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Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
Introduction
The triple jump is one of the most complex track and field events and consists of an approach phase
and three consecutive flight phases (Coh & Kugovnik, 2011). The complexity of the event is based on
the athlete’s ability to balance the horizontal velocity deficit of the approach phase, with the
production of the vertical velocity of the centre of mass (COM) (Allen et al, 2013; Perttunen et al;
2000). Additionally, triple jumpers must be able to endure the large ground reaction forces (GRF)
that are typically greatest during the step phase of the jump (Ramey & Williams, 2010).
Furthermore, Studies have found that GRF result in a reduction in the mean horizontal and vertical
forces (Figure 1.) and greater musculoskeletal injury prevalence (Cissik, 2013). However, elite triple
jumpers are able to minimise the horizontal velocity deficit through the utilisation of an optimum
take-off (TO) angle and the ability to maintain the propulsive force during the TO phase (Eissa, 2014).
The ability of a triple jumper to withstand large GRF and maintain the propulsive force during the
take-off (TO) and landing phases is down to their anatomical make-up and training regime (Chand et
al, 2012). The muscles of the lower extremity are essential as flight distance is influenced by muscle
strength and eccentric force enhancement (Seyfarth et al, 2000). Studies has revealed that the
strengthening of the gluteus maximus, rectus femoris and hamstring muscles is essential in
increasing the TO distance and flight distance of each phase (Antonini, 2015). Therefore, those
aspiring to perform on the international stage should look to implement exercises that target
specific muscle groups.
Ricardo’s Profile
The progression from a county triple jumper into an elite one is highly competitive and physically
demanding (Dziewiecki et al, 2013). One particular athlete who is looking to make this progression is
Ricardo, who currently competes for South Leeds Athletics club. Ricardo’s primary aim is to
represent Britain at the 2020 Olympic Games by winning the British Universities and College Sport
(BUCS) Championships in June and qualifying for the National Amateur Athletics Association (AAA)
Championship in August. With his aim in mind, Ricardo is seeking biomechanical support in regards
to his performance enhancement and injury prevention.
Ricardo is twenty-two years old, stands at 6ft 2 inches (188cm) and weighs approximately 209lb
(95kg) (Table 1). In addition to information on Ricardo’s demographics, his coach has provided a
series of strength and jumping exercise measurements (Table 2). This information will be analysed so
that any major weaknesses in Ricardo’s performance can be identified and facilitated.
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Variable Measurement
Age 22 years
Height 188cm (6 foot 2 inches)
Weight 209lb (95kg)
Body mass index (BMI) 26.88 (overweight)
Segment Length (cm) Mass (kg)
Thigh 43.62 13.45
Shank 46.44 4.11
Foot 7.99 1.30
Lower leg 98.05 18.86Table 2: Ricardo’s and Jonathan Edwards’ measurements in a variety of strength and jump related exercises.Table 3: Ricardo’s lower extremity segment lengths and masses (based on information from De Leva (1996) and Plagenhoeff et al (1983)
Table 1: Ricardo’s demographic variables
Exercise Ricardo Jonathan Edwards
Standing long jump 3.25m 3.14m
Standing triple jump 9.29m
Countermovement jump 0.71m
Five-rep max squat 135kg 230kg
One-rep max clean 120kg 132.5kg
One-rep max bench press 100kg 102.5kg
Long jump 7.4m 7.41m
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Deterministic Model
One method of analysing the triple jump for subsequent performance enhancement is by the use of
a deterministic model (Figure 1.), which provides a holistic understanding of a sporting action
(Glazier, 2015). A deterministic model is defined as a modelling paradigm that determines the
relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce
such a measure (Chow & Knudson, 2011; Hay & Reid, 1988). According to research, an effective
deterministic model must identify mechanical factors that completely determine the factors
included at the next highest level (Chow, 2001; Hay, 1985). The mechanical factors included in Figure
1. determine the factors that refer back to the main goal of maximising overall jump distance.
Figure 1. divides the overall distance into the hop distance, step distance and jump distance. A study
by Hay (1999), defined the hop distance as the horizontal distance from the toe of the TO foot at the
TO of the hop to the toe of the same foot at the TO of the step; the step distance as the horizontal
distance from the toe of the TO foot of the step to the toe of the other foot at the TO of the jump
and the jump distance as the horizontal distance from the toe at the TO of the jump to the point of
landing.
Whilst all three phases are essential to triple jump performance, an individual’s phase ratio may
reveal which phases the athlete relies on the most to enhance their overall jump distance. Coh and
Kugovnik (2011) described the hop dominated technique as having an emphasis on the distance of
hop, the jump dominated technique as having an emphasis on the distance of last phase and a
balanced technique whereby the distances of all three phases is emphasised.
The phase distances divide into the landing distance, flight distance and the TO distance. A study by
Bartlett and Bussey (2013) states that the flight distance is the most important of the three sub-
Table 4: Ricardo’s and Jonathon Edwards’ triple jump variables.
Triple jump variable Ricardo Jonathan Edwards
Triple jump 13.50m 18.29m
Approach distance 36m 40m
Hop distance 4.95m (38.85%) 5.78m (31.7%)
Step distance 3.19m (25.04%) 5.85m (32.0%)
Jump distance 4.60m (36.11%) 6.64m (36.3%)
Hop angle at TO 11.6°Step angle at TO 4.8°Jump angle at TO 20°
12.74m
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distances as it determines the projectile properties of the jump. Figure 1. displays that the flight
distance is determined by the acceleration, TO vertical velocity, TO horizontal velocity, TO angle and
the relative height of the COM at TO; all of which contribute to the projectile motion associated with
flight (Linthorne & Everett, 2006) However, it could be argued that the inclusion of the triple jump
phases in Figure 1., cannot be easily implemented into practical application and subsequent training
regimes (Chow & Knudson, 2011).
One of the main criticisms of the deterministic model approach is that they are putatively based on
the principles of mechanics and therefore do not allow any room for practical application (Glazier &
Robins, 2012; Chow & Knudson, 2011). A study by Chow and Knudson (2011) emphasised the need
for sports biomechanists to explore alternative theoretical frameworks that offer greater
explanatory power and practical application. For this reason, Figure 1. incorporates a number of
anthropometric factors including physique, posture and segment length, which can provide greater
practical application to the triple jump model.
Summary
The information on Ricardo’s demographic and exercise information will be analysed in order that
any major weaknesses in Ricardo’s performance can be identified and facilitated. The issues and
solutions regarding Ricardo’s performance will be compared with the determinants displayed in
Figure. 1. The coach has highlighted the following areas that require investigation:
Key mechanical factors required for successful triple jump.
Additional test that may provide important information for future use.
Specific areas that Ricardo can improved to enhance his performance.
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Main Body
Flight Phase Mechanics
The overall distance of a triple jump is determined by the phase distances and the ability to utilise
the optimum phase ratio (Song & Ryu, 2011). A study by Hay (1999) found that 49% of athletes used
a hop dominated technique, 44% used a balanced technique, and 7% used a jump dominated
technique. These results were replicated by Ricardo, who’s score of 12.74m established that he
utilised a hop dominant technique (Table 4). However, studies have revealed that employing a jump
dominated technique minimised the horizontal velocity deficit, compared to the hop-dominated and
balanced techniques (Hay, 1999; Yu & Hay, 1996). Therefore, the jump distance in Figure 1. should
be considered to be a greater determinant of overall distance than either the hop or step distance.
The inclusion of the phase distances in Figure 1. was due to misleading information surrounding
optimal phase ratios; since successful jumps can contain phases of similar distances to unsuccessful
jumps, but make up smaller proportions of the overall distance (Allen et al, 2013). Therefore, the
primary focus should remain on phase distances, with phase ratios as secondary criteria. Various
studies have shown that statistical relationships often take no account of biomechanical limitations
and can often lead to optimal phase ratio predictions that are outside the ranges employed by elite
triple jumpers (Brimberg et al, 2006; Yu & Hay, 1996).
Following the assessment of phase distance, it is evident that Ricardo’s step distance is considerably
shorter than his hop and jump distances. Furthermore, his step phase ratio of 25.04% falls short of
the commonly suggested 30% (Allen et al, 2013; Hay, 1992). A study by Mohammed et al (2015)
revealed that a number of elite triple jumpers including; Jonathon Edwards, Christian Taylor and
Philips Idowu produced step phase ratios of around 30% in the 2009 and 2011 World
Championships. Mohammed et al (2015) also revealed that the lowest step phase ratio amongst the
athletes was Leevans Sands’ fifth round jump of 27% which was still 1.96% greater than Ricardo’s
step phase ratio. Therefore, it is essential that Ricardo focuses on increasing his step distance in
order to maximise overall jump distance. When referring to Figure 1., it is important that the step
distance is considered to be one of the major determinants of overall distance, as this is a major
weakness in Ricardo’s performance.
The flight distance plays a major role in both phase distances and phase ratios as it determines the
acceleration due to gravity, TO vertical and horizontal velocity, TO angle, relative height of COM at
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
TO and aerodynamic forces. A study by Yeadon and Mikulcik (1996) noted that the horizontal and
vertical velocities during the flight phase are strong indicators of overall jump distance. Furthermore,
a number of studies have investigated the relationship between the increase in vertical velocity
during the flight phase and the consequent deficit in horizontal velocity, and its effect on the phase
ratio of the phase distances (Yu and Hay, 1996; Yu, 1999). However, the findings from these studies
are somewhat inconclusive and are therefore difficult to implement into Ricardo’s program.
However, Guiman and Burca (2015) revealed that at the point of TO, the horizontal velocity
developed in the approach phase decreases by 1-2 m/s (9.5-14%) of the TO velocity. The decreasing
horizontal velocity and the increasing vertical velocity indicate that the specific decrease is higher
when both the athlete’s COM and jump height increases (Tiupa et al, 1982). Subsequently,
horizontal and vertical velocities are considered to be major factors in determining the flight
distance in Figure 1. as disparity between the two can reduce overall jump distance. Therefore, it is
essential that Ricardo is producing an appropriate TO angle, as well as looking to optimise his
individual mass and minimise GRF.
As an aspiring elite triple jumper, it is essential that Ricardo follows every precaution to avoid injury,
that could otherwise stunt his development. Triple jumpers are susceptible to landing injuries
because of the large GRF placed on the lower extremity during the landing phases (Ramey &
Williams, 1985). When GRF are too great, the musculoskeletal system is unable to disperse the
forces, thus increasing the chance of injury (Irmischer et al, 2004; McNitt-Gray, 1991). These injury
risks are intensified if the magnitude of the loading rate is high due to shock absorption and force
distribution occurring in the musculoskeletal system during landing (Puddle & Maulder, 2013; Bauer
et al, 2001). Research regarding injury prevention on jump landing mechanics has been
underwhelming. However, a few studies found that specific muscle strengthening (Pertunnen et al,
2000; Ramey & Williams, 1985), augmented feedback (Eriksen et al, 2013) and running shoe design
(Clark et al, 2014; Logan et al 2010) have led to a reduction in injuries related to high GRF. Therefore,
Ricardo should look to implement muscle strengthening, augmented feedback and gait analysis
methods into his training regime.
As previously stated, it is important that Ricardo is able to optimise his TO angle in order to maximise
the phase distances and subsequent overall distance. However, research focusing on the optimum
TO angle of the phase distances has produced conflicting results. A study by Hay (1993) found that
the optimum TO angle of the jump phase should be approximately 43°. Conversely, a study by
Linthorne et al (2005) calculated that the optimum TO angle for the jump phase was 21°. The
majority of literature agrees that the optimum TO angle of the jump phase lies between 18° and 25°
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
(Tsuboi, 2010; Linthorne, 2001). Thus, Ricardo’s jump phase appears to be within this range and
therefore his hop (11.6°) and step (4.8°) TO angles may need to be examined further.
Figure 1. demonstrates that the hop and step TO angles are also determinants of their respective
phase distances and corresponding overall distance. A study by Eissa (2014) found that one elite
triple jumper produced hop and step TO angles of 20.5° and 21.5°, respectively. Therefore, this
athlete’s hop and step TO angles are significantly greater than those produced by Ricardo. These
results can be explained by Ricardo’s relatively short approach distance of 36m and his inability to
increase his speed during the final six metres of the runway (0.71s). Linthorne et al (2005) states that
in order to produce low TO angles and therefore rely heavily on horizontal velocity, athletes use a
long approach distance and a fast pace. In contrast, Ricardo utilises a short distance, a constant
speed and low TO angles during the hop and step phases. Ricardo’s inability to increase his speed
during the final six metres reduces his overall distance potential as the last two steps should be
quicker than the preceding ones (Coh & Kugovnik, 2011; Myers, 1989). Additionally, research
suggests that an approach distance of 40m is used more effectively by elite triple jumpers than the
36m used by Ricardo (Stubbs, 2011; Song & Ryu, 2011). Ricardo’s unconventional technique
minimises the height of his COM, thus reducing his overall jump distance (Rao et al, 2014).
Therefore, Ricardo should aim to increase his approach distance and optimise his hop and step TO
angles.
Landing Phase Mechanics
Although the flight distance is considered to be the most important phase in determining the phase
distances, the landing distance also plays an important role. Bouchouras et al (2009) stated that the
ideal landing technique is achieved when the angular momentum during flight is equal to the body
weight torque. As a result of this, the athlete is able to maximise their phase distance, which
translates into better landing efficiency. Figure 1. demonstrates that any changes in body position
such as body weight torque can create imbalances in the landing technique. Thus, affecting the
landing distance and overall jump distance.
An optimum trunk rotation angle and timing of the landing technique are essential in order to
maximise the linearity of the landing angle and the subsequent landing distance. Figure 2. displays
the noticeable change in the height of the COM during the landing phase. Despite a lack of research
regarding the optimum trunk angle during the landing phase, a study by Blackburn and Padua (2009)
found that trunk flexion moves the trunk COM and associated weight force closer to the knee joint.
The approximation of the trunk COM and knee joint decreases the moment arm for the trunk weight
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
force about the knee. Consequently, the reduction in trunk weight force on the knee joint results in
less musculoskeletal injuries. As previously stated, it is essential that Ricardo remains injury-free in
the lead up to the BUCS and AAA Championships.
The landing and TO phases of the triple jump are complex; therefore, only elite athletes are able to
perform these phases effectively. One major limitation of the deterministic model is that they
typically tell us what complex performance parameters are important but not how these
performance parameters are generated (Glazier & Robins, 2012). An example of this is presented in
Figure 1. whereby the
trunk angle has been identified
as a determinant of the landing
distance but there is no
suggestion as to how this factor
can be implemented
into Ricardo’s performance.
TO Phase Mechanics
Figure 1. demonstrates that the TO distance is determined by the body position at TO. Whilst the TO
distance is not as important as the flight distance, a triple jumper must reach the end of the run-up
with the TO foot placed accurately on the TO board (Linthorne, 2001). At TO, elite athletes attempt
to minimise the distance between the front of their toe and the foul line in order to maximise overall
distance (Scott et al, 1997). Therefore, the ability to achieve an optimum TO distance is determined
by the approach distance.
Figure 2: The effect of trunk angle () on the COM height during landing
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Although Ricardo’s approach distance (36m) requires evaluation, it is vital that his reformed distance
allows him to produce the correct foot placement on the TO board. Failure to adapt to the reformed
length will result in an increased foul count (too long) or a reduction in TO distance and subsequent
overall jump distance if the approach distance (too short).
Anthropometrics
Physique
Figure 1. demonstrates that the TO angle, relative height of the COM and horizontal TO velocity are
affected by a number of anthropometric factors including an athlete’s mass, posture and physique.
According to the information presented in Table 1., Ricardo’s mass of 95kg and his height of 6 foot 2
inches signifies that his BMI is 26.88 (overweight). A study by Pavlovic et al (2013) focused on the
anthropometric space of elite male triple jumpers at the 2008 Beijing Olympics (Table 5). The study
found that the average BMI of the elite triple jumpers was 22.77 (normal). Additionally, studies have
found that elite triple jumpers have BMI measurements within the ‘normal’ category (Pavlovic, 2006;
Kapetanakis et al, 2010). Furthermore, elite triple jumpers Jonathon Edwards, Christian Taylor and
Viktor Kuznyetsov have been found to have BMI measurements of 21.43, 22.35 and 20.47
respectively (Pavlovic et al, 2010). Therefore, it can be assumed that Ricardo needs to reduce his
mass, as this is a determinant of his ability to alter horizontal and vertical velocity.
Triple jumper Height (cm) Mass (kg) BMI
N. Evora (POR) 183 74 22.15
P. Idowu (GBR) 197 87 22.42
L. Sands (BAH) 191 82 22.52
A. Girat (CUB) 202 71 22.46
M. Oprea (ROM) 191 86 23.62
J. Gregorio (BRA) 202 102 25.00
O. Ackike (GBR) 188 75 21.24
OVERALL MEAN 193 82 22.77
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Table 5: Basic demographic variables of elite male triple jumpers. Adapted from Pavlovic et al (2013).
Figure 1. shows that segment length and the athletes height is a determinant of the individual’s
physique and height of COM. Table 5 demonstrates that the average height of a number of elite
male triple jumpers (193cm) is greater than Ricardo’s height of 188cm. The reason for the elevated
height statistics in elite triple jumpers is because they are able to increase the height of their COM
and corresponding phase distances (Alonso et al, 2012).
Segment Length
The segment length and height of an athlete determines the height of their COM and their TO
velocities (Saiyed et al, 2015; Harris & Steudel, 2012). The findings of Plagenhoef et al (1983) and
information presented in Table 3. shows that Ricardo and Christian Taylor are the same height
(188cm) and have the same segment lengths. Therefore, Christian Taylor’s significantly greater
overall jump distance must be down to other factors, including phase ratios, muscular involvement
and training methods.
Numerous studies have revealed that athletes with longer segments are able to produce greater
vertical velocities at TO than those with shorter segments (Aouadi & Nawi Alanazi, 2015; Saiyed et al,
2015; Harris & Steudel, 2012). Consequently, Ricardo’s long segments give him an advantage over
shorter athletes. A study by Davis et al (2006) revealed that a greater foot length may serve to
provide additional mechanical leverage by which the ankle plantar flexors exert a propulsive force.
According to Figure 1. the exertion of a propulsive forces is determined by the motor neuron firing
rate and recruitment of motor units. These neuromuscular processes contribute to greater mean
horizontal and vertical accelerating and decelerating forces, and subsequent horizontal TO velocity.
However, a study by Harris and Steudel (2012) found that longer segment lengths reduced
horizontal TO velocity as longer limbs enhance the work done by increasing the height of the COM as
potential energy.
Training Regime
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Muscle Involvement
The lack of major discrepancies in regards to Ricardo’s performance suggests that his problems are
primarily related to the musculoskeletal system, in particular, his training regime. As previously
stated, the primary muscles involved in maximising the overall distance of the triple jump are the
gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings, tibialis anterior, soleus and gastrocnemius (Antonini,
2015; Pandy & Zajac, 1991). A study revealed that strengthening specific muscle groups is the most
effective way of increasing overall jump distance (Nagano & Gerritsen, 2001). Therefore, Ricardo
should look to incorporate a number of lower extremity exercises into his training regime.
Whilst the lower extremity muscles should be considered as a priority in Ricardo’s training regime,
the muscles of the trunk including the internal oblique’s, external oblique’s and rectus abdominis
should not be overlooked. A study by Norees (2008) found that the trunk muscles, in particular, the
rectus abdominis maintained postural control and produced trunk flexion during the jump (Norees,
2008). As a trunk flexor, the rectus abdominis contributes to the initial landing angle and landing
distance shown in Figure 1. Therefore, Ricardo should incorporate trunk strengthening exercises into
his training regime in order to increase his landing distance.
Training exercises
The inclusion of plyometric exercises in Ricardo’s training regime will increase the contractile
strength of his lower extremity musculature. The added contractile strength is believed to be due to
a stretching of the muscle spindles involving a myotatic reflex and resulting in an increased motor
neuron firing rate and motor unit recruitment (Clutch et al, 1983). Figure. 1 displays the importance
of the motor neuron firing rate and the recruitment of motor units in determining propulsive forces.
A study by Hsiao et al (2015) noted that a combination of the propulsive force and the individuals
COM determines the proportion of the GRF being distributed anteriorly during the approach phase.
Therefore, the inclusion of plyometric exercises will determine the acceleration of the mechanical
factors of the jump.
Plyometric exercises have been shown to improve vertical jump performance, acceleration, leg
strength and muscular power (Miller et al, 2006; Clutch et al, 1983). An increase in leg strength and
muscular power will prove beneficial to Ricardo as his measurements in the lower extremity strength
tests were poor compared to those of Jonathon Edwards. A study by Bensikaddour et al (2015) is
one of the few studies that focuses on the effects of plyometric training on triple jump performance.
The study found that plyometric training increased 30m sprint times (similar to that of Ricardo’s
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
approach distance) and triple jump performance (Figure 3.). However, due to the lack of research in
this area and the limitations of the study, other training methods should be considered.
Figure 3: Comparisons between the use of plyometric exercises (orange) and no plyometrics (blue) in various jumping,
hopping and running exercises. Adapted from Bensikaddour et al (2015).
A number of studies have focused on incorporating strengthening exercises such as drop jumps,
front squats and sprinting into a triple jump training regime (Makaruk et al, 2014; Cissik, 2013; Kale
et al, 2009). Drop jumps have been found to be the ‘gold standard’ of plyometric exercises in regards
to strength, speed and quickness enhancement (Singh & Singh, 2012). However, several studies have
revealed that drop jumps can cause excessive stress on muscles and joints due to the eccentric
contraction and high GRF (Makaruk et al, 2014; Singh & Singh, 2012). The complexity of the triple
jump means that a high volume of training is often required to refine the phase distances by
strengthening the major muscle groups. Burnett (2005) suggests that the due to the excessive
loading phase associated with drop jumps, countermovement jumps may provide a safer alternative
for high volume trainers.
Figure 1. displays that motor unit recruitment and motor neuron firing rate determines the breaking
force, propulsive force and subsequent time in which forces act. A study by Bosco (1982) found that
jumping and squatting exercises resulted in enhanced motor unit recruitment and improvement in
the muscles’ ability to store kinetic energy within the elastic components of the muscle. Therefore,
Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361
Ricardo should look to implement both squatting and jumping exercises into his training regime in
order to enhance the strength and speed of his lower extremity.
Conclusion
One of the major issues surrounding Ricardo’s triple jump performance is the lack of strength in his
lower extremity musculature. This weakness is displayed in Table 2. showing his performance in the
strength exercises in not comparable to that of an elite triple jumper. Therefore, it is important that
the coach incorporates countermovement jumps, front squats and plyometrics into Ricardo’s
training regime. A number of studies have revealed the importance of including trunk strengthening
exercises into Ricardo’s training regime. Trunk strengthening exercises would decrease injury
prevalence by reducing the trunk weight force being applied on the knee joint during landing.
The other major issues surrounding Ricardo’s triple jump performance are mechanical factors.
Firstly, his step distance is considerably shorter than his hop and jump distances. Studies have also
shown that his step phase ratio of 25.04% is significantly shorter than commonly suggested 30%.
Thus making, it is essential that Ricardo adheres to the lower extremity strengthening exercises in
his training regime. Secondly, it is important that Ricardo increases his approach distance from 36m
to 40m in order to increase his horizontal velocity during the approach phase.
Finally, it may be beneficial for Ricardo to decrease his individual mass as this determines his ability
to produce a high horizontal TO velocity. Additionally, Ricardo’s heightened mass may have caused
his inability to increase his speed during the final six metres of the approach phase. This will result in
a reduction in flight distance and overall jump distance.
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