two men t u r n e d t o anatom

i c a l d i s s e c t i o n . B o y l e was a l s o somewhat d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h t he

c u r r e n t a c c o u n t s o f me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , not o n l y because they

l a c k e d a f i r m m a t h e m a t i c a l b a s i s , as P e t t y had remarked, but

p a r t i c u l a r l y because the t h e o r i e s o f D e s c a r t e s , Gassendi and Hobbes

were t e n t a t i v e , p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h none o f the p h i l o s o p h e r s

had sought e m p i r i c a l l y t o t e s t , B o y l e h i m s e l f r e t a i n e d a good ' B a c o n i a n '

a t t i t u d e , u s i n g the mechanical p h i l o s o p h y " p r i m a r i l y as an h e u r i s t i c

i n s t r u m e n t t o l e a d t o new e x p e r i m e n t s and o b s e r v a t i o n s . " ' ' ' Of the

p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s o f the p h i l o s o p h y he was s c e p t i c a l ,

and he was wary o f o p e n l y s u p p o r t i n g a d o c t r i n e so a s s o c i a t e d i n 52

the p u b l i c mind w i t h a t h e i s m . When he d i d e x p r e s s an o p i n i o n o f

me c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , i t was a n e u t r a l one, c o m b i n i n g elements

o f Gassendi and D e s c a r t e s , y e t r e f u s i n g t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between

them o r t o t a k e a s t a n d o v e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e t a i l between the 53

two. B o y l e was v e r y much a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the new m e c h a n i c a l

p h i l o s o p h e r s i n E n g l a n d , however, and i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h the N e w c a s t l e

group. He was a c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f John P e l l , a f r i e n d and p u p i l o f

P e t t y , an a d m i r e r o f Kenelm Digby, and an e a r l y i n i t i a t e t o G a s s e n d i ' s

p h i l o s o p h y t h r o u g h the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f Samuel H a r t l i b , a merchant

and s c i e n t i f i c amateur.

B o y l e ' s o b j e c t i o n t o Hobbes seems, on the s u r f a c e , t o be an e p i s t e m -

o l o g i c a l one. W h i l e he lau d s the men l i k e D e s c a r t e s and Gassendi

f o r p u b l i s h i n g g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s t h a t may a i d s c i e n t i f i c endeavour,

t h a t i s , B a c o n i a n n a t u r a l h i s t o r i e s , he says t h a t some men seem

c o n s t r a i n e d t o w r i t e e i t h e r c o m p lete systems o* n o t h i n g a t a l l , and

t h a t when t h e s e men l a c k p a r t i c u l a r knowledge they n e v e r t h e l e s s f e e l

t h a t they must w r i t e something r a t h e r than say n o t h i n g a t a l l on a 5k

s u b j e c t . W h i l e B o y l e d i d c r i t i c i z e Hobbes f o r some o f h i s i d e a s

on vacuum and f o r h i s method, t h e r e seems t o be a d i s t i n c t u n d e r c u r r e n t

o f r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n w h i c h B o y l e h e l d i n common w i t h 55

o t h e r c r i t i c s l i k e W a l l i s . B o y l e d i d n o t d i r e c t l y a t t a c k Hobbes'

p h y s i o l o g y o r p s y c h o l o g y , y e t t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o s u s p e c t t h a t i t w a s

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e d e r i v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y t h a t h e l p e d

m o t i v a t e h i s g e n e r a l c r i t i c i s m o f H o b b e s . B o y l e w a s a p o w e r f u l

f i g u r e i n t h e e a r l y R o y a l S o c i e t y a n d w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h b u i l d i n g

a n d s e c u r i n g t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f t h a t S o c i e t y . In o r d e r t o d o t h i s ,

h e o p p o s e d t h e i n c l u s i o n o f H o b b e s i n t h e S o c i e t y a n d d e n i g r a t e d

H o b b e s a n d h i s t h e o r i e s f o r t w o r e a s o n s . He d i d n o t w a n t a m a t e r i a l i s t

a n d a c c u s e d a t h e i s t t o b e s e e n a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e S o c i e t y ,

a n d h e d i d n o t w a n t h i m t o r e p r e s e n t E n g l i s h s c i e n c e a b r o a d . ^

T h i s a t t i t u d e w a s n o t u n i v e r s a l i n t h e S o c i e t y , h o w e v e r . W a l t e r

C h a r l e t o n , ( 1 6 1 9 - 1 7 0 7 ) , a n o l d f r i e n d o f H o b b e s ^ w a s a n e a r l y c o n v e r t

t o G a s s e n d i ' s m e c h a n i c a l E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o p h y , p o s s i b l y d u e t o h i s

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h H o b b e s a n d t h e N e w c a s t l e c i r c l e . A s a n e a r l y m e m b e r

o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R o y a l C o l l e g e o f p h y s i c i a n s ,

h e s p a n s t h e t w o c e n t r e s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l e n d e a v o u r d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r r Q

i n t h i s e s s a y . B o y l e a n d C h a r l e t o n w e r e q u i t e s i m i l a r i n m a n y

a r e a s o f t h o u g h t . C h a r l e t o n , r e s p o n s i b l e i n l a r g e p a r t f o r t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f G a s s e n d i t o E n g l a n d , a t t e m p t e d t o c l e a n s e t h e E p i c u r e a n

c o r p u s c u l a r p h i l o s o p h y o f i t s G r e e k p a g a n e l e m e n t s w h i c h h e f e l t

w o u l d m e n a c e r e l i g i o n a n d h i n d e r i t s a c c e p t a n c e a s a t h e o r y . I t

w a s t o t h e r e v i s e d E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o p h y , p u b l i s h e d b y C h a r l e t o n a s

P h y s i o l o g i a E p i e u r o - G a s s e n d o - C h a r 1 t o n i a n a ( 1 6 5 4 ) , t h a t B o y l e l a t e r

a d h e r e d .

A l t h o u g h h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h H o b b e s may h a v e b e e n a n e m b a r r a s s m e n t

t o C h a r l e t o n i n h i s a t t e m p t t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y

i n E n g l a n d , t h e r e a r e m a n y c o n g r u e n t p o i n t s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s o f

the two men, C h a r l e t o n , l i k e Hobbes, saw God as the F i r s t Cause,

the u n i v e r s a l prime m o v e r , ^ E v e r y t h i n g a f t e r the f i r s t ' d i v i n e

push' c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f m a t t e r and m o t i o n . C h a r l e t o n ' s

a c c o u n t o f s e n s a t i o n i s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o Hobbes and he c i t e d 61

Hobbes as a s o u r c e f o r h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p a s s i o n s . He s t a t e d

t h a t " a l l e f f e c t s w h i c h e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s can p o s s i b l e e x i s t e i n us...

may be... r e f e r r e d t o two g e n e r a l heads, namely p l e a s u r e , and p a i n " , 62

w h i c h he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h good and e v i l . C h a r l e t o n gave an a c c o u n t

o f human p s y c h o l o g y based on m a t t e r and motion w h i c h d i f f e r s o n l y

in d e t a i l from t h a t o f Hobbes. He s a i d t h a t s e n s a t i o n proceeds as

motion t o t h e b r a i n and i f weak, d e c a y s , i f s t r o n g c o n t i n u e s t o t h e

h e a r t . I f a s e n s a t i o n i s p l e a s u r a b l e , " i t i m m e d i a t e l y p u t s the

s p i r i t s t h e r e i n r e s e r v e d i n t o b r i s k e r but r e g u l a r m o t i o n s . . . , i f 6 3

d i s p l e a s i n g i t p u t s them i n t o c o n f u s i o n . " Thus the p a s s i o n s ,

e x a c t l y as i n Hobbes t h e o r y , a f f e c t the motions o f the s p i r i t s and b l o o d .

The s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e from H o b b i s t t h e o r y by C h a r l e t o n i s ,

o f c o u r s e , o v e r the m a t t e r o f s o u l . He d i v i d e d s o u l i n t o r a t i o n a l

and s e n s i t i v e / c o m p o n e n t s , as d i d Digby; the s e n s i t i v e s o u l c o n s i s t s

i n m o t i o n , b e i n g l i k e a ' l u c i d f l u i d u m ' composed o f v i t a l flame and

animal s p i r i t s , " s u b j e c t t o u n d u l a t i o n s o r w a v i n g motions t h r o u g h o u t . "

Thus f a r C h a r l e t o n i s i n agreement w i t h Hobbes (and D e s c a r t e s ) .

He m a i n t a i n s , however, t h a t the r a t i o n a l s o u l must be i m m a t e r i a l

f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , i n o r d e r t o be i m m o r t a l , though he saw the

problems i n h e r e n t i n a C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s t i c view, "| as l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d

how I n t u i t i o n [thought) can be a s c r i b e d t o an i m m a t e r i a l , t h a t

hath no e y e s , as I do how f e e l i n g o f s t r o k e s can be a s c r i b e d t o a> 66

t h i n g t h a t cannot be t o u c h e d . " . But C h a r l e t o n goes a s t e p f a r t h e r

than most o f h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e m p o r a r i e s when, w i t h a somewhat

a t y p i c a l candour, h e a d m i t s h i s l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and suspends

judgement on t h e s u b j e c t , "Wherefore h a v i n g c o n f e s s e d my i g n o r a n c e ,

I r e f e r the m a t t e r t o your a r b i t r a t i o n ; a l l o w i n g you as much time

as you s h a l l t h i n k f i t , s e r i o u s l y t o c o n s i d e r the same; and i n the

i n t e r i m c o n t e n t e d l y s u s p e n d i n g my c u r i o s i t y , w h i c h hath o f t e n p e r p l e x e d ,,67 me.1

C h a r l e t o n " s t h o u g h t s on human p s y c h o l o g y and the s o u l h o l d i m p o r t a n t

c l u e s t o e x p l a i n the p o s i t i o n s taken on t h e s e s u b j e c t s by o t h e r l e s s

f o r t h r i g h t w r i t e r s . To i n t e r p r e t t h e s e t h o u g h t s i n the s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y s e t t i n g r e q u i r e s some grasp o f the p o l i t i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t o f England i n the 1 640s to 1670s.

D u r i n g the t r o u b l e d t i m e s o f the C i v i l War, n o n - c o n f o r m i s t s ,

s e c t a r i a n s , and f r e e - t h i n k e r s f l o u r i s h e d , a t t a c k i n g the d o c t r i n e s

o f b oth ' P u r i t a n ' and High Church o r t h o d o x y . Among t h e s e must be

counted R i c h a r d O v e r t o n , a f r i e n d o f John L i l b u r n e and a p a m p h l e t e e r

f o r the L e v e l l e r s . A s i d e from h i s p o l i t i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s , O verton

p u b l i s h e d i n 1643 a r e l i g i o u s t r a c t e n t i t l e d Mans M o r t a l 1i t i e i n

w h i c h he r e v i v e d the d o c t r i n e o f ' s o u l - s 1 e e p i n g ' , the ' A r a b i a n e r r o r ' 68

o f m o r t a l s o u l . T h i s i s s u e had been f i r s t r a i s e d i n the p r e v i o u s 69

y e a r by S i r Thomas Browne' s;-,Rel i g i o ' M e d i c i ' (1642).

Browne d e s c r i b e d m o r t a l ism and r e j e c t e d i t on grounds o f f a i t h ,

s a y i n g t h a t p h i l o s o p h y had not y e t d i s p r o v e d the d o c t r i n e . ^ T h i s

s t a t e m e n t was i n p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e renewed debate on an o l d

c o n t r o v e r s y , ^ and O v e r t o n ' s p u b l i c a t i o n added f u e l t o the p o l e m i c

f i r e , a l t h o u g h the r e s p e c t a b l e p h y s i c i a n Browne was t o be c o n s i d e r e d 72

more worthy o f response than the r a d i c a l O v e r t o n . Overton w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y

p r o p o u n d e d h i s m o r t a l 1 s t d o c t r i n e , p r o d u c i n g c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h a r e

73 v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f H o b b e s , i f a n t e d a t i n g h i m b y e i g h t y e a r s .

H e s a w n o b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n i m a l s a n d m e n : " B r u t e s . . . h a v e

o u r m o s t n o b l e a n d f a c u l t i e s s c a t t e r e d a m o n g t h e m , t h o u g h i n a n

i n f e r i o r d e g r e e . " P r o c e e d i n g o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t " a l l t h a t

i s c r e a t e d i s m a t e r i a l " ^ , h e t o o k A r i s t o t l e ' s ( a n d H o b b e s 1 ) c o n c e p t

o f s o u l a s t h e f a c u l t i e s o f m a n j o i n t l y c o n s i d e r e d a n d s h o w e d t h a t

e a c h f a c u l t y i s c o r p o r e a l a n d t h a t t h u s t h e s o u l m u s t b e c o r p o r e a l

a n d m o r t a 1 . ^

I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e m o r t a l i s m c o n t r o v e r s y , t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s

o r d e r e d a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p u b l i s h e r s o f m o r t a l i s t p a m p h l e t s . I n

1646 l e g i s l a t i o n w a s p a s s e d f o r t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f s u c h h e r e t i c s

a n d b l a s p h e m e r s . ^ A l t h o u g h O v e r t o n ' s t r a c t w a s n o t i n t e n t i o n a l l y

E p i c u r e a n , i t w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s s u c h b y h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d t o

q u o t e K a r g o n , i t " b e c a m e t h e l i g h t n i n g r o d f o r c r i t i c i s m o f E p i c u r e a n i s m "

T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a t o m i s m a n d a t h e i s m b e c a m e f i x e d a t l e a s t

i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l i g i o u s m i n d , a n d G a s s e n d i ' s E p i c u r e a n s y n t h e s i s

c a m e u n d e r a t t a c k . T h u s C h a r l e t o n h i m s e l f w a s c r i t i c i z e d f o r

h i s r e v i s i o n o f G a s s e n d i ' s p h i l o s o p h y , a n d i n t h e 1650s h e p u b l i s h e d

s e v e r a l t r a c t s d e n y i n g m o r t a l i s m a n d c o n f i r m i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n

i m m o r t a l s o u l . ^

T o p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d C h a r l e t o n ' s a v i d a t t e m p t s t o p u r i f y E p i c u r e a n

p h i l o s o p h y o f i t s a t h e i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e m e m b e r

t h a t h e w a s i n t h e 1 6 5 0 s , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t i n t h e 1 6 6 0 s , s t i l l

w o r k i n g u n d e r t h e d a r k c l o u d o f c r i t i c i s m e n g e n d e r e d b y m e n l i k e

O v e r t o n i n t h e p r e v i o u s d e c a d e . I n 1656 C h a r l e t o n p u b 1 i s h e d , E p i c u r u s 1 s

M o r a 1 s , s p e c i f i c a l l y t o d i s c u s s t h e s e p r o b l e m s , a n d i n a n a p p e n d e d

" A n A p o l o g y f o r E p i c u r u s " , t o d e f e n d E p i c u r u s ( a n d t h u s E p i c u r e a n s )

from c h a r g e s o f a t h e i s m , To add t o the d e s i r e o f E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s p h e r s

f o r a d i s a s s o c i a t ion w i t h m o r t a l ism and h e r e s y , t h e r e was the c o n n e c t i o n

w i t h Thomas Hobbes and h i s much c r i t i c i z e d p h i l o s o p h y . I t was the

m a t e r i a l i s m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E p i c u r u s t h a t C h a r l e t o n had t o e x c u s e ,

and t o many o b s e r v e r s t h i s was e q u i v a l e n t t o the m a t e r i a l i s m o f

Hobbes.

Hobbes d e r i v e d h i s m o r t a l ism i n two d i f f e r e n t ways, f i r s t from

h i s n a t u r a l m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y as has been shown, and s e c o n d l y 81

by s c r i p t u r a l e x e g e s i s . He d i d not d i f f e r i n any i m p o r t a n t way 82

from the views o f O v e r t o n , M i l t o n , and Browne on m o r t a l ism. Thus,

a f t e r 1 6 5 1 , t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r t a l ism was t o be seen as H o b b i s t .

Hobbes was n o t , by h i s own a d m i s s i o n an E p i c u r e a n . When Seth Ward

ac c u s e d Hobbes o f r e s t a t i n g the s e n s a t i o n t h e o r i e s o f D e s c a r t e s ,

G a s s e n d i , and Digby, thus a t t e m p t i n g t o b e l i t t l e Hobbes' c o n t r i b u t i o n

to p h y s i o l o g y , Hobbes i n d i g n a n t l y responded t h a t D e s c a r t e s ' t h e o r y

was nonsense, and Gassendi and Digby h e l d the o p i n i o n o f E p i c u r u s 8k

"which i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t from mine." The major d i f f e r e n c e s between

E p i c u r e a n t h e o r y and Hobbes' thought c e n t r e on the e x i s t e n c e o f

vacuum and on Hobbes l a t e r m e d i u m i s t i c t h e o r y o f l i g h t as opposed

to the n e o - E p i c u r e a n e m i s s i o n t h e o r y . To most o b s e r v o r s , however,

Hobbes and E p i c u r e a n s were, by d i n t o f t h e i r common m a t e r i a l i s m and

mec h a n i c a l c o r p u s c u l a r p h y s i c s , c o l l a b o r a t o r s in s i n g l e dangerous

dogma. Thus Cudworth and More tended t o i n c l u d e any E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o p h gl

and s c i e n t i s t s w i t h Hobbes i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o L e v i a t h a n .

The a d m i s s i o n by W a l t e r C h a r l e t o n i n 1675 t h a t he d i d not a f t e r

a l l u n d e r s t a n d how an i m m a t e r i a l s o u l c o u l d f u n c t i o n was the more

rem a r k a b l e g i v e n the c o n t i n u e d a n t i - m o r t a l i s t c l i m a t e o f t h e 1 6 7 0 s .

H i s s k e p t i c i s m w o u l d b e s a v e d i n t h e e y e s o f r e l i g i o u s c r i t i c s o n l y

b y h i s i n s i s t e n c e , w h e t h e r t h r o u g h s i n c e r e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f o r b y

s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y , o n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n i m m o r t a l i m m a t e r i a l s o u l .

F o r o t h e r m e n l i k e T h o m a s W i l l i s , c h a m p i o n o f t h e R o y a l C o l l e g e

a n d , l i k e C h a r l e t o n , a l s o a m e m b e r o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y , t h e q u e s t i o n

o f H o b b e s 1 m a t e r i a l i s m . a n d C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m a l s o a r o s e . W i l l i s

w a s i n v o l v e d i n t w o n o t d i s s i m i l a r a c t i v i t i e s : h e s o u g h t t o p r o v e

t h a t t h e R o y a l C o l l e g e w a s t h e p r o p e r s e a t o f m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d

l e a r n i n g i n L o n d o n b y e x h i b i t i n g t h e m e c h a n i c a l a n d i a t r o c h e m i c a 1

e x p e r t i s e o f C o l l e g e m e m b e r s ; a n d h e a l s o c a r r i e d o u t h i s o w n s t u d i e s

t h e r e , m o s t l y o n n e u r o a n a t o m y . I n h i s w o r k D e A n i m a B r u t o r u m , W i l l i s

d e a l t w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s o u l s o f a n i m a l s a n d m e n . W i l l i s

d i v i d e d s o u l s i n t o s e n s i t i v e s o u l a n d r a t i o n a l s o u l . T h e s e n s i t i v e

s o u l f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h a n i m a l s p i r i t s w h i c h t r a v e l t h e n e r v e s a n d

b r a i n a n d a r e i n v o l v e d i n s e n s a t i o n a n d a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f t h o u g h t .

A t h i r d , s u b s i d i a r y , s o u l , t h e b o d y - s o u l , i s p o s t u l a t e d t o g o v e r n

u n c o n s c i o u s , a u t o n o m o u s b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s s u c h a s d i g e s t i o n a n d

r e s p i r a t i o n . T h e r a t i o n a l s o u l i s p r e s e n t o n l y i n m a n .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t f o r W i l l i s , t h e s o u l o f b r u t e s c o n s i s t s o f m a t t e r

i n m o t i o n , a n d t h e a n i m a l s p i r i t s w h i c h p o w e r i t a r e c h e m i c a l

87 p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s s o u l , r e a l l y a b o d y s o u l a n d s e n s i t i v e s o u l c o m p o s i t e , i s a c c o r d e d a l i m i t e d r a t i o c i n a t i o n , s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n

a n i m a l f u n c t i o n s a n d a c t i o n s . T o a v o i d d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e o l o g i c a l

q u e s t i o n s W i l l i s s e p a r a t e d s u c h b a s i c c o g n i t i o n f r o m h i g h e r i n t e l l e c t i o n ,

w h i c h h e s a i d , w a s t h e f u n c t i o n o f a n i m m a t e r i a l r a t i o n a l s o u l w h i c h

w a s s o m e h o w ( W i l l i s i s u n c l e a r a s t o p r e c i s e l y i n w h a t m a n n e r ) ,

ke 89 c o n n e c t e d t o the body-sou 1 f o r i t s s e n s o r y i n p u t . T h i s s o l u t i o n

t o the d u a l i s t p r o b l e m was e s s e n t i a l l y the same as t h a t o f f e r e d i n

the same y e a r , 1672, by a French J e s u i t w r i t e r , F a t h e r Ignace Gaston

P a r d i e s , i n h i s D i s c o u r s de l a Co n n o i s s a n c e des b e s t s . L i k e W i l l i s ,

P a r d i e s s a i d t h a t b e a s t s have a s e n s i t i v e k i n d o f c o g n i t i o n , b u t 90

not an i n t e l l e c t u a l one.

W i l l i s was the p h y s i c i a n t o the A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y and i n

t h i s c a p a c i t y as w e l l as i n h i s r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s i n the Royal

C o l l e g e and Royal S o c i e t y , he was c o n s t r a i n e d t o m a i n t a i n a t l e a s t

the f a c a d e o f t h e o l o g i c a l o r t h o d o x y . H i s compromise o f a b i p a r t i t e

s o u l was s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y h i s c r i t i c s , and y e t a l l o w e d W i l l i s

t o t a l k about the mind and s o u l i n m a t e r i a l i s t i c terms. The f r a n k l y

m a t e r i a l i s t i c a s s e r t i o n w h i c h the c h u r c h f a i l e d t o comment on was

t h a t m a t t e r c o u l d r e a s o n . The communication between t h e body s o u l

and the r a t i o n a l s o u l i n man a l l o w e d W i l l i s t o t r e a t the r a t i o n a l

s o u l as i f i t were a p a r t o f the m a t e r i a l body s o u l i n h i s e n q u i r y

i n t o mental i l l n e s s . B e i n g v e r y much aware o f the a t h e i s t i c dangers

o f a m a t e r i a l i s t i c o r Hobbesian d o c t r i n e , W i l l i s p r e f a c e d De An i ma 92

Brutorum w i t h the f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : I know not whether i t w i l l be p l e a s i n g t o a l l t h a t i n s t i t u t i n g the s o m e t h i n g p a r a d o x i c a l d o c t r i n e o f the animal s o u l , t h a t I s h o u l d a s s i g n t o t h a t s o u l , by w h i c h the b r u t e s as w e l l as men l i v e , f e e l , move, not o n l y e x t e n s i o n , but members, and as i t were o r g a n i c a l p a r t s . . . . M o r e o v e r , t h a t the c o r p o r e a l s o u l doth e x t e n d i t s s i c k n e s s e s not o n l y t o the body, but to the mind o r r a t i o n a l s o u l , . . I t h i n k i s c l e a r enough. i ;

When he d e s c r i b e d the r a t i o n a l s o u l as "a p a r t i c l e o f a d i v i n e b r e a t h " ,

" d i v i n a e p a r t i c u l a m a u r a e " , he was u s i n g p r e c i s e l y t h e same language

as he had used t o d e s c r i b e the s u b t l e s t o f c h e m i c a l p r i n c i p l e s i n

a p r i o r d i s c u s s i o n o f f e r m e n t a t i o n . Hansreudi I s l e r comments,

" I t seems t h a t W i l l i s c o u l d not al w a y s h o l d on t o h i s t h e o l o g i c a l

f o o t i n g when he was b e i n g c a r r i e d away by the t r e n d s i n h e r e n t i n

h i s t h e o r i e s . " T h i s assessment n i c e l y sums up an a t t i t u d e w h i c h

has been shown t o e x i s t i n a number o f W i l l i s ' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s such

as C h a r l e t o n .

W i l l i s was a s c i e n t i s t who was s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n m e c h a n i c a l

p h y s i o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y . He wanted t o e x p l a i n t h e w o r k i n g s and

i l l n e s s e s o f the mind and t h e most p o t e n t i n s t r u m e n t a t h i s d i s p o s a l

was the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h i s o n l y e f f e c t i v e when a p p l i e d

t o m a t e r i a l e n t i t i e s . By p r o c e e d i n g i n such an e n q u i r y , W i l l i s

was i n an i m p o r t a n t way a f o l l o w e r o f Hobbes, but f o r o b v i o u s reasons

c o u l d not admit t o t h i s i n f l u e n c e . He tbus.:typi f i e s ' f o l l o w e r s '

o f Hobbes o r p h y s i o l o g i s t s who to o k Hobbes s e r i o u s l y y e t c o u l d not

acknowledge t h a t f a c t .

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER I!

HOBBES AND THE ENGLISH PHYSIOLOGISTS

1 , Thomas Hobbes, E n g l i sh Works, ed. S i r W. Molesworth (London: John Bohn, 1839) V o l . I, p.4 0 7 -

2 . Theodore Brown, The M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y and..the,Animal Oeconomy, ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969) p.2 8 .

3- C h r i s t o p h e r H i l l , " W i l l i a m Harvey and t h e Idea o f Monarchy," P a s t and P r e s e n t (1963) XXVII.

4 . "T. Brown, M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y , p. 2 9 ,p. 4 8 . In the e a r l y p a r t o f the c e n t u r y , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e d i d n ' t r e a l l y e x i s t a 'mechanical p h i l o s o p h y ' f o r Harvey t o e i t h e r a c c e p t o r disavow.

5 . I b i d . , p.v. The 'animal oeconomy' was the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y term f o r p h y s i o l o g y .

6 . P r o f e s s o r o f M e d i c i n e a t Gresham C o l l e g e

7. H. I s 1 e r , Thomas W i l l i s , p . 1 3

8 . H.M. S i n c l a i r , " O x f o r d M e d i c i n e " i n M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y England (Los A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) .

9 . C. W a l l , H.C. Cameron, and E.A. Underwood, A H i s t o r y o f the W o r s h i p f u l S o c i e t y o f A p o t h e c a r i e s o f London,'(London: O x f o r d , 1963) V o l . 1 , p.4 1 .

1 0 . Nedham was the a u t h o r / e d i t o r o f M e r c u r i u s B r i t a n i c u s ( s i c . ) the most c o n t i n u o u s P a r l i a m e n t a r i a n news-sheet d u r i n g the war.

11. l a t r o c h e m i s t r y i s the name g i v e n t o th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o r p u s c u l a r m e c h a n i c a l t h e o r y t o m e d i c i n e i n the l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

12. T. W i l l i s , P h a r m a c a e t i c e R a t i o n a l i s , ( 1 6 7 4 ) .

13/ C'.'W; Bodemer, " M a t e r i a l i s t i c and N e p p l a t o n i c I n f l u e n c e s i n Embryology", i n A.G. Debus, M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h Century E n g l a n d , (Los A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1974) p. 1 8 4 - 8 5 .

14. R. Kargon, Atomism i n England from H a r i o t t o Newton, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966) pp. 7 2 - 7 3 -

15- I b i d .

1.6. The H e r m e t i c t r a d i t i o n was a t t a c k e d as a t h r e a t t o r e l i g i o n i n t he l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by the J e s u i t d e l Rio and P r o t e s t a n t s l i k e E r a s t u s . In the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Mersenne h i m s e l f condemned i t as t h r e a t e n i n g t h e s t a t u s o f m i r a c l e s , and moderates i n th e War condemned i t w i t h the accompanying t h r e a t o f the s e c t a r i e s . See P. R a t t o n s i , "The S o c i a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Se v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y S c i e n c e "

i n P. M a t h i a s ed, , S c i e n c e and S o c i e t y , 1 6 0 0 - 1 9 0 0 , p , 3 0 .

17. R.T. P e t e r s s o n , S i r Kenelm Digby, (Cambridge: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956) p . l 9 0 f f .

1 8 . I b i d .

1 9 . K. Digby, Of B o d i e s , ( 1 6 4 4 ) pp.3 5 7 - 3 6 2 .

2 0 . Digby had been i n t e r e s t e d i n the h e a r t and c i r c u l a t i o n s i n c e h i s e a r l y days a t Gresham C o l l e g e ( 1 6 3 3 - 1 6 3 5 ) - He t e s t e d and f i n a l l y a g r eed w i t h much o f Harvey's c i r c u l a t i o n t h e o r y .

2 1 . K. Digby, Of Man's Soul ( 1 6 4 4 ) p.5 1 .

22 . On More's i n f l u e n c e on E n g l i s h C a r t e s i a n i s m see M. N i c o l s o n , "The E a r l y Stages o f C a r t e s i a n i s m i n E n g l a n d " , S t u d i e s i n P h i l o l o g y , XXVI ( 1 9 2 9 ) pp.3 5 6 - 3 7 4 .

2 3 . L.D. Cohen, " D e s c a r t e s and Henry More on the B e a s t Machine," Ann, o f S c i . I ( 1 9 3 6 ) p.4 9 .

2 4 . L e t t e r o f D e s c a r t e s t o More, F e b r u a r y 5 , 1 6 4 9 , E;A. Adamfand ..- • Paul Tannery, e d s . , Oevres de D e s c a r t e s , ( P a r i s : J . V r i n , 1967) V o l . V, l e t t e r 5 3 7 , p.2 7 5 ; t r a n s . L. Cohen, " D e s c a r t e s and Henry More", P P ; 5 1 - . 5 2 .

2 5 . L. Cohen, " D e s c a r t e s and Henry More", p.5 9 -

2 6 . C.W. Bodemer, " M a t e r i a l i s t i c and N e o p l a t o n i c I n f l u e n c e s " , _i_n A.G. Debus, M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h Century E n g l a n d , p.201 .

2 7 . C. Webster, "Henry More and D e s c a r t e s : Some New S o u r c e s " , B r i t . J o u r n a l f o r the H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e , 4 ( 1 9 6 9 ).p.3 6 0 .

2 8 . The True I n t e l l e c t u a l System o f the U n i v e r s e , I678, p . 1 7 8 .

2 9 . T. Hobbes, E n g l i sh Works, v o l . IV, pp.6 6 - 7 1

3 0 . B a s i l W i l l e y , The S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y Background, (London: C h a t t o and Windus, 1967) p.1 6 2 .

3 1 . G l a n v i l l e w a s ..Chapl a i n - i n - O r d i n a r y t o C h a r l e s II and R e c t o r o f Bath Abbey.

3 2 . B a s i l W i l l e y , S e v e n t e e n t h Century Background, p.173

3 3 - J o s e p h , G l a n v i l l , The V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , (London: Henry E v e r s d e n , 1661) p.2 9 .

34 . J . ' . - . i G l a n v i l 1 , V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , p , 2 2 ,

3 5 . O n M o r e 1 s i d e a o f u n i v e r s a l e x t e n s i o n f o r s o u l s e e h i s T r u e N o t i o n o f S p i r i t ( 1 6 7 1 , r e p r i n t e d i n G l a n v i l l e ' s S a d d u c i s m u s T r i u m p h a t u s (1681). '

36. J J i G l a n v i 1 1 , V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , p . 3 3 f f .

37- T . H o b b e s , L e v i a t h a n , p p . 8 8 - 8 9 .

38 . J . G l a n v i l l , V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , p . 3 8 .

39- J - G l a n v i l l , V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , p . 2 3 7 -

kO. G l a n v i l l ' s s u p p o r t o f i m m a t e r i a l s p i r i t s , m i r a c l e s a n d w i t c h c r a f t i s b e s t o u t l i n e d i n P h i l o s o p h i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s T o u c h i n g W i t c h e s

a n d W i t c h c r a f t (1666T!

k]. R . S . W e s t f a l l , S c i e n c e a n d R e l i g i o n i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , ( N e w H a v e n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958) p . 1 1 3 -

kl. O l d e n b u r g m e a n t P l u s U l t r a t o b e a n u n o f f i c i a l s u p p l e m e n t t o S p r a t ' s , H i s t o r y o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y , ( 1667) t h e f i r s t a p o l o g i s t t o a t t e m p t t o a l l a y t h e f e a r s o f t h e r e l i g i o u s a b o u t t h e S o c i e t y ' s a t h e i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s . S p r a t u s e d C h r i s t o p h e r W r e n a s a m o d e l f o r t h e S o c i e t y .

43- C M i - . ; C a s a u b o n , A L e t t e r o f M e r i c C a s a u b o n P . P . S c t o P e t e r d u M o u l i n , P . P . a n d P r e b e n d a r i e o f t h e S a m e C h u r c h , ( C a m b r i d g e , 1669) •

kk. J . G1 a n v i 11 . , ' P Hi i :1 o s o p h a a P i. a , : (1 6 7 1 ) • P 3 3 •

kS. J . G l a n v i l l , P h i l o s o p h i a P i a , p . 1 0 9 -

46. R . K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d f r o m H a r i o t t o N e w t o n , ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966) p . 6 9 .

4 7 . P e t t y w a s s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h o p i n i o n t h a t h e f i n a l l y c h o s e n o t t o p u b l i s h a t r e a t i s e t h a t d e a l t w i t h s o m e p o i n t s o f n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n r a t h e r t h a n e x p o s e h i m s e l f t o t h e d i s p l e a s u r e o f " t h e c e n s o r i o u s a n d e n v i o u s , t h e s c i o l u s , e t c . " P e t t y t o S o u t h w e l l , A u g u s t , 1677;

P e t t y - S o u t h w e l 1 C o r r e s p o n d e n c e p . 3 1 , c . f . W e s t f a l 1 , S c i e n c e a n d R e . l i g i o n " ! ( N e w H a v e n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958) p . 1 1 4 .

48. R . K a r g o n , " W i l l i a m P e t t y ' s M e c h a n i c a l P h i l o s o p h y , " I s i s L X V I (1965) P - 6 5 , G e n e s i s 1:27-

49- I b i d . , p . 6 6 .

50 . K e n n e t h 0. K e e l e , " P h y s i o l o g y " A . G . D e b u s , M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , ( L o s A n g e l e s ; U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1974)

p . 1 6 5 -

5 1 , K a r g o n ? R , A t o m i s m , . p , 9 5

5 2 , An e a r l y m a n u s c r i p t , w 0 f t h e Atom r e a l P h i l o s o p h y ' 1 b e a r s t h e m e s s a g e s - ' T h e s e p a p e r s a r e w i t h o u t f a i l t o b e b u r n e d , 1 ' R , K a r g o n , A t o m i s m p . 9 6 .

5 3 - R- K a r g o n , I b i d . , p . 9 5 ,

5 4 . T h e m a j o r d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n H o b b e s a n d B o y l e w a s o v e r t h e s t u d y o f a i r . B o y l e f e l t t h a t H o b b e s h a d l i t t l e r i g h t t o a n o p i n i o n i n s u c h m a t t e r s , e s c h e w i n g a c t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a s h e d i d . H o b b e s h a d a t t a c k e d B o y l e ' s v i e w s o n v a c u u m i n D i a l o g u s P h y s i c u s (1661)

5 5 . M i r i a m R e i k , T h e G o l d e n L a n d s o f T h o m a s H o b b e s , ( D e t r o i t : W a y n e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977) p . 1 6 7 -

5 6 . Q . S k i n n e r , " T h e I d e o l o g i c a l C o n t e x t o f H o b b e s ' P o l i t i c a l T h o u g h t , " H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l X I I. ( 1 9 6 9 ) p p . 2 1 7 - 2 3 9 -

57- M . R e i k , G o l d e n L a n d s , p . l 8 0 f f .

5 8 . C h a r l e t o n w a s p r e v i o u s l y R o y a l P h y s i c i a n t o C h a r l e s . D u a l m e m b e r s h i p i n b o t h t h e S o c i e t y a n d t h e C o l l e g e w a s c o m m o n t o n e a r l y f i f t y o t h e r

m e n . B o y l e w a s n o t a m o n g t h e s e .

5 9 - O n B o y l e ' s a c c e p t a n c e o f C h a r l e t o n ' s d o c t r i n e s e e R . K a r g o n , A t o m i s m , . ' p . 9 7 f f •

60. C h a r l e t o n , P h y s i o l o g i a E p i e u r o - G a s s e n d - C h a r i t o n i a n a , ( L o n d o n , 1654) p . 1 2 6 .

6 1 . C h a r l e t o n , : N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f t h e P a s s i o n s , ( L o n d o n , 1 6 7 4 ) , e p i s t l e p r e f a t o r y .

6 2 . I b i d . , p . 8 2 .

63. I b i d . , p . 8 4 ; c . f . H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s , V o l . I , p . 4 0 7 a n d T . H o b b e s , E l e m e n t s o f L a w N a t u r a l a n d P o l i t i c , e d . F e r d i n a n d T o n n i e s , ( L o n d o n : F r a n k C a s s & C o . L t d . , 1969) p . 2 8 .

6 4 . C h a r l e t o n a d m i t s a t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f s e n s e - - n e i t h e r p l e a s u r e n o r p a i n , g o o d n o r e v i l b u t n e u t r a l ; " i f t h e s o u l a t t h a t t i m e , b o t h f o r h e r o b j e c t , n o t g o o d o r e v i l , b u t o n l y k n o w l e d g e . . . s h e c o n v e r t s a l l h e r p o w e r u p o n t h e b r a i n a l o n e , w h e r e i n a l l s e n s e i s p e r f o r m e d . " I b i d . , p . 9 0

6 5 - I b i d . , p p . 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 9 -

6 6 . I b i d , , p . 6 6

67. I b i d , , p , 6 7 ,

68. T h e A r a b i a n e r r o r o r T h n e t o p s y c h i s m d o e s n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n a n i m a l a n d h u m a n s o u l , a n d h o l d s t h a t b o t h d i e w i t h t h e b o d y , N o r m a n T . B u r n s , C h r i s t i a n . M o r t a 1 i s m f r o m T y n d a l e t o M i 1 t o n , ( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972) p p . 1 6 - 1 8 .

69. T h i s p o p u l a r b o o k s a w e i g h t e d i t i o n s b y 1646 a n d m a d e B r o w n e f a m o u s .

70. S i r T h o m a s B r o w n e , W o r k s , E d . S . W i l k i n . 3 v o l . ( L o n d o n : G e o r g e B e l l & S o n s , 1901 - 1 9 1 0 ) , V o l . I I p p . 3 2 9 - 3 0 . R e l i g i o M e d i c i w a s w r i t t e n c . 1 6 3 5 -

71. G . W i l l i a m s o n , S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y C o n t e x t s , C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1969) pp.148-149 c . f . N . B u r n s , C h r i s t i a n M o r t a l i s m p.148.

72. O v e r t o n c h i d e d h i s a d v e r s a r i e s f o r t h e i r l a c k o f r e s p o n s e t o M a n s M o r t a l 1 i t i e , ( L o n d o n , 1675) i n R . O v e r t o n , T h e A r a i g n m e n t o f M r . P e r s e c u t i o n ( L o n d o n , 1645). W h e n t h e y d i d r e s p o n d , O v e r t o n f a i l e d t o d e f e n d h i m s e l f , b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n m o r e p r e s s i n g L e v e l l e r a c t i v i t i e s N . B u r n s , C h r i s t i a n M o r t a l i s m , p p . 1 5 5 - 1 5 6 . A l e x a n d e r R o s s c o n s i d e r e d h i m u n w o r t h y o f r e s p o n s e . G . W i l l i a m s o n , S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y C o n t e x t s

73- H o b b e s f i r s t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d h i s m o r t a l i s t t h o u g h t i n L e v i a t h a n .

74. O v e r t o n , R . , M a n i W h o .1 l : y , M o r t a 1 , ( L o n d o n , 1675). p . 17- T h i s w a s a l a t e r e d i t i o n o f M a n s M o r t a 1 1 i t i e .

75. O v e r t o n , R . , M a n W h o l l y M o r t a l , p . 2 1 .

76. I b i d . , p . 5 f f .

77- K a r g o n , R . , A t o m i s m , p . 8 0 . T h o m a s E d w a r d s ! G a n g r a e n a ( L o n d o n , 1646) s i n g l e d o u t s i x t e e n s e p a r a t e h e r e t i c a l s e c t s .

78. K a r g o n , R . , A t o m i s m , p .81. F o r K a r g o n , E p i c u r e a n i s m i s a n y t h o u g h t w h i c h w a s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h E p i c u r u s , e . g . G a s s e n d i , C h a r l e t o n , H o b b e s , a n d e v e n B o y l e .

79- H o l l a n d , G . , T h e G r a n d P r e r o g a t i v e o f H u m a n N a t u r e , ( L o n d o n , 1953)

80. T h e s e t r a c t s i n c l u d e C h a r l e t o n , W . , D a r k n e s s o f A t h e i s m ( L o n d o n ; 1652) a n d I m m o r t a l i t y o f t h e H u m a n S o u l , ( L o n d o n , 1657)•

81. H o b b e s , T . , L e v i a t h a n , c h a p t e r s 38 ,44.

82. B u r n s , N . , C h r i s t i a n M o r t a l i s m , p . 1 8 5 •

83. W a r d , S . a n d W i l k i n s , J . , V i n d i c i a e A c a d e m i a r u m ( O x f o r d , 1654), p .

8 4 . T . H o b b e s , E n g l i s h W o r k s , S i x L e s s o n s , L e s s o n V I ? ' ' O f M a n n e r s " , . p . 34tV4 l .

85. L a d y M a r g a r e t C a v e n d i s h K s s o m e w h a t n u g a t o r y m a t e r i a l i s t i c e s s a y s o n E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s p h y a d d e d t o t h e f u r o r . T h u s t h e N e w c a s t l e c i r c l e w a s i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h E p i c u r e a n i s m i n E n g l a n d ,

8 6 . T . W i l l i s , " D e A n i m a B r u t o r u m " , i n D r . W i l l i s ' s P r a c t i c e o f P h y s i c k , B e i n g t h e W h o l e W o r k s o f t h e R e n o w n e d a n d F a m o u s P h y s i c i a n , t r a n s . S~i P o r d a g e , ( L o n d o n , 1684) . T h i s w o r k a l s o c o n t a i n s s o m e o f

W i l l i s ' b e s t a n a t o m i c a l w o r k . S e e F . J . C o l e , A H i s t o r y o f C o m p a r a t i v e A n a t o m y , 1 9 4 4 , p . 2 2 1 f f .

87. H . I s l e r , T h o m a s W i 1 1 i s , p . 1 5 6 .

8 8 . I b i d . , p . 1 5 8 .

89. W i l l i s a g r e e d w i t h H o b b e s t h a t m a n c o u l d k n o w o n l y w h a t h i s s e n s e s a l l o w e d h i m .

9 0 . H . I s l e r , T h o m a s W i l l i s , p . 1 5 3 -

9 1 . T h e p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e b y t h e c h u r c h o f t h i s H o b b e s i a n i d e a m a y h a v e s e t t h e p r e c e d e n t f o r a c c e p t a n c e o f L o c k e ' s s i m i l a r i d e a s s o m e d e c a d e s l a t e r , T . W i l l i s , D r . W i 1 1 i s ' s P r a c t i c e , p . 1 5 4 .

9 2 . T . W i l l i s , " D e A n i m a B r u t o r u m " , p r e f a c e _i_n D r . W i l l i s ' s P r a c t i c e .

9 3 - H . I s l e r , T h o m a s W i 1 1 i s , p . 1 5 7 -

9 4 . I b i d , p . 1 5 7 ,

C H A P T E R I I I

H O B B E S ' R O L E I N T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F P H Y S I O L O G Y

to O n e m u s t b e c a u t i o u s w h e n t r y i n g A s h o w s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s c i e n c e a n d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . T h e a c c e p t a n c e

a n d r e p u t a t i o n o f a m a n l i k e H o b b e s h a s m u c h t o d o w i t h t h e d e g r e e

t o w h i c h h i s t h o u g h t c h a l l e n g e s r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y a n d o n t h e p o l i t i c a l

p o w e r w i e l d e d b y t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h a t o r t h o d o x y . I n t h e 1930s

a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o c o n n e c t " P u r i t a n i s m ' a n d t h e r i s e o f s c i e n c e

i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ' O n e m a j o r p r o b l e m t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d i n

t h i s e n d e a v o u r i s t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n d e f i n i n g t h e t e r m ' P u r i t a n " .

F o r s u c h a c o n n e c t i o n t o m a k e a n y s e n s e , t h e c a t e g o r y , ' P u r i t a n ' ,

m u s t b e s o b r o a d a s t o b e a l m o s t m e a n i n g l e s s ; a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f

t h e E n g l i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f a l l s o r t s o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e a n i n g s m u s t

b e l a b e l l e d P u r i t a n , a n d t h e C i v i l W a r d e v o l v e s i n t o P u r i t a n f i g h t i n g

P u r i t a n . A n y a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t o n l y a p a r t o f t h e s e p e o p l e , t h e

m o s t m o d e r a t e o r l e a s t r a d i c a l o f P u r i t a n s w a s i n v o l v e d i n s c i e n c e

i s d o o m e d s i m i l a r l y t o f a i l u r e . A m o d e r a t e P u r i t a n m a k e s a s m u c h

s e n s e a s a n i m m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e d i d t o H o b b e s ; t h e y a r e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s

2 i n t e r m s . T o s a y t h a t t h e m o s t m o d e r a t e P u r i t a n s w e r e m o s t i n v o l v e d

i n S c i e n c e i s t o s a y t h a t t h e m o s t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r i e n t e d m e n w e r e

t h e l e a s t P u r i t a n . I t i s m u c h m o r e m e a n i n g f u l a n d u s e f u l t o s a y t h a t

s c i e n t i f i c d e v e l o p m e n t w a s a f f e c t e d b y a g r o u p o f m o d e r a t e s w h o w e r e

n e i t h e r H i g h C h u r c h L a u d i a n s n o r P u r i t a n , b u t w h o r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n

s e n s u s o f o r t h o d o x y a g a i n s t w h i c h s c i e n t i f i c d o c t r i n e m u s t b e g a u g e d . " "

I t w a s f r o m t h i s s o m e w h a t a m o r p h o u s b o d y o f m e n t h a t i n c l u d e d

c l e r i c s a n d s c i e n t i s t s a l i k e , t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c p h i l o s o p h e r s o f

t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a d t o g a i n a p p r o v a l . T h e R o y a l S o c i e t y

a n d t h e R o y a l C o l l e g e o f P h y s i c i a n s w e r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y d e p e n d e n t

u p o n R o y a l s u p p o r t a n d p u b l i c o p i n i o n , a n d w e r e t h u s p a r t i c u l a r l y

s e n s i t i v e t o a n y p u b l i c c r i t i c i s m o v e r p u b l i s h e d d o c t r i n e . O n e o f

t h e p r i m e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o f m a n y s c i e n t i f i c

a m a t e u r s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i t h e r b o d y , w a s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e

t o d i s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e s t i g m a a t t a c h e d t o t h e G r e e k

m a t e r i a l i s t s w h o w e r e i n m a n y w a y s t h e i r o w n t r u e f o r e b e a r s . I n

t h e 1660s a n d 1670s, t h e r e w a s a n i n c r e a s i n g b o d y o f o p i n i o n i n

E n g l a n d t h a t t h e n e w s c i e n c e w a s e q u i v a l e n t t o m a t e r i a l i s m w h i c h

w a s i n t u r n e q u i v a l e n t t o a t h e i s m . T h a t T h o m a s H o b b e s w a s i n t i m a t e l y

i n v o l v e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h i s o p i n i o n i s i n c o n t e s t a b l e .

H i s m o r t a l i s t t h o u g h t i n L e v i a t h a n f o l l o w e d o n t h e h e e l s o f O v e r t o n a n d

B r o w n e ' s r a t h e r i n v i d i o u s w o r k i n t h e 1640s, a n d c r i t i c i s m f o r

t h i s a n d f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y c a u s e d H o b b e s t o b e a c c u s e d

o f a t h e i s m . ^ W h e n t h e R e s t o r a t i o n b r o u g h t a s p a t e o f ' l i b e r t i n i s m , '

H o b b e s w a s e v e n a c c u s e d o f s p o n s o r i n g t h i s , b o t h b y h i s f r e e t h i n k i n g

a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e l i n k b e t w e e n E p i c u r e a n i s m a n d l i b e r t i n e h e d o n i s m . ^

F u r t h e r m o r e , d e s p i t e H o b b e s ' o w n d e n i a l o f b e i n g a n E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o

p h e r , o p i n i o n s p o n s o r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y b y t h e C a m b r i d g e P l a t o n i s t s

d i d t e n d t o s e e h i m t h a t w a y , a n d i n d e e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e s m a l l

e n o u g h t o m a k e s u c h a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e e m q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e .

T h e m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i n R e s t o r a t i o n E n g l a n d w a s p e r h a p s n o t

s o m u c h a r e s u l t o f a n y C a r t e s i a n i n c u r s i o n a s t h e o f f s p r i n g o f

b o t h D e s c a r t e s a n d G a s s e n d i . A l t h o u g h H o b b e s l a t e r a d o p t e d a p l e n i s t

s t a n d , h i s e a r l y w o r k w a s a t o m i s t i c , T h i s e a r l y a t o m i s m h a d s e v e r a l

c o n s e q u e n c e s . S i n c e h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d h i s p l e n i s t t h o u g h t i n 1655

i n D e C o r p o r e j f o u r y e a r s a f t e r L e y i, a t h a n a n d r i g h t a t t h e t i m e o f

m o s t h e a t e d d e b a t e o v e r p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , t h a t t h o u g h t

s e e m s t o h a v e h a d m u c h l e s s i m p a c t t h a n i t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e h a d , " l l

w a s t h e e a r l y a t o m i s t i c w o r k t h a t H o b b e s w a s m o s t n o t i c e d f o r , a n d

t h i s w a s t h e w o r k t h a t m o s t r e s e m b l e d G a s s e n d i ' s E p i c u r e a n i s m . T h i s

i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t w o p h i l o s o p h i e s w e r e s t r u c t u r a l l y v e r y

s i m i l a r ; G a s s e n d i ' s S y n t a g m a i s a v a r i e g a t e d h o d g e p o d g e o f a n c i e n t

t h o u g h t m e l d e d t o g e t h e r a s a m o d e r n E p i c u r e a n d o c t r i n e w h e r e a s H o b b e s

h a d n o l e s s a p u r p o s e t h a n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d e x p l a i n

a l l t h i n g s i n t e r m s o f m a t t e r a n d m o t i o n . ^ N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e t w o

s y s t e m s h a d t h e s a m e b a s i c m a t e r i a l i s m a n d t h e s a m e s o r t o f c o r p u s c u l a r

m e c h a n i s m a s i n t e g r a l p a r t s . T h e E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o p h y h a d a c e r t a i n

o d o u r o f a t h e i s m a t t a c h e d t o i t d u e t o i t s p a g a n o r i g i n s , a n d t h e

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h H o b b e s o n l y e x a c e r b a t e d t h i s p r o b l e m . T h u s t h e t a s k

o f C h a r l e t o n , W i l l i s a n d o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s o f m e c h a n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y

b e c a m e n o t o n l y t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h a t p h i l o s o p h y f r o m a n c i e n t

a t h e i s m b u t a c o m p l e t e d e n i a l o f a n y H o b b i s t c o n n e c t i o n a s w e l l .

T h i s w a s a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k , f o r t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y h a d t o e x p l a i n t h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C h a r i t o n i a n - G a s s e n d i s t - E p i c u r e a n m e c h a n i s m a n d

H o b b t s t m e c h a n i s m , a n d i n t h i s t a s k t h e S o c i e t y f a i l e d t o t h e e x t e n t

t h a t t h e y t o o w e r e a t t a c k e d a s a t h e i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s t s .

I t w a s s h o w n i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n t h a t m a n y o f t h e v i r t u o s i

w e r e i n f a c t f o l l o w i n g p a t h s i n p h y s i o l o g y a n d p s y c h o l o g y v e r y c l o s e

t o H o b b e s ' p h i l o s o p h y , b u t d r a w i n g t h e l i n e a t e x p l a i n i n g s o u l i n

s i m i l a r m e c h a n i c a l t e r m s . S a m u e l M i n t z , i n T h e H u n t i n g o f L e v i a t h a n ,

s a i d t h a t i t w a s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m a n d t h e

H o b b i s t m o n i s m t h a t w o u l d h e l p u s d e f i n e t h e C a r t e s i a n a n d H o b b i s t

q spheres of in f luence . The conclus ion based upon the f ind ings o f

th is paper must be that Mintz was making a fundamental mistake. If

monism is used as a c r i t e r i o n for Hobbism then the only supporters

of Hobbes to be found w i l l be r e l i g ious and p o l i t i c a l r ad i ca l s l i k e

Overton, and the occasional person who openly agreed with Hobbes on

some minor point l i k e Henry S t u b b e . ^ This s i t ua t i on resu l ts in a

p a r t i c u l a r l y clouded view of Hobbes' reception in England, and in

fact Mintz does paint jus t such a p i c tu re . The true re l a t ionsh ip of

Hobbes to mechanical philosophy is far more subt le than the role

of a mere f igurehead of atheism against which his opponents were

forced to formulate and organize other theories would al l o w J - When

Kargon sa id that "The ba t t l e for atomism was begun in the shadow of 12

Hobbes," he was only p a r t i a l l y s t a t ing the t ru th . The development

of mechanical philosophy progressed in part because of Hobbes encourage

ment and dissemination of that philosophy to his f r i ends l i k e Char le ton ,

and h is inf luence and reputation as a ser ious s c i e n t i s t .

Hobbes had a small but real part in the trend to Engl ish hypothet

i ca l ism, in f luenc ing his peers in the method as well as the content

of the i r theor ies . As ear ly as 1636, Hobbes had a d e f i n i t i o n of

hypothesis in mind, had given the method of tes t ing i t , and had noted

i t s i n a b i l i t y ever to be more than probable. For Hobbes, the world

cons is ted of things which were demonstrable, that is geometry and

mathematics, and things not demonstrable "as depending upon the motion 14

of bodies so sub t i l e as they are i n v i s i b l e . " Of the things which

are not demonstrable, he sa id that "the most that can be atteyned

unto is to have such op in ions , as no cer ta in experience can confute

and from which can be deduced by lawful argumentation no a b s u r d i t y . " ^

T h i s w a s v e r y s i m i l a r t o D e s c a r t e s ' i d e a o f a u n i v e r s a l w o r l d c l o c k ,

t h e f a c e o f w h i c h w e c a n s e e b u t t h e w o r k i n g s o f w h i c h a r e h i d d e n

f 16 f r o m u s .

R o b e r t B o y l e a d a p t e d D e s c a r t e s ' u s e o f t h e c l o c k m e t a p h o r t o

j u s t i f y a h y p o t h e t i c a l v i e w o f s c i e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e . ' ^ H e s h a r e d

w i t h D e s c a r t e s a n d E n g l i s h s c e p t i c s l i k e G l a n v i l l t h e i d e a t h a t a n y

h y p o t h e s i s c a n i n v o l v e o n l y a p o s s i b l e m e c h a n i s m f o r t h e c l o c k - w o r k

a n d t h a t m a n c a n n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t r u e m e c h a n i s m s . T h i s i s , i n g e n e r a l

t e r m s , t h e i h y p o t h e t i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h w a s p o p u l a r i n E n g l a n d i n t h e

l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H o b b e s , h o w e v e r , w a s d r a w n t o t h e t h e o r y

t h a t t h o s e t h i n g s i n v o l v i n g i n s e n s i b l y s m a l l o b j e c t s a r e i n p r i n c i p l e

d e m o n s t r a b l e , c o u l d w e b u t s e e t h e i r p a r t s a n d h o w t h e y m o v e .

I n t h e 1660s t h e r e w a s a g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t h y p o t h e t i c a l i s m

i n s c i e n c e w h i c h o f f e r e d t h e c o n t r a r y o p i n i o n t h a t t h e t r u t h o f t h e

n a t u r a l w o r l d c o u l d i n d e e d b e f a t h o m e d i n o n e m a n n e r o r a n o t h e r .

S o m e h e l d t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w a s t h e p a t h t o p r o p e r k n o w l e d g e ,

l i k e B o y l e w h o h a d c r i t i c i z e d H o b b e s f o r h i s a p p a r e n t u n w i l l i n g n e s s

t o e x p e r i m e n t , a n d s o m e t h o u g h t l i k e P e t t y a n d N e w t o n t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s

w a s t h e t o o l w h i c h w o u l d e x p l a i n p h y s i c s . O n e a v i d m i c r o s c o p i s t ,

H e n r y P o w e r ( 1 6 2 3 - 1 6 8 8 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e m i c r o s c o p e w a s t h e i n s t r u

m e n t w h i c h , g i v e n e n o u g h e l a b o r a t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e , w o u l d a l l o w m e n

t o s e e c o r p u s c l e s a n d t h e i r m e c h a n i s m s a n d b r e a k i n t o t h e w o r k s o f

D e s c a r t e s ' w o r l d - c l o c k . . W h e t h e r t h e y w i s h e d t o r e n o v a t e h y p o t h e t i c a l

p h y s i c s , l i k e B o y l e , o r t o r e p l a c e i t w i t h c e r t a i n t y l i k e N e w t o n a n d

H o o k e , t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s h a d t h e i r w a y , a n d E n g l i s h h y p o t h e t i c a l i s m

d e c l i n e d w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y .

T h e h y p o t h e t i c a l i s m o f b o t h D e s c a r t e s a n d G a s s e n d i w a s e s s e n t i a l

t o t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i e s . F o r b o t h m e n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y h a d t o r e m a i n

c o n j e c t u r a l . O f t h e t h r e e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a n t s o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y i n E n g l a n d , o n l y H o b b e s a d m i t t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e m o n s t r a b l e

m e c h a n i s m s i n n a t u r e . I n t h i s H o b b e s f o r e t o l d m o r e a c c u r a t e l y t h a n

B o y l e t h e t r e n d o f s c i e n c e i n N e w t o n ' s t i m e , e v e n i f h i s a c t i v e p a r t

i n t h a t t r e n d w a s s m a l l .

H o b b e s ' m o n i s m w a s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e l o g i c o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l

p h i l o s o p h e r s c a r r i e d t o i t s e x t r e m e , a n d i t i s I n t h i s t h a t H o b b e s

h a s h a d h i s g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d p a r a d o x i c a l l y w a s g i v e n l e a s t

c r e d i t a n d r e p u t a t i o n b y h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . H o b b e s a d d r e s s e d

h i m s e l f t o a p r o b l e m w h i c h e x i s t e d f o r e v e r y m e c h a n i s t s i n c e D e s c a r t e s ,

t h a t o f h o w t o e x p l a i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n i m m a t e r i a l s o u l a n d r e c o n c i l e

t h a t w i t h a m a t e r i a l b o d y . S o m e m e n r e s o r t e d t o s t r a n g e a n d e l a b o r a t e

d e v i c e s t o e x p l a i n a w a y t h e p r o b l e m . O n e A r n o l d G e u l i n e x ( 1 6 2 5 - 1 6 6 9 )

p r o p o s e d a c r e e d c a l l e d O c c a s i o n a l i s m , i n w h i c h G o d H i m s e l f w a s t h e

a c t i v e l i n k b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m i n d a n d e v e r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e m r e q u i r e d m i r a c u l o u s d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n . O t h e r s a d m i t t e d t h a t

t h e p r o b l e m w a s b e y o n d h u m a n k n o w l e d g e . " H o w t h e p u r e r s p i r i t i s

u n i t e d t o t h i s C l o d i s a k n o t t o o h a r d f o r f a l l e n H u m a n i t y t o u n t y . . . 2 0

t o h a n « j w e i g h t s o n t h e w i n g s o f t h e w i n d e s e e m s f a r m o r e i n t e l l i g i b l e . "

S t i l l o t h e r s i g n o r e d t h e p r o b l e m , a n d W a l t e r C h a r l e t o n . a r t i c u l a t e d t h e p e r p l e x i t y o f m a n y w h e n h e s a i d t h a t h e w o u l d s h e l v e t h e m a t t e r

i n d e f i n i t e l y , c o n v e n i e n t l y " s u s p e n d i n g m y c u r i o s i t y , w h i c h h a t h t o o

o f t e n p e r p l e x e d m e . "

E v e n t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t c o n s c i o u s l y o r s u b c o n s c i o u s l y t e n d t o a g r e e

w i t h H o b b e s i n t h i s m a t t e r , t h e s o c i a l p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t a n y s u c h a d m i s

s i o n w a s s o s t r o n g a s t o p r e v e n t a n y s u c h a d m i s s i o n o r a l l o c a t i o n o f

c r e d i t f r o m b e i n g m a d e . T h e s e s a m e p r e s s u r e s c a u s e d m a n y b o o k s t o

22 b e p u b l i s h e d a n o n y m o u s l y a n d o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s t o r e m a i n h i d d e n .

T h e m e n w h o r a i l a g a i n s t H o b b e s f o r h i s m o n i s m d o s o b e c a u s e o f t h e

r e a s o n a b l e n a t u r e o f t h a t m o n i s m ; i f H o b b e s t h e o r y w a s p l a i n l y n o n s e n s

i c a l i t w o u l d n o t b e d a n g e r o u s n o r w o r t h y o f r e p u d i a t i o n . E v e n t h o s e

w h o s e e m e r i t i n p a r t s o f h i s p h y s i o l o g y o r w h o f o l l o w f a i r l y c l o s e l y

h i s s c h e m e o f p s y c h o l o g y c o u l d n o t o p e n l y g i v e c r e d i t t o H o b b e s .

T h e a t t i t u d e s o f H o b b e s ' c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i s a d m i r a b l y s u m m e d u p b y

23 a n e x e r p t f r o m a l e t t e r d e s c r i b i n g a n i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h r e e m e n :

' H o w ' , s a y d o n e , ' I w o u l d s o o n e r r e n o u n c e s m o a k i n g , t h e n I w o u l d f o l l o w t h a t H o b b e s . ' ' N a y ' s a i d a n o t h e r , ' I w o u l d

s m o a k e f o r e v e r r a t h e r t h a n i m i t a t e w h a t s u c h a v a r l e t h a s d o n e - - H e L o g i c i a n ! W h y d i d n o t o u r D r . W a l l i s k i c k h i s A l g e b r a a b o u t h i s e a r e s , a n d o u t d o e h i m t o o e v e n a t P l a i n e R a y l i n g ? ' B u t a t h i r d w a s m o r e s e d a t e , f o r h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m a t t e r s a y i n g : ' G e n t l e m e n , w e a r e p r e s e n t n o t u p p o n M r . H o b b s 1 D i v i n i t y b u t h i s L o g i c . T h e m a n h a d p a r t s , t h o p r o u d a n d p e r h a p s u n g r a t e f u l . '

T h u s w h i l e m a n y d e p l o r e d H o b b e s a n d h i s p h i 1 o s o p h y , o t h e r s w e r e a b l e

t o s e p a r a t e t h e c o n t e n t o f h i s t h o u g h t f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r p u b l i c

d e n i a l o f i t , a n d , a t l e a s t i n a s e m i - p r i v a t e s i t u a t i o n , t o d i s c u s s

s e r i o u s l y t h e i d e a s o f t h e p r o u d o b s t r e p e r o u s m e c h a n i s t .

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w a n i n g o f C a r t e s i a n d o c t r i n e i n E n g l a n d

c a n n o t b e h e l d d u e t o H o b b e s , y e t H o b b e s w a s t h e o n l y o u t s p o k e n c r i t i c

o f C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m w h o w a s a l s o a r e s p e c t e d s c i e n t i f i c p h i l o s o p h e r .

T h e d e c l i n e o f C a r t e s i a n i s m w a s r a t h e r d u e t o t h e o p i n i o n s a f t e r t h e

1690s o f a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f m e n t h a t t h e n e w e r N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s

w a s a m o r e a t t r a c t i v e a n d c o n s i s t e n t f o r m u l a t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y

a n d f u r t h e r m o r e ( p a r t i a l l y d u e t o i t s s m a l l e r c o m p a s s ) m o r e e a s i l y

r e c o n c i l a b l e w i t h r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y . T h e s w a n - s o n g o f C a r t e s i a n i s m

i n E n g l a n d w a s t h e p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1694 o f A n t o i n e L e G r a n d ' s E n t i r e

B o d y o f P h i l o s o p h y A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e F a m o u s R e n a t e

D e s C a r t e s , i n w h i c h L e G r a n d a t t e m p t e d a r e n o v a t i o n o f C a r t e s i a n i s m

m u c h a s C h a r l e t o n h a d r e v i s e d G a s s e n d i ' s E p i c u r e a n i s m . A l a r g e s e c t i o n

o f t h i s w o r k w a s n e c e s s a r i l y d e v o t e d t o t h e v e r y i s s u e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

b e t w e e n H o b b e s a n d D e s c a r t e s , t h a t o f a n i m a l s o u l o r a n i m a l a u t o m a t i s m .

I f H o b b e s w a s d u a l i s m . ' s : . : m o s t o u t s p o k e n c r i t i c , i t i s p l a i n t h a t e v e n

t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f C a r t e s i a n i s m t o i t s v e r y e n d s a w t h e p r o b l e m s

w h i c h f o r m e d t h e l o g i c a l b a s i s o f H o b b e s 1 o b j e c t i o n s . F a c e d w i t h

t w o c a t e g o r i e s o f a p p a r e n t l y s e n s i b l e b e i n g s , m a n a n d a n i m a l s ,

C a r t e s i a n s h a d t h e d u a l t a s k s o f s h o w i n g t h a t m a n h a s a n i m m a t e r i a l

s o u l a n d a n i m a l s d o n o t . I r o n i c a l l y , t h i s s i t u a t i o n p o s e s a l o g i c a l

d i l e m m a . I f o n e a d m i t s t h a t a n i m a l s h a v e s o u l s t h e n t h e y a r e n o

d i f f e r e n t i n t h i s f r o m m a n , a n d w i l l g o t o h e a v e n . I f o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d o n e s h o w s t h a t a l l o f t h e f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b y a n i m a l s c a n

b e e x p l a i n e d m e c h a n i c a l l y , a n d t h e n c a n f i n d n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o

d i s t i n g u i s h a n i m a l s f r o m m a n , t h e n o n e i s l e d t o t h e l o g i c a l a n d

H o b b e s i a n c o n c l u s i o n t h a t m e n t o o a r e a u t o m a t o n s w i t h o u t i m m a t e r i a l

s o u l s . E i t h e r c o u r s e i n v o l v e s o n e i n c l e a r h e r e s y .

2k L e G r a n d a n s w e r e d H o b b e s d i r e c t l y , s a y i n g :

B u t m e t h i n k s I h e a r M r . H o b b e s c r y i n g o u t , t h a t t h e r e i s n o n e c e s s i t y I s h o u l d h a v e r e c o u r s e t o a n i m m a t e r i a l p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e p r o d u c i n g o f c o g i t a t i o n , s i n c e m o t i o n i t s e l f , o r t h e r e a c t i o n o f o n e p a r t o f m a t t e r a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r , o r a t l e a s t a d u e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s a i d r e a c t i o n c a n a s w e l l e f f e c t t h e s a m e .

H e c o u n t e r e d b y s i m p l y s t a t i n g t h a t i f o n l y m a t t e r a n d m o t i o n e x i s t e d ,

H o b b e s 1 a c c o u n t w o u l d b e c o r r e c t , b u t t h a t s i n c e t h a t b a s i c p r e m i s e

i s w r o n g , t h e a r g u m e n t i s m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e p r o b l e m h e r e i s o n c e

a g a i n o n e o f a l a c k o f c o m p r e h e n s i o n . L e G r a n d c a n n o t c o n c e i v e o f

matter, which is defined as an unthinking substance,as ever , even in 26

any soph is t i ca ted arrangement, th ink ing .

There a l l too e a s i l y may be a tendency to view Hobbes-the-psychologist

in the same manner as Hobbes the p o l i t i c a l theor i s t has been often

cha rac te r i zed , as a thinker somehow iso la ted from his t ime, or ahead 27

o f his time. He might seem even more i so la ted in his psychologica l

thought than in his p o l i t i c a l thought, for no one but fanat i cs and

rad ica ls openly agreed with him in the former area, whereas at least 28

a few men agreed with port ions at least o f the l a t t e r . This study

has attempted to show that such a conclusion would be erroneous and

detrimental to the understanding o f Hobbes and his phi losophy. Hobbes

was not a lone f igure mooting an unpopular doct r ine to a h o s t i l e

audience. He was s ta t ing a log i ca l conclusion that others could :not

or would not admit to yet which many had come to rea l i ze for themselves;

the mechanical conception o f nature does not require the postu la t ion

of an immaterial sou l . That many men knew the truth of th i s conclus ion

is imp l i c i t in the i r painstaking avoidance of the pub l i ca t ion of i t .

Hobbes represented the conscious thought of men l i ke Charleton and

W i l l i s and a number of other p rac t i t i one r s of the mechanical phi losophy,

who were engaged in the mechanical explanat ion of the world and of man.

The d i f f e rence is that a l l of these men, whether through r e l i g i ous

b e l i e f , or from simple prudent e t i que t t e , included in the i r work the

immaterial sou l . Hobbes alone did not do t h i s .

When Brown a t t r ibu ted to Hobbes a negative ro le in the spread of

mechanical philosophy in England he was descr ib ing the s u p e r f i c i a l l y

apparent case against Hobbes. There is however, much more to the

re l a t ionsh ip between Hobbes and contemporary phys io log i s t s than

Brown's suggestion would lead one to expect. It has been indicated

here that Hobbes was not working in i so l a t i on in terms of phys io log ica l

theory but rather was funct ion ing very much in the mainstream of

contemporary thought. While pub l i c acclamation of Hobbes' work was obviously

impossible, p r i va te acknowledgement was ce r t a in l y permiss ib le . One of

the more s i g n i f i c a n t examples o f such covert approval may be found

in a l e t t e r from Thomas Sprat to Christopher Wren. Sprat was the

author of History of the Royal Society of London, <an o f f i c i a l h is tory

intended to excuse the Society from accusat ions of mater ia l ism and 29 * 30 atheism. Sprat , w r i t i ng about So rb ie re ' s opinion of Hobbes s a i d :

He feorb ie re j wounds him [Hobbes] in the most dangerous p lace , his Phi losophy, and his understanding. He very k indly reports of him, that he is too dogmatical in his Op in ion . . . Bu t however, to comfort Mr. Hobbs for th is a f f r o n t , I dare assure him that as for Monsieur de Sorb ie re ' s par t , he understands not his Phi losophy. Of th is I w i l l give an unanswerable testimony, and that is the resemblance that he makes o f him, to the Lord Verulam: . . . I scarce know two men in the World, that have more d i f f e r en t co lors of speech, then these two great W i t t s : The Lord Bacon shor t , a l l u s i v e , and abounding with Metaphors: Mr. Hobbs round, c l o se , sparing of s i m i l i t u d e s : but ever extraordinary decent in them. The one's way of reas 'n ing proceeds on p a r t i c u l a r s , and pleasant images, only suggesting new ways of exper iment ing . . . . The o the r ' s bo ld , r e s o l v ' d , se t led upon general c o n c l u s i o n s . . .

Sprat had read Hobbes and obviously was w i l l i n g to give h is ideas

ser ious cons idera t ion .

It i s. estab 1 i shed fact that men l i ke Charleton and W i l l i s knew

and even corresponded with Hobbes and the other members of the

Newcastle c i r c l e in the years when the mechanical philosophy was

being introduced from the Continent. To conc lus ive ly prove that

the works of such phys io log i s t s borrowed d i r e c t l y from Hobbes, or

t o ; s u b s t a n t i a t e a w i d e l y i f p r i v a t e l y h e l d good o p i n i o n o f Hobbes

would r e q u i r e b o t h e x t e n s i v e t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s and p r i m a r y s o u r c e s

u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s w r i t e r . That such a c o n c l u s i o n i s a t l e a s t p l a u s i b l e

and t h a t i t can be s u p p o r t e d by some a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e has been shown.

The causes f o r the p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e o f such a q u e s t have

a l s o been i n d i c a t e d . In a time when H o b b i s t meant a t h e i s t , the

f o l l o w e r s o f the new m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y such as C h a r l e t o n were 31

p u b l i c A y l a b e l l e d H o b b i s t . Thus, f o r t h e r e t o be any f u t u r e

f o r t h e i r p u r s u i t o f m e c h a n i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f n a t u r e , even C h a r l e t o n

was f o r c e d t o d i s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f from Hobbes, who may w e l l have

n u r t u r e d m e c h a n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y i n him, and even t o j o i n t h e a t t a c k

a g a i n s t m a t e r i a l i s m . M e r i c Casaubon, d i s c e r n i n g the t r e n d o f

E n g l i s h s c i e n c e and the ends t o w h i c h men l i k e Hobbes might l e a d 32

i t , p u b l i s h e d a l e t t e r i n 1669 i n r e s p o n s e : Now I c r a v e l e a v e t o t e l l you t h a t i t £experimental p h i l o s o p h y j i s v e r y a p t t o be abused and t o d e g e n e r a t e i n t o A t h e i s m . Men t h a t a r much f i x e d upon m a t t e r and secondary causes and s e n s u a l o b j e c t s , i f g r e a t c a r e be not t a k e n , may i n time ( t h e r e be many examples) and by degree f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e be such t h i n g s i n the w o r l d as S p i r i t s . . . f o r g e t I s a y , and c o n s e q u e n t l y d i s c r e d i t s u p e r n a t u r a l o p e r a t i o n s : and a t l a s t , t h a t t h e r e i s a God, and t h a t t h e i r s o u l s a r e i m m o r t a l .

Casaubon was w r i t i n g t o c h a s t i s e Joseph G l a n v i l l f o r h i s P l u s U l t r a ,

the second and u n o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y o f the Royal S o c i e t y i n t e n d e d by

Henry O l d e n b u r g , P r e s i d e n t o f the S o c i e t y , t o r e v i s e S p r a t ' s a p o l o g i s t

e f f o r t s on b e h a l f o f the S o c i e t y . Casaubon, though he does not name

Hobbes, i s e s s e n t i a l l y t e l l i n g G l a n v i l l t h a t i f he i s not c a r e f u l ,

the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y w i l l l e a d him t o the same s o r t o f h e r e t i c a l

m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c l u s i o n s as t h o s e reached by Hobbes.

H o b b e s w a s n o t t h e p r o g e n i t o r o f t h e m o n i s t i c v e r s i o n o f t h e

m e c h a n i c a l p h y s i o l o g y , n o r c e r t a i n l y w a s h e i t s o n l y a d h e r e n t . T h i s

s a m e s t r a i n m a y b e s e e n i n t h e n e x t c e n t u r y i n t h e w o r k s o f m e n s u c h

a s L a M e t t r i e a n d D a v i d H a r t l e y . H o b b e s w a s , h o w e v e r , a n o u t s t a n d i n g

s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e s e i d e a s , a n d a s s u c h h e h a s a n i m p o r t a n t i f h e r e t o

f o r e l i t t l e a p p r e c i a t e d p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h y s i o l o g y a s w e l l

a s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

F O O T N O T E S

C H A P T E R I I I

H O B B E S 1 R O L E I N T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F P H Y S I O L O G Y

1. T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n P u r i t a n i s m a n d s c i e n c e w a s f i r s t s u g g e s t e d b y R o b e r t K . M e r t o n a n d D o r o t h y S t i m s o n . A l i s t o f t h e i r a r t i c l e s a n d t h o s e o f m o r e r e c e n t w r i t e r s i n t h e s a m e v e i n m a y b e f o u n d i n B a r b a r a S h a p i r o ' s , J o h n W i 1 k i n s , ( L o s A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ) , p - 2 5 3 - C h r i s t o p h e r H i l l i s a m o r e r e c e n t p r o p o n e n t o f t h i s t h e o r y .

2 . P u r i t a n a l l o w s n o p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n . T h e t e r m w a s u s e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a s a p e j o r a t i v e l a b e l f o r o n e w h o h a d s t r i c t e r v i e w s o n r e l i g i o n t h a n t h e s p e a k e r , t h a t i s a r a d i c a l ( e . g . s o m e o n e w h o a t t e n d e d c h u r c h s e r v i c e m o r e o f t e n t h a n t h e s p e a k e r d i d ) .

3 . O n t h e a r g u m e n t f o r a n e w ' m o d e r a t e ' d e f i n i t i o n s e e S h a p i r o , J o h n W i 1 k i n s , p p . 5 _ 1 1 .

4 . M i r i a m M . R e i k , T h e G o l d e n L a n d s o f T h o m a s H o b b e s , ( D e t r o i t : W a y n e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p . l 8 l .

5 . H o b b e s l a t e r f e a r e d f o r h i s l i f e ( p e r h a p s u n n e c e s s a r i l y ) a n d w r o t e C o n c e r n i n g H e r e s y a n d C o n s i d e r a t i o n s u p o n t h e R e p u t a t i o n , L o y a l t y , M a n n e r s , a n d R e l i g i o n o f T h o m a s H o b b e s , , l n - E n g l i s h " W o r k s , e d . S i r . W . M o l e s w o r t h , , ( L o n d o n : J o h n B o h n & C o . L t d . , 1 8 3 9 ) , V o l . I V . S a d d u c i s m a n d t h e f r e e - w i l l c o n t r o v e r s y w e r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s o f c r i t i c i s m a r i s i n g d i r e c t l y o u t o f H o b b e s 1 n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y . A t o n e p o i n t , t h e b i s h o p s w a n t e d t o b u r n H o b b e s a s a h e r e t i c , s e e J . A u b r e y , B r i e f L i v e s , e d . A . C l a r k , ( O x f o r d : T h e C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 9 8 ) , v o l . I , p . 3 3 9 -

6 . H o b b e s p e r s o n a l l y w a s c e r t a i n l y f a r m o r e a s c e t i c t h a n m a n y o f h i s c r i t i c s . O n t h e l i n k s w i t h l i b e r t i n e s , s e e M i n t z , S . J . , T h e H u n t i n g o f L e v i a t h a n , ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) , c h a p t e r V I I .

7 . I t w a s f o r t h i s v e r y u n i v e r s a l a s p i r a t i o n o f H o b b e s 1 s y s t e m t h a t B o y l e c r i t i c i z e d h i m .

8 . S e e ' - . : f o o t n o t e 4 3 , c h a p t e r I I . S e e a l s o M . R e i k , G o l d e n L a n d s , p . 1 8 4 .

9 . S . J . M i n t z , T h e H u n t i n g o f L e v i a t h a n , p . 1 0 - 1 I .

1 0 . S t u b b e p u b l i s h e d a b o o k d e f e n d i n g p o i n t s o f H o b b e s 1 g r a m m a r a n d b e c a u s e o f t h i s w a s h i m s e l f c r i t i c i z e d .

11. S . J . M i n t z , T h e H u n t i n g o f L e v i a t h a n , p . l 4 9 f f .

12. R . K a r g o n , A t o m i s m i n E n g l a n d f r o m H a r i o t t o N e w t o n , ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s " 1966) , p . 6 2 . K a r g o n p e r h a p s o v e r l y s t r e s s e s a t o m i s m . T h e s t a t e m e n t s h e m a k e s a p p l y e q u a l l y t o m e c h a n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y i n g e n e r a 1 .

13- E . M a d d e n , " T h o m a s H o b b e s a n d t h e R a t i o n a l i s t i c I d e a l , " j_n_ R . M . B l a k e , T h e o r i e s o f S c i e n t i f i c M e t h o d , ( S e a t t l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n P r e s s , I 9 6 0 ) p . 1 1 6 . T h i s e s s a y o u t l i n e s H o b b e s ' d e v e l o p m e n t i n h y p o t h e t i c a l p h y s i c s .

14. H o b b e s ' l e t t e r t o N e w c a s t l e , J u l y 1 6 3 6 , i n P o r t l a n d M a n u s c r i p t s , E n g l i s h W o r k s V o l . I I , p . 1 2 8 .

1 5 . I b i d .

16. R . D e s c a r t e s , O e u v r e s d e D e s c a r t e s , E . A . A d a m a n d P . T a n n e r y e d s . , ( P a r i s : J . V r i n , 1 9 6 7 ) , v o l . I X , p . 3 2 2 .

17. L . L a u d o n , " T h e C l o c k M e t a p h o r a n d P r o b a b a l i s m , " A n n a l s o f S c i e n c e X X I I ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 8 l f f .

18; - . . i b i d . ; : p - . r i : o o f f .

1 9 « B . W i l l e y , T h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y B a c k g r o u n d , ( L o n d o n : C h a t t o a n d W i n d u s , 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 8 5 - 8 6 .

2 0 . J . G l a n v i l l , T h e V a n i t y o f D o g m a t i z i n g , ( L o n d o n : H e n r y E v e r s d e n , 1 6 6 1 ) , p . 2 0 s e e a l s o W . C h a r l e t o n , N a t u r a l H i s t o r y - o f -„ t h e ; P a s s i o n s , ( l o n d o n ; M 6 7 4 ) , ' , p ; 6 6 . . ". . \

2 1 . W . C h a r l e t o n , N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , p . 6 7 .

2 2 . R . S . W e s t f a l 1 , S c i e n c e a n d R e l i g i o n i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , ( N e w H a v e n " ! Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 .

2 3 . W . P e t t y , T h e P e t t y - S o u t h w e l l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e 1 6 7 6 - 1 6 8 7 , e d . M a r q u i s o f L a n s d o w n , ( L o n d o n : C o n s t a b l e , 1928) , p . 3 1 1 .

2 4 . A . L e G r a n d , A n E n t i r e B o d y o f P h i l o s o p h y A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e F a m o u s R e n a t e D e s C a r t e s , ( L o n d o n : J o h n s o n R e p r i n t C o r p o r a t i o n , 1 9 7 2 ) , V o l I I I , p . 2 3 2 .

2 5 . L e G r a n d a l s o m i s i n t e r p r e t e d H o b b e s , o b j e c t i n g t h a t i n a H o b b i s t v i e w , a l l m a t t e r c o u l d s e n s e . H o b b e s h a d a n s w e r e d t h a t o b j e c t i o n i n D e C o r p o r e w h e n h e s a i d t h a t c e r t a i n l y o b j e c t s h a d a b a s i c s o r t o f s e n s e b u t u n l e s s t h e y w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d s o a s t o r e t a i n t h e s e n s i b l e m o t i o n ( e . g . a n i m a t e b e i n g s ) t h e r e c o u l d b e n o m e m o r y a n d t h a t s u c h i n d i v i d u a l a c t s o f s e n s e w e r e " n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h a t s e n s e w h i c h i s t h e s u b j e c t o f m y d i s c o u r s e . " E n g l i s h W o r k s , v o l . I p . 3 9 3 -

2 6 . A . L e G r a n d , E n t i r e B o d y , i n t r o d u c t i o n t o 1972 r e p r i n t , e d . R . W a t s o n , p . x .

27- T h i s v i e w o f H o b b e s a s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l o u t c a s t i s d i s c u s s e d b y Q.. S k i n n e r , " T h e I d e o l o g i c a l C o n t e x t o f H o b b e s 1 P o l i t i c a l T h o u g h t , " H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 9 ( 1 9 6 6 ) p p . 2 8 6 - 3 1 7 .

2 8 . I b i d .

2 9 - T o t h i s e n d S p r a t e m p h a s i z e d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n v o l v e d w i t h m a n ' s b o d y a n d d e - e m p h a s i z e d e n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a n ' s s o u l - - t h e q u e s t i o n w h i c h w a s c a u s i n g t h e S o c i e t y s o m u c h t r o u b l e , A . G . D e b u s , M e d i c i n e i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , ( L o s A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 1 6 3 .

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R o s e n f i e l d , L e o n o r a C . , F r o m B e a s t - M a c h i n e t o M a n - M a c h i n e , N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 l .

S h a p i r o , B a r b a r a , J o h n W i 1 k i n s , L o s A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1969-

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S k i n n e r , Q u e n t i n , " T h e I d e o l o g i c a l C o n t e x t o f H o b b e s 1 P o l i t i c a l T h o u g h t , " H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 9 ( I 9 6 6 ) ; 2 8 6 ~ 3 1 7 ,

, " T h o m a s H o b b e s a n d t h e N a t u r e o f t h e E a r l y R o y a l S o c i e t y , " H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l 12 ( 1 9 6 9 ) : 2 1 7 - 2 3 9 .

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W a r d , S . a n d W i l k i n s , J . , V i n d i c i a e A c a d e m i a r u m , O x f o r d , 1654.

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W e b s t e r , C . , " H e n r y M o r e a n d D e s c a r t e s : S o m e N e w S o u r c e s , " B r i t i s h J o u r n a l f o r t h e H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e 4 (1969).

W e s t f a l l , R i c h a r d S . , S c i e n c e a n d R e l i g i o n i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , N e w H a v e n ! Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958.

, T h e C o n s t r u c t i o n o f M o d e r n S c i e n c e : M e c h a n i s m s a n d M e c h a n i c s , N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , 1971.

W i l l e y , B a s i l , T h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y B a c k g r o u n d , L o n d o n : C h a t t o a n d W i n d u s , 1967-

W i l l i a m s o n , G e o r g e , S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y C o n t e x t s , C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1969- :

W i l l i s , T h o m a s , D r . W i l l i s ' s P r a c t i c e o f P h y s i c k , B e i n g t h e W h o l e W o r k s o f t h e R e n o w n e d a n d F a m o u s P h y s i c i a n , t r a n s . S a m u e l P o r d a g e , L o n d o n , 1684. \

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