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Biodiversity Mapping Survey/Study in
Kaziranga National Park (KNP)
Insects Chapter
Final Report
Prepared by
Mr. Rahul Khot
Entomologist
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1. Introduction
In terrestrial ecosystems, insects play a vital function as herbivores, pollinators, predators and
parasites (Seimann and Weisser 2004). Insects are considered to pollinate nearly 70% of crop
plants worldwide and over 98% of trees (Klein et al. 2006).
Insects inhabit every terrestrial habitat on the planet and play a major role in the evolution and
maintenance of biotic communities. They are the primary pollinators of flowering plants; they
are important consumers and recyclers of decaying organic matter; and they are integral
components in the food-webs of vertebrates and other invertebrates. For these reasons, and many
others, the study of insects and their relatives is of increasing importance as society faces
increased challenges to preserve and enhance environmental quality, reduce pesticide usage,
increase crop productivity, control food costs, and increase trade in the global community.
The damage cause by pest species is far outweighed by the positive effects of beneficial species.
Pollinators ensure the production of fruit, parasitoids and predators help control pest species,
some species contain chemicals of pharmaceutical value, and a large number of species
contribute to the decomposition and recycling of dead and decaying matter.
The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion states that 3,624 species of
insects are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003). Butterflies and moths are by far
the best-studied invertebrate organisms in Northeast India, and the region contributes the
maximum number of species for the group in the country.
Knowledge of the fauna of the Eastern Himalayas Region is poor. Most of the information
available is on the larger vertebrates that are easily observed and inventoried. The smaller
mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes have been neglected and the most abundant
taxonomic group, the insects, have been virtually ignored. With the exception of a few studies
that have documented the Himalayas lepidoptera (Haribal 1992, Mani 1986, Yonzon 1991), little
else is available on the insect fauna of the region.
The information on insect diversity of Kaziranga NP is meagre as only a few studies have been
conducted so far (Singh and Varatharajan, 2013; Gogoi, 2013 and Senthilkumar 2010).
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2. Objectives
The main objectives of the KNP biodiversity mapping survey/study include but are not limited to
the following:
1. Establish baseline data and survey protocols for future biodiversity monitoring;
2. Establish sound, repeatable field methods appropriate for local conditions;
3. Establish rigorous methods for collection and management of data and specimens, including
the production of high quality photographic documentation with use of camera traps, analysis
thereon and on-site field reconnaissance missions;
4. To bring out management planning by defining habitat preferences and distribution of a range
of fauna/flora/assemblages and threats to them;
5. Identify habitats with rare, endemic and ecologically/culturally important species, guilds and
assemblages;
6. Identify natural assemblages of plants/animals;
7. Provide natural history information on a range of species;
8. Capture broad season-specific behavioral pattern of species.
9. Documentation of management practices and identification of management zones, based on 5-
7 above;
10. Prepare information, data bank, especially on the importance of KNP, available for education
outreach.
11. Share detailed data and information of KNP and develop stronger coordination among the
Forestry Department, KNP, and FREMAA through organizing workshops.
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3. Methods
Study area:
Kaziranga is located between latitudes 26°30' N and 26°45' N, and longitudes 93°08' E to 93°36'
E within two districts in the Indian state of Assam—the Kaliabor subdivision of Nagaon district
and the Bokakhat subdivision of Golaghat district.
The park is approximately 40 km in length from east to west, and 13 km in breadth from north to
south. Kaziranga covers an area of 378 km2, with approximately 51.14 km
2 lost to erosion in
recent years. A total addition of 429 km2 along the present boundary of the park has been made
and designated with separate national park status to provide extended habitat for increasing the
population of wildlife or, as a corridor for safe movement of animals to Karbi Anglong Hills.
Elevation ranges from 40 m to 80 m. The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River,
which forms the northern and eastern boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the
southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
Kaziranga has flat expanses of fertile, alluvial soil, formed by erosion and silt deposition by the
River Brahmaputra. The landscape consists of exposed sandbars, riverine flood-formed lakes
known as, beels, and elevated regions known as, chapories, which provide retreats and shelter for
animals during floods. Many artificial chapories have been built with the help of the Indian
Army to ensure the safety of the animals. Kaziranga is one of the largest tracts of protected land
in the sub-Himalayan belt. The park is located in the Indomalaya ecozone, and the dominant
biomes of the region are Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the tropical and
subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar
savanna and grasslands of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
biome. Average temperature ranges from 5 to 370
C and average humidity ranges between 65%
and 95%. Rainy season is May to October, and the annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.
Study organisms:
Butterflies are suitable for biodiversity studies, as the taxonomy, geographic distribution and
status of many species are relatively well known. Further, butterflies are good biological
indicators of habitat quality as well as general environmental health (Larsen1988; Kocher and
Williams 2000; Sawchik et al. 2005), as many species are strictly seasonal and prefer only
particular set of habitats (Kunte 1997). Butterflies may react to disturbance and change in habitat
and act as an ecological indicator (MacNallyand Fleishman 2004). They may get severely
affected by the environmental variations and changes in the forest structure, as they are closely
dependent on plants (Pollard 1991; Blair 1999). Thus minor changes in their habitat may lead to
either migration or local extinction (Blair 1999; Kunte 1997; Mennechez et al 2003).
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Literature review:
Scientific study and documentation of Indian butterflies can be traced to the arrival of a Danish
medical doctor Johann Gerhard Koenig in southern India, as early as in 1767. W.H.Evans (1932)
provides an excellent scientific documentation of about 962 species/subspecies of butterflies
belonging to five taxonomic families from the Assam region alone. Doubleday (1845) seems to
be thefirst person to work on butterflies in the state when he worked in northern Assam covering
the areas of Sadia, Jorhat and Cachar followed by Moore (1857) who worked in Abor Hills and
Mishmi Hills, including Sadia.The celebrated work of Bingham 1905-1907) is also remarkable.
There is renewed interest in butterflies of the Indian Region due to increased awareness among
Indian citizens about butterflies, their biology and conservation issues. During recent years
following workers have studies butterflies in different areas of Assam state, Bhuyan et al., 2002
(Regional Research Laboratory Campus, Jorhat, Assam); Ali et al., 2000 (Zoo-Cum-
Botanicalgarden, Guwahati) Gogoi,2011 (Jeypore-Dehing forest, eastern Assam); Gogoi 2013
(Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper Assam, India); Gogoi 2015 (Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper
Assam, India)
Survey methods:
During the initial plan we provided different methodologies for insect sampling as follows
AREA SELECTION
Study area will be divided in various strata based on natural vegetation and human disturbance.
Grids will be selected randomly and number of grids selected will depend on proportion of each
stratum (same as for vegetation survey). The entire grid will be sampled if it is small and
accessible or random points will be selected in a grid for sampling.
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DOCUMENTATION
During the field work insects will be photographed by using SLR camera and macro-lenses for
documentation and identification.
SAMPLING
Sampling is necessary for the qualitative and quantitative estimations of insects. It will be done
by using following methods.
DIRECT SEARCHING
(For all insects)
The insects will be searched in all suitable habitats like vegetation, leaf litter, under logs, stones,
grasses as each insect needs a specific microhabitat for survival. The active search will be carried
out in those microhabitats.
INSECT NET
(For winged insects)
More active insects require more active search; particularly butterflies, moths, dragonflies and
damselflies. To capture flying insect nets will be used on field. Insects are easy to catch in the
early morning or cloudy conditions because their activity decreases during such conditions.
SWEEP NETS
(for insects present in low vegetation)
Many insects like beetles, flies, grasshoppers and ants can be found on grasses. To collect these
insects sweep net method is followed. This method involves passing a sweep net through the
vegetation using alternative backhand and forehand strokes. After completing a series of the
sweeps, insects caught in the net can be encouraged to move to the closed top of the net by
holding this end towards the light. The collected insets will be removed and identified.
PITFALL TRAPS
(For active, surface living insects in low vegetation and bare ground)
Insects like beetles, ants, cockroaches, earwigs, termites, and bugs generally spend much of their
time on ground for foraging. These insects can be trapped by using pitfall trap method. Pitfall
trap consist of a straight sided container sunk level with the surface of the ground into which
insects inadvertently fall. Pitfall traps are set in a line with two meter distance in each pitfall trap.
Pitfall traps will be left for overnight and in the next day all insects will be collected for further
identification.
LIGHT TRAPS:
(for night flying insects)
Many night-flying insects are attracted towards light. Standard light traps of different
wavelengths will be used according to the purpose of the study. Insects trapped in the traps will
be collected for further identification.
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QUANTIFICATION METHOD
Stripe transects of 10 m width and 500 m lengths will laid in randomly in each habitat to study
butterflies. Each transect will be intensively searched for direct sightings. All individuals seen
with in the transect limit will be recorded. Transects will be walked in two phases, morning
phase from 7 a.m. to 11 a.m. and evening phase from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. when butterflies are
most active. Pace will be slow but constant covering the transect in about an hour.
Analysis of density, species richness and diversity:
The communities were analysed on the basis of density, species richness and diversity indices.
Density is expressed as the number of individuals of a species per unit area and is calculated as
follows:
Density (number of
plants per sample unit)
The analysis of biodiversity was carried out by calculating Shannon Diversity Index (H′),
Simpson Dominance Index (D) and Pielou Evenness Index (E). These indices were adopted
for their low sensitivity to the sample size (Magurran 1988).
Shannon Diversity Index (H’) = ‐ Σ pi ln pi
i.e. = ‐ Σ ni/N [ln (ni/N)]
Where, ni = importance value of the ith species
N = Importance value of all the species
Simpson’s Dominance Index (D) = Σ pi2
i.e. = Σ (ni/N)2
Where, ni = importance value of the ith species
N = Importance value of all the species
Pielou Evenness Index (E) = H’/ ln S
Where, H’ = Shannon Diversity Index
S = Total number of species
Species richness (D) was calculated according to Whittaker (1960)
D = S/ log N
Where, S = Total number of species in the sample
Total number of individuals of a species in all the sample units
= Total number of sample units studied
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N= Total number of individuals in the sample
After conducting the pilot visit we found that it is not possible to perform all above methods and
it virtually impossible to study insects other than butterflies do to following reasons
1. We found that do to presence of large herbivours in great number it is not possible to lay
the trassects for butterflies on foot.
2. Night sampling was not allowes and advisable.
3. To confirm the identification of many insect spacies require collection and examination
undr microscope, it was not done as we were not allowed to collected any insects from
the Kaziranga NP
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4. Results and discussions:
Literature based
Only three studies on insects have been carried out so far within the boundary of KNP
1. Butterflies (Gogoi 2009)
A total of 493 butterfly species have been recorded from hilly area of Kaziranga, Assam,
India based on field work carried during 2007-2009. These include 186 species of
Hesperiidae family, 144 species of Lycaenidae,119 species of Nymphalidae, 19 species
of Papilionidae,23 species of Pieridae and 2 species of Riodinidae. Please refer
Annexure 1 for checklist.
2. Orthopteroids (Short horned grasshoppers, ckickets, longhorn grasshoppers, praying
mantis) (Senthilkumar 2010)
Thirty-six species of orthopteroids belonging to 30 genera, and four families were
recorded in different habitats viz., forestlands, savannahs and grasslands of the Kaziranga
National Park (KNP) at Assam. The observations were recorded during the period of
three years from January 2007 to December 2009, by periodical monthly visits to Kohora
range (central range), Baguri range (western range) and Agoratoli range (eastern range)
based on the habitat types selected. The family Acrididae had the largest species
representation (19 species) followed by Tettigoniidae (nine species) and Mantidae (five
species) while Gryllidae was represented by three species only. None of the species found
in the study area are known to be threatened under any category of IUCN. Please refer
Annexure 2for checklist.
3. Trips (Singh and Varatharajan 2013)
The survey undertaken at KNP revealedthe occurrence of 96 species of thripsin 55 genera
under two major families, viz. Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae of thetwo respective
suborders, namely Terebrantiaand Tubulifera. Of the 53 speciesof phlaeothripids of the
latter suborder, the subfamily Phlaeothripinae had a representationof 44 species in 21
generaand the fungal spore feeding Idolothripinaewith 9 species in 4 genera. On theother
hand, among the 43 species ofterebrantians, 33 were represented bymembers of the
subfamily Thripinae in21 genera and the rest 10 species under 9genera by
Panchaetothripines. It is significantto note that of the 96 thrips collectedin the present
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study, 32 areendemic. Further, the collection recordhas also indicated the occurrence of
22species of free-living foliage feeders, 19anthophilous forms, 17 gall makers,
14mycophagous thrips, 8 pests, 7 each ofweed and grass inhabitors, besides 2 predatory
thrips (Table 1). Thus the fieldsurvey has not only reflected the diversefeeding habits and
habitats of thysanopterans but also signifies the faunal similarityto some extent with that
of theWestern Ghats of South India (60%), theGreat Himalayan ranges of North India
(35%) and also with Southeast Asia(20%) at varying levels, besides havingfauna of its
own along with a few cosmopolitanspecies. with SE Asia owing to proximity. Therefore,
thrips of KNP can be consideredas a mixed composition of diverse speciesfrom different
geographic regions.Please refer Annexure 3 for checklist.
Survey Based:
During this study we found 105 numbers of butterflies in the Kaziranga NP belonging to
six families (17 Hesperiidae; 21 Lycaenidae; 50 Nymphalidae; 2 Riodinidae; 8
Papilionidae and 7 Pieridae). Please refer Annexure 4 for the checklist.
16%
20%
48%
2% 7%
7%
Familywise butterfly species richness
Hesperiidae Lycaenidae Nymphalidae Riodinidae Papilionidae Pieridae
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Maximum number of butterfly species were observed in Karbi Anglong area of
Kaziranga NP. This could be due to availability of hostplants and nectorplants as this area
is reach in plant species.
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5. Future research recommemdations:
1. It is necessary to do long term monitoring of insects especially butterflies of
Kaziranga NP.
2. Care should be taken to device methods based on field situations. As during this
study, we observed that it is not possible to do execute all necessary field methods
due to various resons including presence of large herbiours and local climatic
conditions.
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6. References
Ali, I, and Basistha, S. K. (2000) Butterfly diversity of Assam State Zoo-Cum-Botanical Garden.
Zoo’s Print.15, 264-265.
Evans, W.H. (1932) The identification of Indian Butterflies. The Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay, India, 455
Haribal, M. (1992) Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their natural history. Nature
Conservation Foundation, Gangtok, Sikkim. 217 pp.
Klein A. M., Steffan-Dewenter I. & Tscharntke T. (2004) Foraging trip duration and density of
megachilid bees, eumenid wasps and pompilid wasps in tropical agroforestry systems.
Journal of Animal Ecology. 73: 517-525
Mani, M.S. (1986) Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. Pp.
181.
Larsen, T. B. (1988) The butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of the Southern India Lepidoptera:
Rhopalocera). Journal of the Bombay Natural HistorySociety. 84: 26-43.
Tripathi, R. S. & Barik, S. K. (2003) Shifting Cultivation in North East India, In: Proc.
Approaches for increasing agricultural productivity in hill und mountain ecosystem.
ICAR research complex for North East Hill region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India.
Weisser, W. W. and Siemann, E. (2004) The various effects of insects on ecosystem functioning.
In: Weisser WW, Siemann E, editors. Insects and Ecosystem Function. Springer,Berlin,
Heidelberg. 3–24
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7. Natural History of selected butterflies
Family Papilionidae
1) Common Mormon (Papilio polytes)
Jet black butterfly with row of white spots along the middle part of hindwing. 90–100 mm.
Range
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, southern and western China
(including Hainan (Guangdong province), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan (Ryukyu Islands),
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Andamans, Nicobars, Eastern and Peninsular Malaysia, Brunei,
Indonesia (except Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Philippines, and Northern Marianas (Saipan)
Status
Very common. Not threatened. (Collins, N.M. & Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail
Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)
Male
The male has one morph only. It is a dark-coloured swallow-tailed butterfly. The upper forewing
has a series of white spots decreasing in size towards the apex. The upper hindwing has a
complete discal band of elongated white spots. It may or may not have marginal red crescents.
The males are generally smaller in size than the females but not always. Both male and all forms
of the female of P. polytes can vary considerably in size depending on climatic region.
Female
The female of the Common Mormon is polymorphic. In South Asia, it has three forms or
morphs. These are as follows:
Form Cyrus
This form is similar to the male, differing in that it always has strongly marked red crescents. It
is the least common of the three forms. It is normally abundant where the common rose or
crimson rose do not occur, such as in Himachal Pradesh around Shimla; although a few
specimens of form romulus have also been caught alongside.
Form Stichius
This female form of the Common Mormon mimics the common rose very closely. This is the
commonest form wherever the common rose flies.
Form Romulus
This female form mimics the crimson rose and is common over its range. It is not such a close
mimic as the previous form being duller than its model. It is easy to differentiate the mimics
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from models by the colour of their body—the models are red-bodied and the mimics are black-
bodied.
Gynandromorphs
This species has considerable genetic variability and is known to produce gynandromorphs,
genetic aberrations which are part male and part female.
Mimicry
In India, this butterfly is considered as the classic example of Batesian mimicry in which edible
species resemble unpalatable butterflies in order to escape being eaten by predators.
The populations of the mimicking morphs of the Common Mormon are much smaller than that
of their models - the common or crimson rose. This is in order to allow first time predators a
much greater chance of preying upon the unpalatable model in the first instance and thus
learning of their inedibility.
Larger populations of mimics could result in the edible Common Mormon mimics being sampled
the first time by predators. If this should happen, the predator may not realise that butterflies of
that colour and pattern are protected by the poisons they ingest; thus dramatically reducing the
effectiveness of this scheme of protection.
In Sulawesi, although the common rose is abundant, the Common Mormon female morph which
is found there, mimics a completely different butterfly, Atrophaneura polyphontes.
Habitat
The Common Mormon prefers lightly wooded country, but is present everywhere and high up
into the hills. It is a regular visitor to gardens, being especially abundant in orchards of its
foodplants—oranges and limes. It is most common in the monsoon and post-monsoon months.
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Habits
Female form romulus seen laying an egg on Murraya paniculata
The Common Mormon is fond of visiting flowers and its long proboscis permits it to feed from
flowers having long corollar tubes. It is particularly fond of Lantana, Jatropha, Ixora, and
Mussaenda in city gardens. In the forests, the Common Mormon remains low keeping within ten
feet off the floor and its prefer to visit Asystasia, Peristrophe, and Jasminum for nectar.
The male Common Mormon is a very common visitor to gardens where he will be seen hovering
over flowers when the sun is shining. It is a restless insect, zig-zagging fast and straight close to
the ground, settling down only when it halts to feed.
The mimic female Mormons, stichius and romulus are very convincing mimics due to their
habits, especially the flight patterns, being very similar to those of the rose models. However,
lacking the protection of inedibility, they tend to be more easily disturbed than the roses and fly
off erratically.
Only the males take part in mud puddling, usually in cool shaded spots rather than in open areas.
They have been known to collect on saline soils to extract minerals.
Both sexes bask in the sun on shrubs close to the ground. They hold their wings flat against the
substratum. The forewing is lowered to cover part of the hindwing and is a typical stance of the
Common Mormon.
Common Mormons spend the night settled on vegetation with their wings held open, usually
quite close to the ground.
Lifecycle
The females perch on an exposed branch with wings open or closed. They are courted by the
males who approach from behind and slowly and elegantly settle into position.
Eggs
The eggs are laid singly on top of the leaves. They are round and yellow to light-orange in
colour.
Caterpillar
The first few instars of the caterpillar closely resemble those of the lime butterfly.
The later instars become dark green in colour. There is a transverse black band with an eye-spot
on each side on the 4th and 5th segments. This band, being darker and brighter than that of the
Lime Butterfly caterpillar, is the key distinction between the two.
The Common Mormon caterpillar also has a black and white oblique band on the 8th and 9th
segments, making it resemble that of the blue Mormon. The deep red osmeterium and yellowish-
brown head help distinguish it from the blue Mormon caterpillar which has a greenish head.
Common Mormon caterpillars are heavily parasitised by chalcid wasps, with over a hundred tiny
wasps eventually emerging from each Mormon pupa.
Pupa
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The pupa is located on underside of leaves and twigs. The pupa is light green and unmarked. It
has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax. It closely resembles the
Lime Butterfly caterpillar but can be distinguished by:
- the projections on the head which have a deeper indentation between them.
- the abdomen which protrudes to a small point on each side.
2) Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus)
Description
The butterfly is tailless and has a wingspan 80–100 mm. Above, the background colour is black.
A broad, irregular yellow band is found on the wings above, which is broken in the case of the
forewing. Besides this the butterfly has a large number of irregular spots on the wing. The upper
hindwing has a red tornal spot with blue edging around it.
As the butterfly caterpillar ages, its hunger for leaf tissue continues to grow.
The underside has the ground-colour similar, the cream-coloured markings paler and
conspicuously larger. The markings differ from those on the upperside in that the forewing has
the basal half of cell and base of wing below it with cream-coloured streaks that coalesce at base;
irregular ochraceous spots in interspaces 5 to 8 and the discal series of spots complete not
interrupted in interspace 5. On the underside of the hind wing, the black at base of wing and
along the dorsal margin centred largely with pale cream-colour; the ocellus in interspace 7, the
apex of the cell and the black groundcolour between the medial band and postdiscal markings in
interspaces 2-6 centred with ochraceous, margined with blue.
Antennae dark reddish brown, touched with ochraceous on the innerside towards the club; head,
thorax and abdomen dusky black, the head and thorax anteriorly streaked with cream-vellow:
beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen cream-yellow with lateral longitudinal black lines on the
last.
Status, range and habitat
Papilio demoleus is an aggressive and very common butterfly. It is perhaps the most widely
distributed swallowtail in the world. The butterfly can be found in Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, western and possibly eastern Afghanistan, and western Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, India (including the Andamans), Nepal, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines,
Kampuchea, southern China (including Hainan, Guangdong province), Taiwan, Japan (rare
strays), Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sula, Talaud, Flores, Alor and
Sumba), Papua New Guinea, Australia (including Lord Howe's island), apparently Hawaii and
possibly other Pacific Ocean islands.
Formerly absent from Borneo it is now one of the commonest papilionids in Sabah and Sarawak
in Malaysian Borneo, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and in Brunei.
In recent years the butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island (Dominican Republic) in the
Western Hemisphere and subsequently to Jamaica and Puerto Rico. The Dominican population
originated from Southeast Asia but how the butterfly reached there is not known.
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The widespread range of Papilio demoleus indicates the butterfly's tolerance and adaptation to
diverse habitats. It is to be found in savannahs, fallow lands, gardens, evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests and shows a preference for stream and riverbeds. In India it is mostly found in
the plains but can be found on the hills of peninsular India and up to 7000 feet in the Himalayas.
It is common in urban gardens and may also be encountered in wooded country. The butterfly is
also a very successful invader, its spread appearing to be due to its strong flight, increase in
urbanization and agricultural land use that opens up new areas for dispersal, and greater
availability of food plants.
Behavior
This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its wings held wide
open on tufts of grass, herbs and generally keeps within a meter above the ground, even on
cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for escape. It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a
number of modes of flight. In the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an
edible and unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In the
hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it will remain motionless,
except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not disturbed.
It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a preference for flowers of
smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the ubiquitous Lantana with its plentiful blooms. It
can be found swarming in the groves of its food plants.
Research on freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus showed that they have an inborn or
spontaneous preference while feeding for blue and purple colours while the yellow, yellowish-
green, green and blue-green colours are completely neglected.
Lifecycle
The number of generations of Papilio demoleus is dependent upon temperature – near the
equator, nine generations have been recorded, while in warm temperate China, five generations
have been recorded. In the ideal conditions of a laboratory, a generation has been recorded to
take place in just over 30 days. The average time for one generation of Papilio demoleus to
mature in the field ranges from 26 to 59 days. In cold climates, the lime butterfly is known to
pass the winter as pupae. Typically, the butterfly undergoes five instars as a caterpillar.
The female butterfly goes from plant to plant, laying a single egg at a time on top of a leaf which
it holds onto with its legs, and flies off as soon as the egg is laid. The egg is round, light
yellowish in colour, flattened at the base, smooth-surfaced and about 1.5 mm in height. Fertile
eggs develop a small red mark at the apex.
The newly hatched caterpillar stays in the middle of the upper side of the leaf. The first instar of
the caterpillar is black, with a black heads and two rows of sub-dorsal fleshy spines. The second,
third and fourth instars are dark, with glossy, dark-brown head, and white markings on the 8th
and 9th segments of the caterpillar which resemble a white patch of uric acid deposited in a bird's
droppings, helping them escape predation while remaining in moderately open places.
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As the instars progress, this resemblance is lost. From the fifth instar onwards, the caterpillars
now turn cylindrical in shape, tapered towards the rear, and uniformly pale green in colour with a
white sub-spiracular band. An additional black band is developed on the 4th and 5th segments
with two black and two bluish spots on them. The 8th and 9th segments, which earlier provided
the camouflage markings now develop a brown and white band. At this stage, the caterpillars are
forced to inhabit secluded places.
The pupa, which is rugose, stout and 30 mm in length, has two projections to the front on its
head and also one on its thorax and resembles that of the common Mormon Papilio polytes, the
difference being that the common Mormon pupa has a deeper cut between the projections and its
abdomen is more protruded on the sides, having a small point.
The pupa is dimorphic with regards to colour, with the colour developing according to the
prevalent colour and texture in the background. The green morph, which is found amongst green
vegetation and smoother textures, is light green and unmarked or with yellow dorsal markings.
When situated among brown or dry objects, the pupa tends to turn light grey-brown to pink-
brown and develop cryptic dark brown and black striation.
The adults fly in every month but are particularly abundant during and after the monsoons.
Parasitism and predation
Cocoons of a parasitoid wasp (Apanteles sp. Braconidae), next to a perforated Papilio demoleus
caterpillar.
Despite their two stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of Papilio demoleus are found by
parasitic wasps which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp larva eats the caterpillar
from the inside. Initially the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to
pupate even the vital organs are consumed. Shortly before, or soon after the caterpillar pupates,
the parasitoids emerge from their host thus killing it.
In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated
populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily
predated upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees.
In China, species of fungi in the genus "Ophiocordyceps are known to parasitize many kinds of
caterpillars including Papilio demoleus. The spores were spread out of the parents’ fungi, and
infect the young caterpillar, then when the caterpillar becomes pupa, they will fail to develop
into an adult butterfly, instead the fungi killed, and eat the caterpillar flesh from within, and grow
a spore bud out of the dead caterpilaar corpse. The fungi were known as "Dōng chóng xià cǎo"
that have medicinal property in China, and are known in English as caterpillar fungus.
In India, the following braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize Papilio demoleus
larvae-Apanteles spp. including Apanteles papilionis.Bracon hebetor.
In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of Papilio
demoleus.
Egg parasites
20
Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)
Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).
Larval stage
Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera: Tachinidae) (parasite).
Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (Pentatomidae predator.
Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and
chameleons.
Pupal parasites
Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae)
Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).
Ophiocordyceps was a genus of fungi that it's spore got into the caterpillar, and start to eat the
pups from within growing a spore stalk out the cocoon, which is commonly known as Caterpillar
Fungus.In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.
3) Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon)
The Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon), or Blue Triangle in Australia, is a species of
swallowtail butterfly, that is found in South and Southeast Asia, as well as eastern Australia.
There are approximately sixteen subspecies with differing geographical distributions.
Description
Upperside opaque black. Fore and hind wings crossed from above the tornal area on tho hind to
near the apex of the fore wing by a semi-hyaline broad pale blue medial band which is broadest
in the middle, more or less greenish and macular anteriorly; the portion of the band that crosses
interspaces 6, 7 and 8 on the hind wing white; beyond the band on the hind wing there is a sub-
terminal line of blue slender lunules. Underside similar, ground-colour dark brown. Hind wing: a
short comparatively broad sub-basal band from costa to sub-costal vein, and the postdiscal area
between the medial blue band and the sub-terminal lunules velvety black traversed by the pale
veins and transversely, except in interspaces 6 and 7, by narrow crimson lines; lastly, a crimson
spot near the tornal angle with an admarginal yellowish-white spot below it. Antenna, head,
thorax and abdomen brown, the head and thorax suffused with greenish grey; beneath: the palpi,
thorax and abdomen touched with dingy white, the abdomen with two whitish lateral lines.
Male has abdominal fold within grey, furnished with a tuft of long, somewhat stiff white hairs.
Race teredon, Felder. (South India and Sri Lanka) is distinguishable in both sexes by the
narrower medial band that crosses both fore and hind wing. Colour brighter, the contrast between
the green of the upper and the blue of the lower portion of the medial band more vivid. Hind
wing more produced posteriorly at apex of vein 3, where it forms an elongate tooth or short tail.
Variously reported with wingspans between 55 and 75 mm, the Common Bluebottle has black
upper wings and brown lower wings. Both fore and hind wings are marked by a central spot in
the form of a blue or blue-green triangle, with apex pointing toward the body.
21
Habitat
Graphium sarpedon is primarily an inhabitant of moist, low-level rain forests (below 1600
m/5000 feet). In these elevations it is usually seen flying just above the tree canopy. The larvae
of the Common Bluebottle feed on trees of the laurel family, which includes the cinnamon tree,
and have expanded their range to include cinnamon tree plantations. In eastern Australia, they
have adapted to a drier subtropical environment, and are commonly seen in suburban gardens in
Queensland and New South Wales.
Behavior
The males are known for their habit of feeding by the edges of puddles, often at the roadside.
Occasionally, as many as eight will be seen at the same puddle. They have also been known to be
attracted to animal droppings, carcasses and rotting insects.
It has been recorded as a migrant in South India and is known to mud-puddle during migration.
The butterfly has been seen as comprising as much as 5% of the population of migrating
butterflies during a 72-hour period in the Nilgiri hills.
The Common Bluebottle is known for quick flight and rapid reactions. Consequently, it is
difficult to catch.
22
Diet
The adult Common Bluebottle feeds on nectar from a variety of flowering herbs. The larvae feed
primarily on the leaves of trees in the families Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Rutaceae.
In particular, G.s. sarpedon and G.s. teredon often feed on leaves of the cinnamon bark tree,
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, or of the Indian laurel, Litsea sebifera.
The list of larval food plants also includeAlseodaphne semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora,
Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Litsea chinensis, Polyalthia
longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Persea macrantha and Michelia doltospa.
The larvae of G. s. choredon, native to Australia, feed on many native Australian species of
genera Cryptocarya and Litsea; and virtually all subspecies feed on leaves of the camphor tree,
Cinnamomum camphora, which is native to China but has been naturalized throughout southeast
Asia.
Life cycle
Egg
The egg is yellowish, laid singly on the leaves of a host plant.
Larva
When young, is black or dark green, with numerous spines; when full grown, it is green with a
short spine on each thoracic segment and anal segment. There is a transverse yellow band on the
4th segment and a lateral band on the body. The caterpillar usually lies on the centre of a leaf on
an upper surface. It is very sluggish and pupates near its feeding spot. " Smooth, thickened from
the second to the 5th segment and thence decreasing to the end; with two short subdorsal fleshy
spines on the 4th segment, between which is a transverse pale yellow line, two shorter spines
also on the 2nd and 3rd and two on the anal segment; colour green, with a longitudinal posterior
lateral and lower pale yellowish line." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)
Pupa
The pupa is green with a slender and pointed thoractic projection, yellowish wingcases and
lateral bands. "Conical, truncated in front; thorax produced into a lengthened obtusely-pointed
frontal process." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)
23
4) Common Birdwing (Troides helena)
The Common Birdwing (Troides helena) is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is
often found in the wildlife trade due to its popularity with butterfly collectors. The butterfly has
seventeen subspecies.
Description
The description of the commonest subspecies of the butterfly in India, T. h. cerberus Felder, is
given below
Male
Upperside of forewings are rich velvety black with adnervular pale streaks on either side of the
veins beyond the cell. The cilia is short, black, alternated with pale buffy white in the middle of
the interspaces.
Hindwing: the abdominal fold, the apical half obliquely of interspace 1, the termen broadly, the
base of the cell and the costal area up to and including the basal half of interspace 7 velvety
black, the rest of the wing rich silky yellow; the veins prominently but narrowly black; the inner
margin of the terminal black border produced inwards into prominent cone-shaped markings in
the interspaces.
All specimens have one or more postdiscal black spots in the interspaces, but never a complete
series; in interspace 2 and sometimes also in interspace 3 these spots coalesce with the cone-
shaped projections of the terminal black border. Underneath the abdominal fold is a dense mass
of buffy-white scented cottony pubescence. Underside similar, the adnervular pale streaks on the
fore wing broader and more prominent.
Hindwing: dorsal margin broadly black, with an edging of long soft black hairs; interspace 1
with a large oval postdiscal and a terminal black spot; interspace 2 with the postdiscal black spot
generally separate from the cone-shaped projection of the black terminal border; the apical and
lateral margins of interspaces 2-6 pale yellow irrorated with black scales.
Antenna, head and thorax black, the collar narrowly crimson; abdomen yellow, shaded above
with black; beneath: the thorax with a large lateral patch of crimson, the anal segment
prominently buff-coloured.
24
Female
Upper and under sides of the female is similar to those in the male, but with the following
differences:
Forewing: the adnervular pale streaks broader and more prominent.
Hindwing: the black at base and along the costal margin broader, occupying fully one-third of
the cell, the area above it and above vein 7, interrupted however, in interspace 7 near the apex of
wing, by a transverse yellow mark which is sometimes subobsolete ; a postdiscal series of large
oval black spots, those in interspaces 2 and 3 often joined on the upperside to the cone-shaped
terminal black marks; dorsal margin also more broadly black, without the fringe of black hairs
and or course of the abdominal fold. Antenna, head and thorax as in the male; abdomen dark
brownish black above.
Distribution and Status
T. helena is widely distributed and locally common in forest areas. Globally it is found in Nepal,
India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, peninsular and eastern Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Laos,
Kampuchea, Thailand, Vietnam, southern China including Hainan, and Hong Kong. In the
Indonesian archipelago, T. helena is found in Sumatra, Nias, Enggano, Java, Bawean, Kangean
Islands, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Great Natuna (Bunguran), Sulawesi, Butung, Tukangbesi,
Kalimantan, and Brunei.
In Hong Kong, T. helena is at the northern limit of its range. It is not common in Hong Kong but
it is observed that there are stable populations in three sites (the surrounding area of Po Lo Che
(Sai Kung), Shan Liu Road (Tai Po) and Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden in the New
Territories. It is also found on Lantau Island and Hong Kong Island.
In India the T. helena is found in the North-East of the country including Sikkim, West Bengal,
and Orissa. It is also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The subspecies found in India
are-
T. h. cerberus (C. & R. Felder, 1865) – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Manipur, Orissa, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, W. Bengal.
T. h. heliconoides (Moore, 1877) – Andaman Is.
T. h. ferrari Tytler, 1926 – South Nicobar Is.
The Common Birdwing, though widespread and common in many of the localities in which it
occurs, is classified as Vulnerable. (Collins, N. M. & M. G. Morris. (1985) Threatened
Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)
5) Paris Peacock (Papilio paris)
The Paris Peacock (Papilio paris) is a species of swallowtail butterfly found in the Indian
Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
Description
25
Male
Upperwings are black and irrorated with dark green scales, which on the outer portion of the
forewing coalesce and form an incomplete postdiscal narrow band which is straighter than the
similar subterminal band on the forewing of Papilio polyctor.
On the hindwing, the irroration of dark green scales does not extend to the costal margin and is
interrupted posteriorly by a broad postdiscal area, on both sides of which the green scales
coalesce to form narrow diffuse bands; a conspicuous upper discal shining blue patch occupies
the base of interspace 4 and outer portions of interspaces 5 and 6; this patch is variable in size,
and in many specimens extends narrowly below and above the interspaces 3 and 7, respectively,
its outer margin is uneven, its inner margin evenly arched; a prominent claret-red largely black-
centred ocellus at the tornal angle, its inner margin with a transverse short violet-blue superposed
line; in many specimens an obscure claret-red subterminal lunule in interspace 7.
Underside opaque black; bases of both fore and hind wings, up to basal half of cell in fore and up
to apex of cell in hind wing, with an irroration of yellowish scales; also present more obscurely
on the subterminal area in both wings. Fore wing with a very broad elongate triangular pale area
that does not extend to the termen, formed of inter-nervular broad very pale ochraceous-white
streaks, short near the tornus, gradually longer up to the costa. Hind wing: a prominent
subterminal series of ochraceous-red lunules traversed by short violet-blue lines; in interspaces
1,2 and sometimes in 3, these lunules are formed into more or less complete largely black
centred ocelli by the addition of an admarginal portion of the red ring. Cilia conspicuously white
in the interspaces. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the latter three sprinkled with
green scales above.
Female
Similar to the male but somewhat paler and duller. Upperside of the forewing has the green
postdiscal band shorter and more incomplete than in the male. Hindwing with the upper discal
patch smaller, often green and not blue, the red subterminal lunule in interspace 7 is always
present and more prominent than in the male.
Underside of wings similar to that in the male, but the tornal and subtornal markings generally
formed into more or less complete ocelli.
Wingspan: 106–132 mm
Distribution
The Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan; the hills of Assam, Burma and
Tenasserim, extending to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. A common insect in Sikkim, where
it is found from the Terai up to 5,000 feet. It is rare in Burma and Tenasserim. It also occurs in
some parts of the Western Ghats, such as the Chikmaglure b.b.hill ranges.
6) Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon)
The Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon) is a predominantly green and black tropical butterfly
that belongs to the swallowtail family. The butterfly is also called green-spotted triangle, tailed
26
green jay, or the green triangle. It is a common, nonthreatened species native to India, Sri Lanka
through Southeast Asia and Australia. Several geographic races are recognized.
Range
Southern India to Saurashtra, Northern India (Kumaon to Assam), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Andamans,
Nicobars, Bangladesh, Brunei, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, southern China (including
Hainan), Taiwan, South East Asia to New Guinea, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and Australia
(northern Queensland).
Description
Male upperside black. Forewing with the following green markings: a spot at the extreme base
of the costal margin, a transverse short bar near base of cell and seven spots beyond, two and two
except the apical spot which is single ; two spots beyond apex of cell; a spot at base of
interspaces 1a and 1, followed by two oblique short macular bands; a discal series of spots
decreasing in size towards the costa, and a postdiscal series of smaller spots that begins with two
in interspace 1; the spots in interspace 7 in both series are out of line, placed outwards. Hind
wing: three series of similarly-coloured markings that ran transversely across the wing more or
less parallel to the dorsal margin, the upper markings (those in interspace 7) white; a short
greenish stripe at the extreme base of the wing.
Ventral view
Underside: fuliginous brown or brownish-black, more or less suffused with pink along the costal
margin, on apical area and along the outer margin of the discal markings on the fore wing,
broadly along the dorsal and terminal margins and at base on interspaces 6 and 7 on the hind
wing; markings similar to those on the upperside but less clearly defined and somewhat more
grey in tint. Hind wing black, inwardly red-margined spots superposed on the pink area in
interspaces 6 and 7. cilia very narrow, pale pink. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black,
thorax above and the abdomen on the sides streaked with greenish grey; beneath: ochreous grey
touched on the thorax with pink.
Female similar, but with a streak of greenish white along the dorsal margin on both upper and
under sides.
Race decoratus is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is very similar to the typical
form, from which it can be distinguished as follows : Upperside green spots smaller, especially
the discal series on the fore wing. Underside hind wing : the red postcostal spot is relatively
small but the red part has much increased against the black part; besides the large red anal mark
and the mark before the first disco-cellular veinlet, there is a large red spot in the lower median
cellule, a smaller red spot in each of the three preceding cellules and a streak-like spot at the base
of the lower median cellule.
Status
27
Graphium agamemnon is common and not threatened.
Habitat
Once found primarily close to wooded country where there is a fairly heavy rainfall, the Tailed
Jay is now very common at low elevations and regularly seen in gardens and urban areas due to
its foodplant, Polyalthia longifolia (False Ashoka or Mast Tree), being widely used as an
ornamental tree.
Behavior
Strong and restless fliers, they are very active butterflies and flutter their wings constantly even
when at flowers. They are seldom seen drinking from damp patches. The males are particularly
fond of nectaring from flowers such as Lantana, Ixora, Mussaenda, and Poinsettia. The females
are more likely caught when looking for foodplants or laying eggs.
Tailed Jays are active throughout the year but their abundance depends upon the local monsoon
and availability of the larval host plants. The butterflies generally fly among the tree-tops but
descend to ground level in search of flowers or host plants. Because of their relatively fast life
cycle (just over one month from egg to adult), Tailed Jays are multivoltine and may produce up
to 7–8 broods per year.
It has been noted in one instance to be attracted to lights at night.
Life cycle
This species can take from 33–36 days from egg to adult. The species is multivoltine with at least
7–8 broods in a year.
Eggs
The eggs are pale yellow and are laid singly on the underside of young leaves, and hatch after 3–
4 days.
Larva
Young larvae are dark yellowish green with a pale yellow band in the middle of the abdomen.
From the head, which is moderately large, the body increases in thickness rapidly to the 4th or
5th segment and then tapers gradually down to the tail. It has four pairs of spines. The colour is
at first smoky-black, but at the last moult becomes a light clear green faintly marked with lines of
a darker shade. The fully grown larva is green, fusiform and having small black spots. It has a
pair of osmeterium and black spines on each thoracic segment, the third pair being orange-
yellow. A fourth pair is situated on the last segment. The caterpillars undergo five instars over a
period of 15–16 days, during which many are attacked by parasitoid wasps.
Pupa
The pupae are green or brownish. They are found attached on the underside of leaves; sometimes
on the upperside, and are held in place with a body girdle. The pupal stage lasts for 13–14 days.
The horns are tipped with rusty brown.
28
Family Pieridae
1) Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)
The Common Emigrant or Lemon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) is a medium-sized pierid
butterfly found in Asia and parts of Australia. The species gets its name from its habit of
migration. Some early authors considered them as two distinct species Catopsilia crocale and
Catopsilia pomona.
Description
The species has pale and dark morphs in Australia. The form crocale has the antennae black and
the form pomona has the antennae pinkish or red. The development of these forms has been
linked to photoperiod and temperature during growth.
Male
Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.
"The upperside of the male is chalky-white, sometimes with a more or less broad and clearly
defined basal sulphur-yellow area on both fore and hind wings; this sulphur-yellow colour is at
times diffused over the whole surface of the wings, though generally it becomes paler towards
the terminal margins. For the fore wing, the whole, or sometimes only the apical half, of the
costa narrowly black, this color widened out irregularly at the apex; termen widely black at the
apex, the colour narrowed posteriorly. This border in some specimens almost reaches the tornus,
in others terminates above vein 4; occasionally it is continued posteriorly by a series of block
dots at the apices of the veins. Hind wing: generally uniform, unmarked, some specimens bear
minute black dots at the apices of the veins.
"On the underside the groundcolour is very variable, with white with a slight to strong
ochraceous tinge, greenish white or sulphur-yellow. The fore wing is typically without markings,
in some specimens with a patch of sulphur-yellow on either side of base of median nervure, in
the very yellow examples the tornal area is often widely greenish white, in others (Catopsilia
catilla, Cramer) it bears a spot variable in size on the discocellulars. This spot has a pearly centre
and an outer reddish line. Many specimens have an irregular angulated narrow discal reddish line
(the colour varies in intensity) that runs from the costa obliquely outwards to vein 7, and then
obliquely inwards to vein 2, though this line is often absent in specimens that bear the
discocellular spot; apex and termen sometimes very narrowly reddish. The hind wing is typically
uniform, without markings; in var. catilla there is a single small spot at the end of the cell similar
to that on the fore wing, sometimes this spot is much larger with a narrow outer reddish ring,
sometimes it is accompanied by a similar spot at base of interspace 5; when two spots are present
they may be entirely separate, or their outer rings may coalesce; again, some specimens have a
highly irregular discal reddish line (often reduced to a series of minute spots) that extends from
the costa to vein 1; finally, the majority of specimens have a series of minute red terminal dots at
the apices of the veins."
Female
29
Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.
"On the female upperside the ground-color varies as in the male, but sometimes it is chalky white
at the bases of the wings, with the terminal margins more or less broadly sulphur-yellow. Fore
wings always with a round, occasionally quadrate, black discocellular spot variable in size; in
some specimens the costa is black only towards the apex of the wing, in others broadly black
throughout and opposite the apex of cell so widened out as to touch the discocellular spot. In
lightly marked specimens in addition to the discocellular spot, there is only an irregular terminal
black band dentate inwardly and widest at the apex of the wing; in others there is in addition a
more or less diffuse highly curved macular postdiscal band that extends from the costa obliquely
outwards down to vein 7, where it often touches the terminal black band, and thence is continued
downward and slightly inclined inwards to interspace 1, getting gradually paler and fainter
posteriorly. Hind wing: a series of terminal inter-spacial black spots that vary in size, and in the
dark forms coalesce into a terminal black band."
"The underside varies from white with a light yellowish sometimes ochraeeous tinge to deep
chrome-yellow; markings as in the male but still more variable; in var. catilla the spot at the apex
of the cell in both fore and hind wings is enlarged into a large reddish blotch, the similar spot on
tho hind wing is sometimes so enlarged as to occupy the apex of the cell, the basal two-thirds of
interspaces 4, 5, and 6, and the middle third of interspace 7; in some specimens it is continued
posteriorly in a series of obscure lunules to interspace 1a. Antennae red, obscurely dotted with
black, palpi and head above red, thorax clothed with long yellow, sometimes greenish hairs,
abdomen pale yellow; beneath: palpi and thorax pale to dark yellow, abdomen white."
Lifecycle
Egg
The eggs of the butterfly are laid on various species of plants including several Cassias. Other
host plants include Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Bauhinia spp., Pterocarpus indicus, Senna
alata and Sesbania species. The eggs are usually laid singly on the underside, at the margin of the
leaves. Each egg is white, bottle shaped, and ribbed vertically. The eggs hatch in 3–4 days.
Caterpillar (larva)
The newly hatched caterpillar is about 0.5 cm long and is of a yellowish green color. In later
instars the color changes to a leafy green. The head is green and spotted with tiny black
tubercules. The spiracules are covered with a continuous white line. Each segment of the body
bears tiny shiny black tubercules. The tubercules immediately above the spiracular line being
larger and more distinct giving the effect of a black line over the white spiracular line. The paired
lines are found on both sides of the body and run from head to anus. The similar Catopsilia
pyranthe caterpillar has a much broader black line leaving only a narrow green line on the back
of the body.
The larva is described by Bell as "The head is round, green, the clypeus edged with brown,
covered with small shiny black tubercles which... do not hide the colour of the head; the anal flap
30
is rounded, but looks square at the extremity, and is covered with rows of small black tubercles...
of which only the row along the spiracular line is conspicuous. The spiracles are oval, shiny and
white. The colour is green with a spiracular white band touched with bright yellow on segments
2-5, and these segments, especially 3 and 4, are distinctly flanged on the spiracular line. Length
51 mm.
Crysalis (Pupa)
Pupation takes place low to the ground. The pupa is suspended by a silken body band and
attached to the substrate by a black cremaster. Its entire body is bright leaf green. A continuous
yellow runs from the cremaster to the head, the head ending in a snout. In the similar Catopsilia
pyranthe the snout is short.
The pupa is described by Bell as "The pupa has the dorsal line of the thorax absolutely parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the pupa for two-thirds of its length, consequently the hinder part just
before the margin is perpendicular to this part, it is raised suddenly but very slightly above the
front margin of segment 4, and the front end of this parallel dorsal line is at an angle, and a
sharpish angle, with the front slope of the thorax. The cremaster is distinctly bifid at the
extremity, and has some shiny, very stout, black, suspensory hooks dorsally as well as at the
extremity. There is a dorsal rugose black tip to the snout terminating the head, which snout is
cylindrical in its apical half; there is no black line round the eye and there is a dark green-blue
dorsal line which is yellow on the thorax as well as the supra-spiracular yellow line. Length 34
mm; length of snout 3 mm; breadth at segment 7 is 9 mm; height at apex of curve of wing
(segment 6) 10 mm; height at apen of thorax 8 mm".
2) Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe)
The Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae
found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Australia.
Description
Male
The upperside is chalky-white, slightly tinted in some specimens with green. The fore wing is
with or without a discocellular black spot, that varies in size; costa and termen sometimes
without a black margin; occasionally the costa has its apical third narrowly black, broadened
slightly at the apex with black spots between the anterior veins; or again, the costa may be
narrowly black, the apex very broadly so, and this colour continued down the termen but
narrowed posteriorly. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, but generally with narrow
terminal black spots at the apices of the veins, these often reduced to mere dots, or again so
broadened as to coalesce into a narrow terminal black margin.
The underside's ground-colour is similar, suffused on the anterior half of the fore and over the
whole surface of the hind wing with a greenish tint that varies to an ochraceous yellow, and,
except in the very palest specimens, is evenly irrorated over the greenish or ochraceous-tinted
31
areas with transverse, short, reddish-brown strigae; both fore and hind wings with generally an
obscure discocellular reddish-brown spot or indication thereof.
Female
The upperside is as in the male, but sometimes with a suffusion of pale greenish yellow on the
terminal third or fourth only of both fore and hind wings, rarely of that tint throughout. The fore
wing is always with a discocellular black spot that varies very much in size; costa sometimes
narrowly black with the basal half pinkish, in other specimens narrowly black throughout, the
black broadened at the apex and continued along the anterior half of the termen in a series of
inwardly-pointed black spots; or again, the costa may be more broadly black, that colour
widened considerably at the apex and continued broadly down the termen to vein 3, then
suddenly narrowed to a slender line at the tornus. In most specimens there is an anterior
postdiscal short black macular baud; in the dark forms this coalesce with the black on apex and
termen. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, sometimes with a series of terminal spots at the
apices of the veins, sometimes with a narrow dusky-black terminal band broadest near the apex,
narrowed posteriorly to a slender line at the tornus. In the very dark specimens there is in
addition an ill-defined, short anterior postdiscal macular black band.
The underside is as in the male, with similar variations, but in addition in most specimens the
discocellular spots are well-defined with an outer red ring that encircles a silvery spot; on the
hind wing one or two similar spots on each side of the discocellulars; generally, also both wings
are crossed by a transverse postdiscal line of minute red spots, which on the fore wing is
confined to the anterior portion, on the hind wing is nearly complete. In both sexes: antennae
reddish, head and thorax anteriorly brown, thorax clothed posteriorly with long white hairs,
abdomen white: beneath: the palpi, thorax, and abdomen white.
Life history
The host plants of the species include Cassia spp. (e.g., C. fistula, C. javanica or C. roxburghii,
C. bakeriana), Gnidia glauca, Senna spp. (e.g. S. alata; S. auriculata; S. garrettiana), Crotalaria
spp., Ormocarpum cochinchinense, Sesbania spp. and Colocasia sp.
Pupa
The development period from egg to adult is 22 to 29 days allowing up to 11-12 generations a
year.
Larva: "Long, somewhat depressed, rough, green, with a white lateral line and above it a black
line more or less conspicuous, formed by minute black shining tubercles. In short, this larva in
very like a big specimen of a Eurema hecabe"
Pupa: "Much stouter (i.e. than that of Eurema hecabe, and the keel formed by the wing-cases
much less pronounced. The normal colour is pale green with a yellow lateral line. We have never
32
found it on any plant except Senna occidentalis. It habitually rests on the upperside along the
midrib, like almost all Pierine larvae." Davidson and Aitken, quoted in Bingham.
3) Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe)
The Large Grass Yellow or Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) is a small pierid butterfly
species found in Asia or Africa. They are found flying close to the ground and are found in open
grass and scrub habitats. It is simply known as "the grass yellow" in parts of its range; the
general term otherwise refers to the entire genus Eurema.
33
Description
The Common Grass Yellow exhibits seasonal polyphenism. The lepidopteran has a darker
summer morph, triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration, while the shorter diurnal
period of 12 hours or less induces a fairer morph in the post-monsoon period.
Male
Upperside: yellow, variable in tint from sulphur to rich lemonz-yellow according to locality with
a light or heavy rainfall. Fore wing: apex and termen deep black, this colour continued narrowly
along the costal margin to base of wing, near which it often becomes diffuse; the inner margin of
the black area from costa to vein 4 very oblique and irregular, between veins 2 and 4 excavate on
the inner side, this excavation outwardly rounded between the veins and inwardly toothed on
vein 3; below vein 2 the black area is suddenly dilated into a square spot which occupies the
whole of the tornal angle; the inner margin of this dilatation is variable, in the typical form
slightly concave. Hind wing: terminal margin with a narrow black band which is attenuated
anteriorly and posteriorly; dorsal margin broadly paler than the ground-colour.
Underside: yellow, generally a slightly paler shade than that of the upperside, with the following
reddish-brown markings. Fore wing: two small spots or specks in basal half of cell and a
reniform spot or ring on the discocellulars. Hind wing: a slightly curved subbasal series of three
small spots, an irregular slender ring or spot on the discocellulars, followed by a highly irregular,
curved, transverse, discal series of spots or specks, some or all of which are often obsolescent.
On both fore and hind wings the veins that attain the costal and terminal margins end in minute
reddish-brown specks. Antenna greyish yellow, the club black; head, thorax and abdomen
yellow, shaded with fuscous scales; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen yellowish white. The
sex-mark seen from above appears as a thickening of the basal half of the median vein on the
fore wing.
Female
Upper side: Very similar to that of the male but without the sex-mark; the black areas on both
fore and hind wings slightly broader, with the inner edge of the black terminal band on the hind
wing often diffuse.
Underside: ground-colour and markings as in the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen
similarly coloured.
Dry-season form
Upper side: ground-colour and markings much as in wet-season specimens, the margination on
the inner side of the black area and the tornal dilatation on the fore wing similar. On the hind
wing, in the great majority of individuals, the black terminal band is also similar, in a few it is
narrower and diffuse inwardly in both sexes.
Underside: ground-colour similar to that in wet-season specimens, but in very many with a
greater or less irroration of black scales over the yellow parts of the wing; the reddish-brown
markings on both fore and hind wings are also similar, but the spots are larger, more clearly
34
defined, darker, and therefore far more conspicuous. In addition, on the fore wing there is a
preapical, very prominent, transverse, elongate spot or short bar or reddish brown extended
downwards from the costa. This spot is irregular in shape and of variable width, but does not
seem ever to spread outwards to the actual edge of the termen. In a few specimens there is also a
small reddish-brown spot in interspace 1 near the tornus. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen,
and in the male the sex-mark, as in wet-season specimens.
Life cycle
Eggs are laid on Abrus precatorius, Acacia spp., Aeschynomene spp., Albizzia spp. and
numerous other Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae and Cucurbitaceae species. Studies suggest that
the females can discriminate colours when choosing host plants for oviposition.
Larva: Long, green, rough, cylindrical, or slightly depressed, with a large head.
Pupa: Suspended by the tail and by a moderately long band; the abdominal segments are round,
but the thorax is much compressed, the wing-cases uniting to form a deep sharp keel. The head-
case terminates in a short pointed snout. Ordinarily the pupa is solitary and green, but sometimes
on a twig in large numbers. Many Pierine and other larvae seek each other’s company at that
time. Having selected a dead branch of some neighbouring bush, they acquired the colour of
their surroundings as nearly all Pierine and Papilionine pupae do to a greater or less extent.
This species has been found to be parasitized by multiple strains of Wolbachia. These bacteria
can alter the sex-ratios of the species.
4) Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete)
The Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae, found
in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Description
Closely resembles Delias eucharis but can be distinguished as follows:
Male upper forewing has the black margins to the veins more diffuse; the transverse postdiscal
band diffuse, ill-defined, oblique, not parallel to termen in its lower portion but terminated at
apex of vein 2; the apical portion of the wing beyond the fascia more or less so thickly shaded
with black scales as to leave the white lanceolate spaces between the veins (so prominent in
eucharis) ill-defined and obscure. Hind wing white, the black venation and terminal narrow black
border as well as the sub-terminal vermilion-red spots between the veins on the underside show
through by transparency. Underside: fore wing as in eucharis, but the black margins to the veins
much broader and the postdiscal transverse fascia as on the upperside oblique but broader. Hind
wing differs from that of eucharis in the much deeper chrome-yellow tint of the ground-colour,
the postdiscal black curved band that in eucharis separates the yellow from the subterminal
vermilion-red spots entirely wanting, the red spots themselves pointed inwardly, not subcordate,
35
they conspicuously increase in size posteriorly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen similar to
those of eucharis.
Female differs from the female of eucharis on the upperside by the very much darker shading,
especially on the fore wing, and by the postdiscal transverse band which is as in the d oblique but
broader. Hind wing also more darkly shaded, the postdiscal transverse curved black baud entirely
absent. Underside as in the female but darker, the fore wing especially more thickly shaded with
black scaling, the preapical interspaces tinged with yellow. Antennae, thorax and abdomen
similar to those in eucharis.
Race metarete, Butler. (Southern Myanmar; extending to Java and Sumatra). Differs from race
hierta as follows: Male upperside has the ground-colour a much purer white; apical half of fore
wing in contrast with the white on basal half densely shaded with black scales. Underside: the
colours clearer and purer, the chrome-yellow on the hind wing confined to the base and posterior
half of the wing, the apical half of the cell and the anterior inter- spaces within the line of the
vermilion-red spots pure white; the anterior two or three subterminal red spots margined
interiorly with diffuse black scaling. Female differs less from the 2 of hierta, but on the underside
of the hind wing the yellow colour is as restricted as it is in the male; the subterrninal red spots
are of a richer vermilion than in hierta, and the anterior two or three as in the d have an interior
narrow margin of diffuse black scales. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in hierta, but the
thorax and abdomen shaded slightly darker with a bluish-grey appearance.
Race ethire, Doherty. (Madras;Orissa; Lower Bengal) Differs from typical hierta as follows:
Male upperside very pure white. Fore wing has the black margins to the veins very narrow, the
oblique postdiscal band ill-defined, scarcely any irroration of black scales on the apical half of
the wing. Hind wing pure white, the colours of the underside seen through by transparency as in
hierta. Underside differs from hierta principally in the brighter tint of the yellow on the hind
wing, and in the more clearly defined, less diffuse black margins of the veins. Female differs less
from female hierta than does the male from the corresponding sex of the same insect. Upperside
has the interspaces beyond the postdiscal oblique band on fore wing and the cell and basal halves
of the interspaces beyond the cell on the hind wing distinctly tinged with yellow. Underside: all
the markings more neatly and clearly defined than in hierta, the inter-spaces beyond the oblique
postdiscal band on the fore wing bright lemon-yellow. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in
both sexes as in D. hierta.
Distribution
Sri Lanka; India (Uttaranchal to Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Western Maharashtra); North Myanmar; Java, Sumatra, Bangladesh
5) Yellow Orange-tip (Ixias pyrene)
Yellow Orange Tip, Ixias pyrene is a small butterfly of the Family Pieridae, that is, the Yellows
and Whites, which is found in India and Southeast Asia.
36
Description
Wingspan: 50-55 mm. Dry-season brood.
Male upperside: deep sulphur-yellow. Fore wing: base and basal half of costa thickly irrorated
with black scales; apical half of the wing black, with an enclosed, large, irregularly triangular,
orange-coloured patch, the apex of which is more or less broadly rounded and blunt; the orange
colour extends into the apex of the cell bat is interrupted there by a black discocellular spot that
spreads diffusely inwards and joins the black oblique bar which forms the base of the orange
patch; veins that traverse this latter, black. Hind wing: uniform with a little black scaling at
extreme base; termen with a dusky-black somewhat narrow border (sometimes entirely absent)
which decreases in width posteriorly.
Underside: a darker yellow, sparsely irrorated with fusco-ferruginous short strigae and minute
spots. Fore wing: base and posterior area broadly, with a whitish pale virescent tint; the strigae
and minute spots most numerous towards the apex and along the termen; interspaces 4, 5, 6 and
8 with a curved sub-apical series of small, rounded, dull ferruginous spots and a similar spot on
the discocellulars. Hind wing also with a ferruginous spot on the discocellulars, followed by a
postdiscal series of similar spots in interspaces 3 to 8, all or most of them centred with white; the
spots in interspaces 5, 6 and 8 the largest, those in 5 and 6 often coalescent. Antennae and thorax
anteriorly dull ferruginous, thorax posteriorly and abdomen above fuscous black; head, thorax
and abdomen beneath yellow.
Female upperside: white faintly tinged with yellow. Fore wing: apical half black, with an
enclosed, irregular, broad, oblique patch of the ground-colour that extends into the upper apex of
the cell, on the inner side of this the black is reduced to a short oblique bar broadened at the
lower apex of the cell, from whence it is continued as a somewhat slender diffuse oblique streak
to the tornus, where it broadens again abruptly and meets the black on the termen; the outer
margin of the oblique white patch is irregularly crenulate, sometimes trisinuate; the black colour
on the apex often forms a right angle on vein 4; on the white patch posteriorly there is a black
spot in interspace 2 and another in interspace 3. Hind wing: uniform, a few subobsolete slender,
fuscous, transverse strigae posteriorly; the terminal margin sometimes with (more often without)
a narrow dusky black edging, broadened anteriorly at the apices of the veins.
Underside: similar to that in the male, with similar markings, the ground-colour a dark dull
ochraceous, the fusco-ferruginous strigae more numerous. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen
as in the male.
Wet-season brood. - Upperside in both male and female differs in the broader, more pronounced,
black terminal edging to the hind wing, which is often remarkably broad, and in the female by
the ground-colour which is pale yellow. Underside: the fusco-ferruginous strigae and spots often
subobsolete, occasionally entirely absent in the male.
Status, distribution and habitat in Sri Lanka and peninsular India
37
It is distributed throughout the plains and lowlands. It is common in dry deciduous forests, scrub
and fallow lands and found throughout the year. However, it is more common during the
monsoon and post-monsoon and considerably rare in the summer.
6) Great Orange-tip (Hebomoia glaucippe)
The Great Orange Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) is a butterfly belonging to the Pieridae family, that
is the yellows and whites’ butterflies, found in the Indomalaya ecozone and Wallacea.
Distribution
This species is found in much of South and Southeast Asia, as well as in southern China and
southern Japan.
Description
The following descriptions are true for much of its range. There are subspecies that differ, such
as H. g. vossi where the white is replaced by pure yellow.
Wet-season brood
In the males the upperside is creamy white. Fore wing: the costa narrowly, the apex and terminal
margin to middle of interspace 1 are black. An irregular, somewhat sinuous, black band extends
obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa across the upper apex of the cell, and meets at
interspace 1 the black on the terminal margin. Within the triangle thus formed is enclosed a rich
orange-red patch that is traversed by the black veins and bears in interspaces 3 to 6 a postdiscal
series of black inwardly-elongated spots. Hind wing: nearly uniform, touched with black on the
terminal margin anteriorly and with a conspicuous postdiscal black spot in interspace 7. In some
specimens there are one or two smaller spots in continuation of the series in the interspaces
below.
The underside is white. The apical third of the fore wing and the whole of the hind wing are
mottled, with more or less prominent brown stripe and spots. Costa of the fore wing and a fine
line that runs from base of the hind wing through the cell, straight to the middle of the terminal
margin, are brown. Antennae are dark brown. The head and thorax have anteriorly a reddish-
brown pile. Thorax above is greyish-blue, while the abdomen is white with a bluish tinge.
Beneath: head and thorax are more or less brownish, abdomen is white.
Female is similar to the male. Upperside: ground-colour with a slight greenish tinge. The orange
patch on fore wing is more restricted, it consists of a series of brood streaks in interspaces 3 to 6
and 10, the outer apices of which are deeply incised by black and with a row of hastate orange
spots beyond in interspaces 2 to 6. Hind wing: similar to the hind wing in the male, but with a
postdiscal series of large triangular black spots and a terminal connected series of still larger
triangular black spots at the apices of veins 2 to 7. Underside: similar to that in the male, the
brown transverse strigae and spots are more numerous, the costa of the fore and the median line
38
on the hind wing are very prominently brown. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the
male.
Dry-season brood
Differ only from the wet-season brood in the slightly more falcate apex to fore wing, and in the
purer white ground-colour on the upperside. Also the terminal margin on the hind wing in the
male has the black markings all but obsolete, while in the female the postdiscal and terminal
black markings on the same are smaller than in the wet-season form. Underside: the mottlings of
brown strigae and minute spots are more numerous and dense.
Race australis, Butler (Southern India and Sri Lanka). Males and females. Differs only from the
typical form in the following particulars: - Inner black border to the orange patch on the
upperside of the fore wing is absent, this represented by a few obsolete touches of black scaling.
Hind wing: white throughout, with only a half-obliterated subcostal black spot in interspace 7 in
the male; in the female the postdiscal and terminal series of spots are smaller.
Toxicity
In the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe is present glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin belonging to
the family contryphan that are active constituents of the poisonous venom produced by cone
snail (genus conus). In H. glaucippe this toxin should function as a defense against predators.
The life cycle
The eggs
The eggs are laid on the larval food plants Crataeva religiosa, Capparis monii, Capparis
roxburghii, Capparis cantoniensis, and Capparis sepiaria (Capparaceae).
Larvae
"Subcylindrical, tapering towards each end, numerously-covered with minute tubercles; green."
(Moore.) Subcylindrical; suddenly tapered at both ends; covered with transverse rows of pointed
tubercles. Colour dark green, with a lateral bluish line bordered inferiorly with a series of minute
red spots; legs green, the prothoracic legs bordered with black that widens on the middle one of
the three.
39
Pupa
"Much arched along the back; head pointed." (Moore.) Spindle-shaped, head acutely pointed,
dorsum much arched. Colour green, a patch of pale ochraceous on the wing-cases and a narrow
lateral band of the same colour from head to tail, with a brown line superposed on it that extends
to the abdominal segments; abdominal segments and wing-case sparsely spotted with black.
Family Lycaenidae
1) Common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon)
The common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon) is a small butterfly found in South Asia that belongs to
the lycaenids, or blues family.
Distribution
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka. India, Myanmar; Tenasserim, extending into the Malayan Subregion. In
the Indonesian archipelago the butterfly occurs in NE Sumatra, East Java, Bali, Bangka, Timor,
Wetar, Kissar, Sumbawa and Sulawesi.
In India the butterfly is found in peninsular India south of the outer ranges of the Himalayas,
except in desert tracts; East India; the North West Himalayas; Assam. The butterfly is also found
in the Andaman Islands and South Nicobar Islands.
Description
Male
Upperside is mainly white. Forewing has the costa, apex and termen edged with black, the
edging much broader on apex and termen; base outwards for a short distance more or less
densely overlaid. with metallic blue scales which cover and make indistinct a large basal
outwardly clavate black spot; a transverse black oval spot on the discocellulars touching the
black edging on the costa ; an oblique irregular line of four quadrate black spots beyond, the
upper spot coalesced with the black on the costal border, the next spot below shifted outwards
out of line, touching, as does also the lowest spot, the terminal black edging; posterior to this is a
quadrate black spot in the apical half of interspace 2, and placed obliquely outwards from 1b
coalescent with the terminal black border, another similar spot in interspace 1.
Hind wing: three basal black somewhat coalescent spots overlaid with metallic blue scaling; the
costal margin above the subcostal vein and vein 7 black; this colour filling also the base of
interspace 6, where in some specimens it is divided into a basal portion with a spot beyond; a
postdiscal curved transverse black band followed by a subterminal transverse series of black
spots, each spot edged inwardly and outwardly by very slender lunules of the white ground-
colour; on the inner side of the postdiscal band posteriorly is a broken line of four black
generally coalescent spots two and two, the two upper often touching the postdiscal band.
Underside primarily white. Fore wing has a long oblique black band from base outwards to the
costa; below it and obliquely placed an irregular black somewhat conical mark; following these
are two outwardly oblique, medially interrupted, black macular bands; the inner of the two
40
extended from costa along the discocellulars, is then widely interrupted below its posterior
portion that is formed of two elongate coalescent spots and touches the inner subterminal
transverse line of elongate spots just above the tornus; the outer, obliquely placed line is
subapical and medially broken, the middle portion consisting of a quadrate spot is shifted
outwards; finally, two parallel sub-terminal transverse series of black elongate spots, the inner
series of broad, more or less rectangular spots, the outer series of more linear spots, the latter
coalescent anteriorly with a slender ante-ciliary black line.
Hind wing: a transverse basal black band, with an elongate black spot below it on the dorsum; a
transverse sub-basal line of four well-separated black spots; a transverse, oval, disco-cellular
black spot and obliquely above it three subcostal similar spots, the inner two coalescent;
postdiscal and terminal markings consist, the former of four black posterior spots two and two,
each pair coalescent and placed en echelon, the latter of a transverse double series of subterminal
black spots and an anticiliary black line; the upper portion of the postdiscal markings touches the
inner subterminal line. Cilia of both fore and hind wings white alternated with black at the apices
of the veins; filamentous short tail to the hind wing black tipped with white. Antennae, head,
thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae ringed with white, the head between the
eyes and behind them white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen white, the last barred
broadly with white on the sides.
Female
Similar to the male but with the black markings on the upper and under sides broader.
Larva
"Feeds on Zizyphus jujuba and is of a rough texture as if shagreened all over. It is of the usual
woodlouse form, much flattened towards the anal segment which is very broad; head concealed;
colour bright green with a double, dorsal, yellow line and the sides powdered with small yellow
spots." (Davidson, Bell and Aitken)
Pupa
"Of the usual Castalius form but narrow and slightly flattened. It is intensely glossy as if covered
with gum. It varies in colour, being sometimes black, at others green with inconstant black
markings." (Davidson, Bell & Aitken)
2) Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa)
The Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa) is a small butterfly found in India, Myanmar,
Thailand, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Borneo and New Guinea that belongs to the Lycaenids or Blues
family.
Wet-season brood. Male. Upperside: Violaceous blue, with brilliant iridescent tints in certain
lights. Fore wing: the costa, apex and termen bordered with black, this edging narrows from base
to the middle of the costa, then broadens greatly at apex, where it occupies the apical fourth of
41
the wing, and is again narrowed below vein 4, whence it is continued as an even band to the
tornus; on the disc beyond the apex of the cell the groundcolour is sensibly paler, and the dark
markings of the cell are faintly visible by transparency from below. Hind wing: the costa very
broadly, the termen much more narrowly black:; the black bordering on the latter consists of a
series of rounded coalescent spots, which on the inner side are margined by faint dark lunules;
these are formed not by actual scaling but by the dark markings of the underside which show
through more or less clearly.
Underside: slightly bluish white; the markings, some black, some dusky, but all large and
distinct. Fore wing: a short bar on the discocellulars, an anteriorly inwardly curved, transverse,
discal series of seven, more or less elongate spots, of which the spot in interspace 2 is vertical
and sinuous, the next above it irregularly oval and obliquely placed, the next smaller and almost
round, the fourth placed almost longitudinally, forms a short bar, and the apical three decrease in
size to the costa; beyond these is an inner subterminal, transverse, lunular line, an outer
subterminal series of transverse spots and a very slender anticiliary line. Hind wing: two basal
and three subbasal spots in vertical order; a line on the discocellulars; a spot above it at base of
interspace 6; a much larger spot above that in interspace 7; a lower discal irregular transverse
series of five spots, followed by terminal markings similar to those on the fore wing, except that
the spots in the subterminal row are rounded, not transverse. Cilia of both fore and hind wings
white alternated with dusky black at tho apices of the veins. Antennae, head, thorax and
abdomen dusky black, the antennae ringed with white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen
white.
Female:Upperside: white, the bases of the wings and in some specimens the hind wing
posteriorly shot with iridescent blue. Fore wing: costa, apex and termen broadly black; the
discocellulars marked with a very short, fine black line that extends down from the black on the
costal margin. Hind wing: costa and apex broadly black; termen below rein 6 with a regular
subterminal series of black spots in the interspaces, enclosed within an inner lunular and an outer
straight slender anticiliary black line; the veins, except vein 5 in the middle, slenderly black.
Cilia of both fore and bind wings white. Underside: ground-colour and markings similar to those
of the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.
Dry-season brood. Differs very slightly from the wet-season brood. In the male there is a small
patch of white on the upperside of the fore wing beyond the cell and on the upperside of the hind
wing on the anterior portion of the disc; the extent of this patch varies on the fore wing from a
mere touch of white just beyond the cell to a large discal area of white which is diffuse with ill-
defined margins. In the female the blue iridescence at the base of the wings on the upperside is in
some specimens considerably restricted, in others entirely absent. On the underside in both sexes
the ground-colour is paler and in form and position the markings are much less prominent,
though entirely like those of the wet-season brood.
42
Range
The butterfly occurs in Peninsular India, Himalayas, Assam, Andamans, Nicobars, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and New Guinea.
Status
Reported as Common by Wynter-Blyth in India. Reported as Rare in Andamans to Very Rare in
Nicobars.
3) Zebra Blue (Leptotes plinius)
The Zebra Blue or Plumbago Blue (Leptotes plinius) is a species of blue butterfly found in India.
43
Description
This form closely resembles in both sexes on the upperside with Tarucus theophrastus, but the
character and disposition of the markings on the underside are completely different.
Male Upperside: dark violet with, in certain lights, a rich blue suffusion. Fore wing: no
discocellular black spot so conspicuous in T. theophrastus; terminal margin with a narrow edging
of fuscous black, widest at the apex, gradually decreasing to the tornus, followed by an
inconspicuous anticiliary jet-black line. Hind wing : costal margin slightly but broadly shaded
with fuscous, which is continued as a slender anticiliary black line to the tornus. Underside:
white. Fore wing: with the following brownish-black markings:—an irregular edging along the
costa to near the apex from which extends downwards a subbasal band, broadened across the cell
and below it; an irregular band that extends along the discocellulars and below them to
interspace 1 where it ends in a point; an upper discal curved band of more even width but
dislocated below vein 4, the lower portion of it shifted inwards forms a large quadrate spot in
interspace 3, below vein 3 the band is continued downwards by two small inconspicuous spots,
beyond this is a very short acutely pointed comma-shaped mark; a very regular evenly curved
complete transverse lunular line, a transverse series of subterminal spots and an anticiliary
slender line. Close to the base of the wing extended obliquely upwards and outwards from the
dorsum is a triangular mark, the edging of white colour left near the base forms above the apex
of this mark an acute angle; between the band that crosses the middle of the cell and the
transverse discocellular band is a more or less slender, irregular, similarly coloured line; and
between the discocellular and upper discal bands another much shorter line that extends from the
costa downwards but does not reach vein 4, this is slightly clavate anteriorly and posteriorly.
Hind wing: mottled with brownish black that leaves only basal, subbasal, medial and discal
transverse lines or bands of the ground-colour; the medial and discal bands, which are highly
irregular, enclose here and there small brownish markings, the bands themselves coalescing
above a very irregularly shaped brown mark that is placed on the posterior half of the middle of
the wing; terminal markings as on the fore wing but the subterminal spots larger, the apical one
especially so, the tornal two spots jet-black and each encircled by a glittering slender ring of
metallic green scales. Cilia of both fore and hind wings, the antennae, head, thorax and abdomen
much as in T. theophrastus.
Female. Upperside very closely resembles that of female T. theophrastus, but the extent of white
on the fore wing is greater so that there is a greater area of white to be seen between the brown
markings superposed on it, these markings have the appearance of an irregularly formed V on a
white background. Hind wing much as in T. theophrastus. Underside: similar to that of its own
male but the brown bands less broken, more regular. Cilia, antennae, head, thorax and abdomen
as in the male.
Distribution
44
Ethiopian region in part. N.W. Himalayas to Kumaon; the plains of Northern India; Central and
Western India; Sri Lanka; Assam ; Myanmar; Tenasserim in the low hot valleys of the north;
extending to China and in the Malayan Subregion to Java.
The description given above is taken from males and females of wet-season broods. Specimens
of the dry-season broods are paler on the upperside with, in the male only anticiliary black lines
to the wings. On the underside the markings on the wings will, on careful examination, be found
very similar but paler brown and all very much reduced in width so that a greater extent of the
white ground-colour is visible.
Life history
Foodplants
Plants of the Legume family, Plumbaginaceae and some of the citrus family Rutaceae. Species
include Glycine tomentella, Dyerophytum indicum, Indigofera suffruticosa, Lablab purpureus,
Plumbago zeylanica, Rhynchosia tomentosa, Sesbania bispinosa, Tephrosia obovata, Ziziphus
mauritiana, Indigofera argentea, Indigofera erecta, Medicago sativa and Toddalia asiatica.
Larva
"Pale greenish yellow above, sides lilacine, a narrow brownish median line, followed by eight
diagonal short streaks and six brownish-red spots. Before pupating the colouring gets much more
diffused. Feeds among the flower-buds of Plumbago."
Pupa
"Dull yellowish profusely mottled with brown spots." (E E Green as quoted by de Niceville.)
4) Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus)
The Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus) is a small butterfly found in India that belongs to
the Lycaenids or Blues family.
45
Description
Male upperside, fore wing: velvety jet-black; base deep blue, beautifully metallic and shining,
measured on the dorsum this colour occupies three-fourths of its length from base, its outer
margin then curves upwards just past the apex of the cell, entera into the bases of interspaces 10,
11 and 12 and fills the whole of the cell. Hind wing: costal margin above subcostal vein and vein
7, and dorsal margin narrowly fuscous black, a medial longitudinal pale streak on the former;
terminal margin narrowly edged with velvety black, inside which in interspaces 1 and 2 is a
slender transverse whitish line, with an elongate irregular transverse black spot above it in
interspace 1 and a more obscure similar spot in interspace 2; traces of such spots also are present
in some specimens in the anterior interspaces. Cilia of both fore and hind wings black;
filamentous tail at apex of vein 2 black tipped with white. Underside: dark chocolate-brown.
Fore and hind wings; transversely crossed by the following very slender white Hues all more or
less broken into short pieces:—Fore wing: a short pair one on each side of and parallel to the
discocellulars, a pale streak along the discocellulars themselves; a single line in continuation of
the outer of the discocellular lines, extends down to vein 1; an upper discal pair of lines that form
a more or less catenulated short band extend from the costa to vein 3, the inner line of the two
continued to vein 1; two more obscure subterminal and a single terminal line, the area enclosed
between the subterminal lines and between them and the terminal line darker in the interspaces,
giving the appearance of two obscure subterminal lines of spots edged inwardly and outwardly
by white lines. Hind wing: crossed by nine very broken and irregular lines; tracing them from the
costa downwards their middle short pieces are found to be shifted outwards and a few are short
and not complete, the inner two are posteriorly bent abruptly upwards, the subtcrminal two are
lunular and the terminal line nearly continuous; posteriorly between the subterminal pair of lines
in interspace 1 there is a small black spot inwardly edged with dark ochraceous, and in interspace
2 a much larger round black spot, both black spots are touched with metallic blue scales.
Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae speckled with white;
beneath: palpi, thorax and abdomen narrowly white down the middle.
Female. Similar to the male generally but with the following differences: upperside, fore wing:
ground-colour fuscous opaque black, not velvety black, blue basal area more restricted and not
so deep a blue nor at all metallic. Hind wing: the black costal and terminal margins very much
broader, the blue on the basal area consequently much restricted and of the same shade as the
blue on the fore wing; terminal margin with a subterminal anteriorly obsolescent series of spots
of a shade darker than that of the terminal black area on which they are superposed; these spots
posteriorly more or less distinctly encircled with slender lines of bluish white, anteriorly these
lines are almost obsolete. Cilia of both fore and hind wings and the filamentous short tail as in
the male. Underside: similar to that oE the cf but the ground-colour generally paler and duller;
the transverse white lines broader and more dearly defined. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen
as in the male.
46
Distribution
Peninsular India, but not in the very dry or desert tracts; Ceylon; Assam; Burma; Tenasserim; the
Andamans; extending in the Malayan Subregion to Australia.
Lifecycle
"The larva which we have taken at Karwar in June is hardly distinguishable from that of
Catochrysops pandava, Horsfield; it is, however, covered with minute hairs and is generally of
an olive-green colour and without the reddish suffusion so generally noticed in C. pandava. The
pupa is indistinguishable from that of C. pandava. The larva feeds on Xylia dolabrifornis, and
also on the flowers of Butea frondosa." Other food plants noted include Millettia peguensis.
5) Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina Otis)
The Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina otis) is a species of blue butterfly found in south Asia. The Lesser
Grass Blue is often misidentified as the Common Grass Blue, Zizina labradus.
Description
Male upperside
Pale violet-blue, with a silvery sheen in certain lights, fore wing: a broad brown edging along the
termen, which covers in some specimens quite the outer fourth of the wing, while in others is
much narrower. It is always broadest at the apex and is bounded by an anticiliary darker line,
beyond which the cilia are brownish at base and white outwardly.
Hind wing: anterior or costal third to half and apex brown; a slender black anticiliary line,
beyond which the cilia are as in the fore wing.
47
Male underside
Brownish grey. Fore wing: a short, transverse, dusky lunule on the discocellulars and a
transverse, anteriorly curved, discal series of seven minute black spots, all the spots more or less
rounded, the posterior two geminate, the disco-cellular lunule and each discal spot conspicuously
encircled with white; the terminal markings beyond the above consist of an inner and an outer
transverse subterminal series of dusky spots, each spot edged on the inner side very obscurely
with dusky white, the inner line of spots lunular, the outer with the spots more or less rounded.
Cilia dusky.
Hind wing: a transverse, curved, sub-basal series of four spots and an irregular transverse discal
series of nine small spots black, each spot encircled narrowly with white. Of the discal spots the
posterior four are placed in an outwardly oblique, slightly curved line, the middle two spots
geminate; the three spots above these are placed in an oblique transverse line further outwards;
lastly, the anterior two spots are posited one over the other and shifted well inwards, just above
the apex of the cell; disco-cellular lunule and terminal markings as on the fore wing, but the
inner subterminal lunular line in the latter broader and more prominent. Cilia dusky. Antenna
black, shafts ringed with white; head, thorax and abdomen brown, with a little blue scaling;
beneath: white.
Female upperside
Brown, with a more or less distinct suffusion of violet-blue at the bases of the wings, on the hind
wing continued obscurely along the dorsum; both fore and hind wings with slender anticiliary
lines, darker than the ground-colour.
Female underside
Ground-colour slightly darker than in the male, markings precisely similar. Antennae, head,
thorax and abdomen as in the male, but the thorax and abdomen above without any blue scaling.
Distribution
Zizina otis occurs in south Asia. It was reported from Oahu (Hawaii, USA) in 2008. Zizina otis
labradus is found in the North Island, and the northern part of the South Island of New Zealand.
While the Zizina otis oxleyi is found in the southern part of the South Island of New Zealand
only.
48
Larval host plants
The species breeds on many plants of the family Leguminosae including Alysicarpus vaginalis,
Desmodium spp., Glycine max, Indigofera spp., Mimosa spp.
Family Nymphalidae
1) Common Indian Crow (Euploea core)
The common crow (Euploea core) is a common butterfly found in South Asia and Australia. In
India it is also sometimes referred to as the common Indian crow, and in Australia as the
Australian crow. It belongs to the crows and tigers’ subfamily Danainae (Danaini tribe).
E. core is a glossy black, medium-sized 85–95 millimetres (3.3–3.7 in) butterfly with rows of
white spots on the margins of its wings. Euploea core is a slow, steady flier. Due to its
unpalatability it is usually observed gliding through the air with a minimum of effort. As
caterpillars, this species sequesters toxins from its foodplant which are passed on from larva to
pupa to the adult. While feeding, it is a very bold butterfly, taking a long time at each bunch of
flowers. It can also be found mud puddling with others of its species and often in mixed groups.
The males of this species visit plants like Crotalaria, Heliotropium to replenish pheromone stocks
which are used to attract a mate during courtship.
The common crow is the most common representative of its genus Euploea. Like the tigers
(genus Danaus), the crows are inedible and thus mimicked by other Indian butterflies (see
Batesian mimicry). In addition, the Indian species of the Euploea genus shows another kind of
mimicry, Müllerian mimicry. Accordingly, this species has been studied in greater detail than
other members of its genus in India.
Description
The common crow (Euploea core) is a glossy black butterfly with brown underside with white
markings along the outer margins of both wings. The wingspan is about 8–9 cm and the body has
prominent white spots. The male has a velvety black brand located near the rear edge on the
upperside of the forewing. On the underside there is a white streak in the same location. This
white streak is present in both male and female. In its natural position this streak is hidden
behind the hind wing and can be seen only when the butterfly is captured and observed closely.
Excerpt from Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 1.
Upper side E. core
"Upperside dark brown, broadly paler along terminal margins; Fore and hind wing with
subterminal and terminal series of white spots; on fore wing the former more or less oval, curved
inwards opposite apex, the latter series often incomplete, not reaching apex, the spots smaller;
often there is a small costal spot, and very rarely a spot in apex of cell and one or more discal
spots; on the hind wing the inner series of spots are elongate, the outer conical.
Underside similar, but ground-colour more uniform; cell, costal and discal spots on both fore and
hind wing nearly always present.
49
Underside paler brown, the white spots larger, more clearly defined. Fore wing not violaceous at
apex, a spot (sometimes absent) in apex of cell, and two or three discal spots. Hindwing: a spot
in apex of cell, also sometimes absent, and a discal series of five small spots beyond. Antennae,
head, thorax and abdomen very dark brown, and, the antennae excepted, sparsely spotted with
white.
Mimicry and similar species
Due to its inedibility, Euploea core is mimicked by a few edible species.
Additionally, a number of other inedible species within the same family mimic each other
forming a Mullerian ring.
The edible species are contained in the 2 families-
Papilionidae - Malabar Raven (Papilio dravidarum), Common Mime (Papilio clytia) form clytia
Nymphalidae - Great Eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina) female, Ceylon Palmfly, Elymnias singala
male and female.
Distribution also plays a role in telling the species apart. Both Papilionids are forest dwellers and
while the Common Mime is distributed in all forested areas in India, the Malabar Raven is
endemic to the western ghats south of Goa.
The inedible species are in the same genus forming a mullerian ring-
Brown king crow (E. klugii)
Double branded crow (E. sylvester)
Both these species differ in the number and size of brand and allied streak in the female, which
can only be examined if the specimen is caught and closely examined. The double branded crow
has 2 brands and the female has 2 white streaks on the underside. The brown king crow has a
broad brand and the female has a short indistinct white streak on the underside
Range, habitat and habits
It is found in southern Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Russia, and Australia.
In its range E. core is found at all elevations, right from sea level up into the mountains to 2,400
metres (8,000 ft). It can be observed in all layers of vegetation and in all types of regions from
arid land to forested areas. It can as commonly be seen gliding over the treetops as flitting about
a foot off the ground searching for nectar flowers. In thick forests it is often seen moving along
open tracks or following the course of a river.
The butterfly, being protected by its inedibility, has a leisurely flight. It is often seen flying about
shrubs and bushes in search of its host plants. It visits a large variety of flowering plant species.
When gliding E. core holds its wings at an angle just greater than the horizontal plane,
maintaining its flight with a few measured wingbeats.
E. core is a nectar lover and visits flowers unhurriedly. It seems to prefer bunches to individual
flowers. When feeding the butterfly is unhurried and is not easily disturbed. It can be approached
closely at this time.
50
On hot days large numbers of these butterflies can be seen mud-puddling on wet sand. E. core is
an avid mudpuddler often congregating in huge swarms along with other Euploea species as well
as other Danaids.
This butterfly also gathers on damaged parts of plants such as Crotalaria, Heliotropium to forage
for pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are chemicals precursors to produce pheromones. During
courtship the males of E. core release these sex pheromones to attract females. Once a female is
in the vicinity the males glide around and with the help of a couple of yellow brush like organs
extending out from the tip of the abdomen they disperse the scent in the air.
Along with other Danaids, such as the tigers, E. core is one of the most common migrating
butterfly species. Males and females in equal proportions have been seen to migrate.
Protection
The common crow is distasteful due to chemicals extracted from the latex of the food plants
consumed in their caterpillar stage. Thus protected, they fly in a leisurely manner, gliding
skillfully with wings held slightly above the horizontal. This indicates its protection due to
inedibility to a predator. The inexperienced predator will try attacking it, but will learn soon
enough to avoid this butterfly as the alkaloids in its body cause vomiting.
The butterfly has tough, leathery wings. When attacked it shams death and oozes liquid which
causes any predators to release them and become nauseous. Once released the butterfly "recovers
miraculously" and flies off. Predators experience enough trauma that the characteristics of the
butterfly are imprinted in memory.
Life cycle
Eggs
Eggs are laid on the underside of young leaves of the host plants. The egg is shiny white, tall and
pointed, with ribbed sides. Just before hatching the eggs turn greyish with a black top.
Caterpillar
Throughout its life the caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillar is
uniformly cylindrical, vividly coloured and smooth. It has alternate white and dark brown or
black transverse bands. Just above the legs and prolegs, along the entire body is a wide orangish-
red band interspersed with black spiracles. The most striking characteristics are the 4 pairs of
long and black tentacles. The first pair is movable and also the longest. The tentacles are present
on the 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 12th segments. The head is shiny, smooth and has alternating black and
white semicircular bands.
Since the host plants contain poisonous latex, the caterpillar has evolved peculiar eating habits. It
first chews the midrib of the leaf, cutting off the leaf's supply of latex and then goes on to nip a
few of the secondary veins of the leaf, further blocking the flow of latex. Subsequently the
caterpillar feeds on the leaf but only where the leaf's natural defences have been turned off. The
caterpillar is able to tolerate the plant toxins and stores it in its fatty tissue which helps make the
adult distasteful to predators.
51
Pupa
The pupa of this species is one of the most wonderful sights in nature. It is shiny golden in colour
and compact. The wing margins and margins of the abdominal segments are marked with broad
colourless bands. The abdomen has a pair of black spots on each segment. The cremaster is
black. Just before emergence the black wings show through the skin of the pupa. The species are
attacked by parasitic flies.
2) Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace)
The Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) is a butterfly found in India that belongs to the crows and
tigers, that is, the danaid group of the brush-footed butterfly family. This butterfly shows
gregarious migratory behaviour in southern India.
Description
Upperside black, with bluish-white semihyaline spots and streaks. Fore wing: interspace 1 two
streaks, sometimes coalescent, with a spot beyond cell: a streak from base and an outwardly
indented spot at its apex; a large oval spot at base of interspace 2, another at base of interspace 3,
with a smaller spot beyond it towards termen; five obliquely placed preapical streaks, and
somewhat irregular subterminal and terminal series of spots, the latter the smaller. Hind wing:
interspaces 1b, 1a, and 1 with streaks from base, double in the latter two, cell with a forked broad
streak, the lower branch with a hook, or spur-like slender loop, at base of 4 and 5 a broad
elongate streak, and at base of 6 a quadrate spot; beyond these again a number of scattered
unequal subterminal and terminal spots.
Underside: basal two-thirds of fore wing dusky black, the apex and hind wing olive-brown; the
spots and streaks much as on the upperside, Antennae, head and thorax black, the latter two
spotted and streaked with, white; abdomen dusky above, ochraceous spotted with white beneath.
Expanse: 98–106 mm
Life cycle
Food-plants
A mimic of the Blue Tiger, Common Mime Papilio clytia form dissimilis, a papilionid
The butterfly larva generally feed on plants of family Asclepiadaceae.
Larva
Yellowish white; 3rd and 12th segments, each with a pair of fleshy filaments, black and greenish
white; each of the segments with four transverse black bars, the second bar on all broader than
the others, bifurcated laterally, a yellow longitudinal line on each side; head, feet and claspers
spotted with black. The larva is around 1.21 centimetres (0.48 in) in length and weighs around 5
milligrams (0.077 gr) initially, but grows double that size and four times that weight within 48
hours.
Pupa
52
"Green with golden scattered spots and beaded dorsal crescent" (Frederic Moore quoted in
Bingham)
53
Range
South Asia and Southeast Asia. Also found in numbers in Queensland (at least as far south as
Mackay, but also recorded in Brisbane) Australia
Habits
Congregating with an Common Crow in Kolkata, West Bengal, India
This species migrates extensively during the monsoons in southern India. The migratory
populations have been observed to consist nearly entirely of males. It is also known to mud-
puddle during migration.
3) Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda)
The Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda) is a common species of butterfly found flying at
dusk. The flight of this species is erratic. They are found in Africa, South Asia and South-east
Asia extending to parts of Australia.
Description
Wet-season form: Fore wing: apex subacute; termen slightly angulated just below apex, or
straight. Upperside brown. Fore wing with two large subapical black spots, each with a smaller
spot outwardly of pure white inwardly bordered by a ferruginous interrupted lunule; costal
margin narrowly pale. Hind wing with a dark, white-centred, fulvous-ringed ocellus
subterminally in interspace two, and the apical ocellus, sometimes also others of the ocelli, on
the underside, showing through.
Underside paler, densely covered with transverse dark brown striae; a discal curved dark brown
narrow band on fore wing; a post-discal similar oblique band, followed by a series of ocelli: four
on the fore wing, that in interspace 8 the largest; six on the hind wing, the apical and subtornal
the largest.
Dry-season form: Fore wing: apex obtuse and more or less falcate; termen posterior to falcation
straight or sinuous. Upperside: ground-colour similar to that in the wet-season form, the
markings, especially the ferruginous lunules inwardly bordering the black sub-apical spots on
fore wing, larger, more extended below and above the black costa. Hind wing: the ocellus in
interspace 2 absent, posteriorly replaced by three or four minute white subterminal spots.
Underside varies in colour greatly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in both seasonal forms
brown or greyish brown: the antennae annulated with white, ochraceous at apex.
Ecology
Colonel C. T. Bingham wrote of the genus in 1878-
The Melanitis was there among dead leaves, its wings folded and looking for all the world a
dead, dry leaf itself. With regard to Melanitis, I have not seen it recorded anywhere that the
species of this genus when disturbed fly a little way, drop suddenly into the undergrowth with
54
closed wings, and invariably lie a little askew and slanting, which still more increases their
likeness to a dead leaf casually fallen to the ground.
Resident butterflies are known to fight off visitors to the area during dusk hours. This chase
behaviour is elicited even by pebbles thrown nearby.
The caterpillars feed on a wide variety of grasses including rice (Oryza sativa), bamboos,
Andropogon, Rotboellia cochinchinensis, Brachiaria mutica, Cynodon, Imperata, and millets
such as Oplismenus compositus, Panicum and Eleusine indica.
Adults feed mainly on nectar, and in rare cases visit rotting fruits.
4) Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra)
The Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra) is a species of satyrid butterfly found in the
Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
Description
As some other species in the genus Elymnias, the Common Palmfly presents a precostal cell on
the hindwings and a hair tuft of androconial scales on dorsal discal cell of hindwings. This
butterfly species is dimorphic, males and females do not look alike.
Males exhibit black colored upperside forewings with small blue patches and reddish brown
color on upperside hindwings, while the females mimic butterfly species of the genus Danaus.
Race caudata Male from Calicut, Kerala
Race caudata (Western Ghats) Males and female resembles E. undularis, Drury, but both sexes
have the wings longer, proportionately to their breadth, and the tail at apex of vein 4 on the hind
wing longer. Upperside: male differs from E. undularis as follows: the subterminal and preapical
spots on the fore wing white suffused slightly with dark scales; the terminal half of the hind wing
tawny, more or less suffused with dusky black, which in some specimens forms a distinct border
along the termen. Female similar to the female of E. undularis, but the black more extended;
veins 2, 3, and 4 on the hind wing broadly bordered with black. Underside: Female differs from
E. undularis in the more conspicuous broadly triangular white pre-apical patch on the fore wing,
and in the prominence of the broad tawny terminal half of the upperside of the hind wing, which
shows through a pale, sometimes pinkish-brown on the underside. Antennae, head, thorax and
abdomen brown, paler beneath and much paler in the female than in the male.
Race undularis (Subhimalayas and Southeast Asia) Male upperside blackish brown. fore wing
with a subterminal series of blue or sometimes slightly green elongate spots, curving strongly
inwards and getting more elongate opposite apex, forming almost an oblique bar up to the costa.
Hind wing: the terminal margin broadly bright chestnut, sometimes with a subterminal paler spot
in two or more of the interspaces. Underside pale brown, the basal two-thirds of both fore and
hind wing densely, the outer third more sparsely covered with dark ferruginous, somewhat broad,
transverse striae. Fore wing with a broadly triangular pale purplish-white preapical mark; both
fore and hind wings with a broad subterminal area purplish white. Hind wing with a small white
55
spot opposite middle of the costa and a more or less complete series of more obscure whitish
subterminal spots. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen brown; abdomen beneath paler.
Female Upperside tawny, veins black. Fore wing : the dorsal margin broadly black; the apical
area beyond a line curving from the tornus, round apex of the cell and a little beyond it, to the
base of the costa also black, the wing crossed preapically by a conspicuous, broad, oblique white
bar, and three subterminal white spots. Hind wing: dorsal margin dusky; terminal broadly, costal
margin more narrowly black ; a subterminal series of four white spots. Underside tawny, with
markings similar to those in the male; the pale whitish markings more extensive; the dorsal
margin broadly without striae.
Range
Peninsular India, sub-Himalayas, and southeast Asia.
Life history
Food plants
Cocos nucifera, coconut. Calamus pseudo-tenuis, Calamus rotang, Calamus thwaitesii, Phoenix
loureiroi and Licuala sp.
56
Life cycle
Larva
Race caudata "Spindle-shaped, slender, transversely rugose and clothed with short stout
bristles...; head large, surmounted by two stout horns, sloping backwards, slightly branched at
the ends; a pair of long straight caudal spines setose like the body; colour bright green with
longitudinal yellow lines more or less distinct and two rows of large yellow spots tinged with
green and sometimes tipped with black on the back; head dark brown, with a yellow cheek-stripe
and frontal-line."
Race undularis "Elongate, fusiform, setose; green with longitudinal dorsal and lateral yellow
lines, and a subdorsal row of yellow elongated spots, which are centred with red and posteriorly
edged with blue; head brownish, armed with two erect brownish setose processes; anal segment
also with two red slender hindward-projecting processes."
Larvae are known to be cannibalistic.
Pupa
"Suspended by the tail only, but in a rigidly horizontal position, regular with the exception of
two small pointed processes from the head and an acute thoracic projection above them; colour
bright green, beautifully ornamented with four irregular rows of large yellow spots bordered with
red." (Davidson & Aitken quoted by Bingham.)
5) Lemon Pansy (Junonia lemonias)
Junonia lemonias, the lemon pansy, is a common nymphalid butterfly found in South Asia. It is
found in gardens, fallow land, and open wooded areas.
Description
It is brown with numerous eye-spots as well as black and lemon-yellow spots and lines on the
upperside of the wings. The underside is a dull brown, with a number of wavy lines and spots in
varying shades of brown and black. There is also an eyespot on the lower side of the forewing.
The wet and dry season forms differ considerably in coloration and even shape. In the wet season
form the markings are distinct and vivid and the wing shape is a little more rounded. In the dry
season form the markings are obscure and pale especially on the underside and the wing margin
is more angular and jagged. This helps it camouflage in the dried leaf-litter. The lemon pansy is a
very active butterfly and can be seen basking with its wings open facing the sun. It sits very low
to the ground and can be approached easily. It feeds with its wings half open. It is a fairly strong
flier and flies close to the ground with rapid wingbeats and often returns to settle back in the
same spots.
Life cycle
Eggs
Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. The egg is green and barrel-shaped with
longitudinal ridges.
57
Caterpillar
The caterpillar is cylindrical, uniformly thick and covered with rows of spines which are
branched at the tip. It is dull black with a faint blue sheen and has dorsal stripe of a darker color.
There is a distinct orange ring behind the head. The caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaf
and if disturbed, rolls up and drops to the ground.
Pupa
Pupation takes place in dense foliage close to the ground. The pupa is compact, with small
conical processes on its rough surface. The pupa is well camouflaged with varying shades of
brown with fine streaks and lines.
Foodplants
Caterpillars feed on plants from the families Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae,
Rubiaceae, Tiliaceae and Verbenaceae.
58
Annexure XII: List of Insects
59
Annexure 1
Butterflies of Kaziranga (Gogoi 2009)
Sr.No. Common Name Scientific Name Status
Family: Papilionidae
1. Common Birdwing Triodes helana cerberus NR
2. Lesser Batwing Parides aidoneus NR
3. Common Batwing Parides aruna astorion R
4. Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae NR
5. Great Windmill Atrophaneura dasarada ravana R
6. Common Mime Chilasa clytia C
7. Great Mormon Papilio memnor agenor C
8. Paris Peacock Papilio paris NR
9. Common Ravern Papilio castor C
10. Red Helen Papilio helenus NR
11. Yellow Helen Papilio chaon NR
12. Common Mormon Papilio polytes romulus VC
13. Lime butterfly Papilo demoleus C
14. Fivebar Swordtail Papilio antiphates pompilius NR
15. Common Bluebottle Zetides sarpedon C
16. Common Jay Zetides doson axion C
17. Lesser Jay Zetides evemon albociliatus R
18. Tailed Jay Zetides agammemnon C
19. White Dragontail Leptocircus curius curius R
Family: Pieridae
20. Green Blackvein Pieris napi montana NR
21. Bath White Pontia daplidice moorei R
22. Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia indica C
23. Large Cabbage White Pieris brassicae nepalensis C
24. Lesser Gull Cepora nadina R
60
25. Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene NR
26. Painted Jezabel Delias hyparete hierte C
27. Redspot Jezebel Delias descombesi C
28. Redbase Jezebel Delias aglaia C
29. Spot Puffin Appias lalage C
30. Chocolate Albatross Appias lyncida C
31. Common Albatross Appias albina C
32. Eastern Striped Albatross Appias olferna NR
33. Psyche Leptosia nina C
34. Great Orange-Tip Hebomoia glaucippe NR
35. Common Emigrant Catopsilia pomona C
36. Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pyranthe NR
37. Tree Yellow Gandaca harina assamica NR
38. Spotless Grass Yellow Eurema laeta sikkima NR
39. Three Spot Grass Yellow Eurema blanda silhetana VC
40. Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis C
41. Scarce Grass Yellow Eurema lacteolasarinoides R
42. One Spot Grass Yellow Eurema andersoni andersoni NR
Family Riodinidae
43. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas indicus VC
44. Plum Judy Abisara echerius prunosa C
Family Nymphalidae
45. Glassy Tiger Parantica aglea melanoides C
46. Chestnut Tiger Parantica tytia tytia NR
47. Scarce Blue Tiger Tellervo gautama gautama R
48. Common Tiger Anosia plexippus VC
49. Plain Tiger Anosia chrysippus VC
50. Blue Tiger Tellervo limniace C
51. Dark Blue Tiger Tellervo septentrionis C
61
52. Striped Blue Crow Euploea mulciber C
53. Spotted Black Crow Euploea crameri bremeri NR
54. Common Indian Crow Euploea core vermiculata C
55. Long-branded Blue Crow Euploea deione NR
56. Double-branded Blue Crow Euploea harrisi hopei NR
57. Great Crow Euploea corus phoebus R
58. Magpie Crow Euploea diocletianus diocletianus C
59. Blue King Crow Euploea klugii NR
60. Blue Spotted Crow Euploea midamus brahma VR
61. Whitebar Bushbrown Mycalesis anaxias oemate NR
62. Common Bushbrown Mycalesis perseus blasius C
63. Dark-brand Bushbrown Mycalesis mineus mineus C
64. White-edge Bushbrown Mycalesis menstra R
65. Lepcha Bushbrown Mycalesis lepcha kohimensis NR
66. White-line Bushbrown Mycalesis malsara R
67. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesis Mycalesis malsarida NR
68. Lilacine Bushbrown Mycalesis francisca santana NR
69. Bamboo Treebrown Lethe europa niladana C
70. Common Treebrown Lethe rohria rohria C
71. Banded Treebrown Lethe confusca gambara C
72. Common Red Forester Lethe mekara zuchara C
73. Common Forester Lethe insana dinarbas NR
74. Scarce Red Forester Lethe distans VR
75. Bamboo Forester Lethe kansa C
76. Plain Threering Ypthima lyscus R
77. Large Threering Ypthima nareda sarcaposa NR
78. Common Fourring Ypthima huebneri C
79. Common Fivering Ypthima baldus C
80. Dark Catseye Zioetis scylax Hewitson NR
62
81. Nigger Orsotrioena medus C
82. Dusky Diadem Anadebis himachala NR
83. Common Evening Browns Melanitis leda ismene VC
84. Dark Evening Brown Melanitis phedima bela C
85. Branded Evening Browns Cyllogens suradeva R
86. Common Palmflies Elymnias hypermnestra undularis C
87. Spotted Palmfly Elymnias malelas NR
88. Blue striped Palmfly Elymnias patna NR
89. Jezabel Palmfly Elymnias vasudeva deva R
90. Common Faun Faunis arcesilaus C
91. Jungle Glory Thaumantis diores C
92. Common Duffer Discophora sondaica NR
93. Great Duffer Discophora timora NR
94. Tawny Rajah Charaxes polyxenia hierax C
95. Black Rajah Charaxes fabius sulphureus NR
96. Blue Nawab Polyura schreiberi assamensis C
97. Common Nawab Polyura athamas C
98. Pasha Herona marathus NR
99. Painted Courtesan Euripus consimilis R
100. Circe Hestina nama C
101. Constable Dichorragia nesimachus R
102. Popinjay Stibochiona nicea C
103. Grey Count Tanaecia lepidea C
104. Common Earl Tanaecia julii C
105. Plain Earl Tanaecia jahnu NR
106. Common Baron Euthalia garuda C
107. White-edge Blue Baron Euthalia phemius
108. Gaudy Baron Euthalia lubentina indica NR
109. Redspot Duke Euthalia evelina derma NR
63
110. Dark Arkduke Euthalia khasiana NR
111. Knight Lebadea martha ismene C
112. Clipper Parthenos sylvia gambrisius R
113. Commander Moduza procris C
114. Colour Sergent Parathyma nefte inara C
115. Staff Sergent Parathyma selenophora NR
116. Blackvein Sergent Parathyma ranga NR
117. Common Sergent Parathyma perius C
118. Orange Staff Sergent Pantoporia cama NR
119. Great Sergent Pantoporia siamensis R
120. Dot-dash Sergent Pantoporia kanwa phorkys R
121. Short-banded Sailer Neptis columella ophiana NR
122. Yerbury’s Sailer Neptis yerburyi sikkima NR
123. Common Sailer Neptis hylas adara VC
124. Sullied Sailer Neptis soma VC
125. Dingy Sailer Neptis vikasi pseudovikasi R
126. Dingrest Sailer Neptis harita R
127. Plain Sailer
Neptis carita burmana R
128. Neptis omeroda R
129. Yellowjack Sailer Lasippa viraja C
130. Broad-banded Sailer Neptis sankarna quilta NR
131. Small Yellow Sailer Neptis miah NR
132. Common Lascar Neptis hordonia C
133. Common Map Cyrestis thydomas C
134. Wavy Maplet Chersonesia rahria rahriodes R
135. Maplet Chersonesia risa NR
136. Tabby Pseudergolis wedah NR
137. Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina VC
138. Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice birmana NR
64
139. Autumn Leaf Doleschallia bisaltide indica NR
140. Orange Oakleaf Kallima inachus NR
141. Peacock Pansy Precis almana VC
142. Lemon Pansy Precis lemonias VC
143. Grey Pansy Precis atlites VC
144. Yellow Pansy Precis hierta magna VC
145. Chocolate Soldier Precis iphita VC
146. Painted Lady Vanessa cardui C
147. Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica NR
148. Common Jester Symbrenthia hippoclus C
149. Bluetailed Jester Symbrenthia niphanda R
150. Indian Fritillary Argyreus hyperbius NR
151. Rustic Cupha erymanthis lotis NR
152. Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha C
153. Vagrant Vagrans egista sinha NR
154. Cruiser Vindula erota Fabricius, NR
155. Common Yeoman Cirrochroa tyche mithila NR
156. Large Yeoman Cirrochroa aoris C
157. Leopard Lacewing Cethosia cyane C
158. Red Lacewing Cethosia biblis tisamena C
159. Common Castor Ariadne merione assama C
160. Yellow Coaster Acraea vesta NR
161. Tawny Coster Acraea terpsicore NR
162. Common Beak Libythea celtis C
163. Club Beak Libythea myrrha sanguinalis C
164. Slate Awl Hasora anura R
165. Common Awl Hasora badra C
166. Plain Banded Awl Hasora vitta vitta NR
167. Large Banded Awl Hasora khoda coulteri R
65
168. White-banded Awl Hasora taminatus NR,
169. Common Banded Awl Hasora alexis NR
170. Branded Orange Awlet Bibasis oedipodea aegina NR
171. Plain Orange Awlet Bibasi anadi VR
172. Small Green Awlet Bibasis amara R
173. Pale Green Awlet Bibasis gomata R
174. Orange Awlet Bibasis harisa R
175. Orange-tail Awl Bibasis sena uniformis R
176. Indian Awlking Choaspes benjaminii xanthopogon R
177. Branded Awlking Choaspes stigmata R
178. Similar Awlking Choaspes similis R
179. Caudate Awlking Choaspes subcaudatus crawfurdi R
180.
Hooked Awlking
Choaspes furcata R
181. Celaenorrhinus entellus simula VR
182. Celaenorrhinus saturatus R
183. Celaenorrhinus aurivittata NR
184. Large Snow Flat Tagiades gana C
185. Suffused Snow Flat Tagiades obscurus C
186. Common Snow Flat Tagiades japetus ravi C
187. Spotted Snow Flat Tagiades menaka NR
188. Water Snow Flat Tagiades litigiosa C
189. Yellow Flat Mooreana trichoneura pralaya NR
190. White Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis sinica narada NR
191. Dusky Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis phisara C
192. Malay Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis limax NR
193. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoldaenia dan C
194. Chestnut Angle Odontoptilum angulata NR
195. Grey Pied Flat Coladenia laxmi laxmi R
196. Common Small Flat Sarangesa dasahara C
66
197. Indian Skipper Spialia galba Fabricius C
198. Giant Hopper Apostictopterus fuliginosus VR
199. Forest Hopper Asticopterus jama olivascens NR
200.
Bush Hopper
Ampittia dioscorides NR
201. Ampittia virgata myakei
202. Ampittia trimacula R
203. Scarce Bush Hopper
Ampittia maroides
204. Ampittia dalailama R
205.
Blue-spotted Scrub Hopper
Aeromachus kali
206. Aeromachus stigmata obsoleta NR
207. Aeromachus jhora creta NR
208. Aeromachus discreta NR
209. Pigmy scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus NR
210. Brown bush Bob Pedesta pandita C
211. Chestnut Bob Iambrix salsala C
212. Indian Palm Bob Suastus gremius gremius R
213. Ceylon Palm bob Suastus minuta aditia NR
214. Malay Palm Bob Suastus everyx R
215. Forest Bob Scobura cephala NR
216. Malay Forest Bob Scobura phiditia R
217. Large Forest Bob Scobura cephaloides NR
218. Grass Bob Suada swerga NR
219. Narrow-banded Velvet Bob Koruthaialos rubecula cachara NR
220. Dark Velvet Bob.
Koruthaialos butleri butleri
221. Koruthaialos focula RF
222. Bright Red Velvet Bob Koruthaialos xanites gopaka NR
223. Coon Psolos fuligo subfasciatus C
224. Watson’s Demon Stimula swinhoei R
225. Circular Tufted Demon Ge geta VR
67
226. Chocolate Demon Ancistroides nigrita
227. Gem Demon
Ancistroides gemmifer R
228. Pseudokerana fulgur R
229. Grass Demon
Udaspes folus C
230. Notocrypta quadrata R
231. Small Demon
Notocrypta pria R
232. Notocrypta clavata R
233. Common Banded Demon Notocrypta paralysos C
234. Spotted Demon Notocrypta feisthamelii alysos C
235. Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia C
236. Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis thyrsis NR
237. Palm Redeye Erionota thrax thrax
238. Common Redeye Matapa aria C
239. Purple Redeye Matapa purpurascens NR
240. Dark-brand Redeye Matapa druna R
241. Black-veined Redeye Matapa sasivarna R
242. Grey-brand Redeye Matapa shalgrama R
243. Tree Flitter Hyarotis adrastus prabus NR
244. Purple and Gold Flitter Zographetus satwa C
245. Purple spotted Flitter
Zographetus ogygia ogygia R
246. Zographetus rama rama R
247. Vermiculata Lancer Pyroneura vermiculata VR
248. Red-Vein Lancer Pyroneura niasana burmana VR
249. Yellow-vein Lancer Pyroneura margherita NR
250. Purple Lancer Salanoemia fuscicornis R
251. Maculate Lancer Salanoemia sala sala R
252. Spotted Yellow Lancer
Salanoemia noemi NR
253. Salanoemia tavoyana NR
254. White Tipped Palmer Lotongus calathus zalates VR
68
255. Yellowband Palmer Lotongus sarala sarala NR
256. Plain Green Palmer Pirdana distanti R
257. Nonsuch Palmer Cyrina cyrina parca VR
258. Dark straw Ace Pithauria murdava R
259. Light Straw Ace Pithauria stramineipennis NR
260. Branded Straw Ace Pithauria marsena NR
261. Silverybreast Ace Sovia albipectus prominens R
262.
Graham’s Ace
Sovia grahami R
263. Sovia lucasii magna R
264. Thoressa hyrie R
265. Northern Spotted Ace Thoressa cerata NR
266. Leech’s Ace Thoressa latris thandaunga VR
267. Gharwal Ace Thoressa aina debilis
268. White-fringed Ace Halpe insignis
269. Swinhoe’s Ace Halpe burmana Swinhoe NR
270. Moore’s Ace Halpe porus NR
271. Indian Ace
Halpe homolea NR
272. Halpe veluvana veluvana R
273.
Tavoy Sulphur Ace
Halpe flava R
274. Halpe aurifera NR
275. Halpe toxopea R
276. Tenasserim Ace Halpe kusala C
277. Confusing Ace Halpe wantona NR
278. Javan Ace
Halpe pelethronix pelethronix R
279. Halpe hieron R
280. Banded Ace Halpe zema zema NR
281. Dark Banded Ace
Halpe ormenes vilasina R
282. Halpe zola C
69
283. Knyvett’s Ace Halpe knyvetti
284. Plain Ace Halpe kumara R
285. Sikkim Ace Halpe sikkima R
286. Tytler’s Ace
Halpe tytleri R
287. Halpe arcuata R
288. Beggar’s Ace Halpe paupera R
289. Wax Dart Cupitha purreea NR
290. Veined Grass Dart Taractrocera ziclea tissara 1910
291. Yellow Grass Dart
Taractrocera archias quinta R
292. Taractrocera aliena NR
293. Malay Dartlet Oriens paragola NR
294. Common Dartlet
Oriens gola C
295. Potanthus fettingi
296. Branded Dart Potanthus rectifasciata rectifasciata R
297.
Lesser Dart
Potanthu omaha NR
298. Potanthus ganda NR
299. Potanthus taxilus R
300. Himalayan Dart Potanthus dara R
301. Common Dart Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa NR
302. Pallid Dart
Potanthus pallida C
303. Potanthus zatilla
304. Yellow Dart
Potanthus flava R
305. Potanthus sita NR
306. Chinese Dart Potanthus confucius dushta NR
307. Burmese Dart Potanthus juno R
308. Tropic Dart Potanthus tropica tropica C
309. Palni Dart Potanthus palnia palnia VR
310. Large Dart Potanthu hetaerus serina NR
311. Broad Bident Dart Potanthus trachala tytleri C
70
312. Narrow Bident Dart Potanthus mingo ajax R
313. Sikkim Dart Potanthus nesta R
314. Sikkim Dart
Potanthus mara R
315. Potanthus amor VR
316. Pale Parm Dart Telicota augias NR
317. Common Palm Dart Telicota colon C
318. Dark Palm Dart Telicota bambusae NR
319. Dark Palm Dart Telicota ohara jix NR
320. Besta Palm Dart Telicota besta bina NR
321. Greenish Palm Dart Telicota ancilla horisha NR
322. Linna Palm Dart Telicota linna linna NR
323. Plain Palm Darts Cephrenes palmarum C
324. Paintbrush Swift Baoris farri NR
325. Dark Branded Swift Caltoris brunnea NR
326. Figure of 8 Swift Caltoris pagana NR
327. Yellow Fringed Swift Caltoris aurociliata
328. Sirius Swift Caltoris sirius C
329. Colon Swift Caltoris bromus R
330. Colon Swift
Caltoris cara NR
331. Caltoris tenius NR
332. Full stop Swift Caltoris moolata C
333. Tufted Swift Caltoris plebeia NR
334. Purple Swift Caltoris tulsi R
335. Blank Swift
Caltoris kumara C
336. Caltoris malaya NR
337. Philippine Swift Caltoris philippina belli NR
338. Baby Swift Polytremis minuta R
339. Contiguous Swift Polytremis lubricans
340. Yellow Spot Swift Polytremis eltola
71
341. Himalayan Swift Polytremis discreta
342. Great Swift Pelopidas assamensis R
343. Conjoined Swift Pelopidas conjuncta javana R
344. Large Branded Swift Pelopidas sinensis C
345. Small Branded Swift Pelopidas mathias C
346. Straight Swift Parnara guttatus C
347. Ceylon Swift Parnara bada C
348. Rice Swift Borbo cinnara C
349. Bevan’s Swift Pseudoborbo bevani C
Abbreviations -VC: Very common (abundant) C: Common NR: Not rare (uncommon) R: Rare VR: Very
rare (endemic)
*Multiple subspecies excluded.
72
Annexure 2
Habitatwise distribution of Orthoptera and Mantodea in Kaziranga National Park, Assam
(Senthilkumar 2010)
Sr.
No.
Species Family Forest Savannah Grassland
1 Xenocatantops humilis Acrididae + + +
2 Phlaeoba infumata Acrididae + + +
3 Phlaeoba tenebrosa Acrididae - + +
4 Spathosternum prasiniferum Acrididae + - -
5 Atractomorpha crenulata Acrididae - + +
6 Catantops ferruginuous Acrididae + + +
7 Gesonula punctifrons Acrididae - + +
8 Phlaeoba antennata Acrididae + - -
9 Phlaeoba sp. Acrididae - + -
10 Trilophidia annulata Acrididae + - -
11 Caryanda sp. Acrididae + - -
12 Atractomorpha sp. Acrididae - + +
13 Tagasta indica Acrididae + - -
14 Oxya hyla hyla Acrididae - - +
15 Heiroglyphus banian Acrididae - + +
16 Eyprepocnemis alacris Acrididae - + +
17 Orthacris maindroni Acrididae - + +
18 Acrida exaltata Acrididae - + +
19 Oxya nitidula Acrididae - - +
20 Conocephalus maculatus Tettigoniidae + + +
21 Conocephalus (Xiphidion)
melaenus
Tettigoniidae + - -
22 Euconocephalus indicus Tettigoniidae - + +
23 Letana rubescens Tettigoniidae + - -
73
24 Hexacentrus unicolor Serville. Tettigoniidae + + -
25 Khaoyaiana sp. Tettigoniidae + - -
26 Hexacentrus major Redtenb. Tettigoniidae + - -
27 Elimaea (Orthelimaea)
securigera
Tettigoniidae + + +
28 Mirrollia sp. Tettigoniidae - - +
29 Teleogryllus sp. Gryllidae - + +
30 Gryllinae sp. Gryllidae + - -
31 Gryllodes sigillatus Gryllidae + + +
32 Hierodula sp. Mantidae - + -
33 Creobroter sp. Mantidae + - -
34 Statilia sp. Mantidae - - +
35 Tenodera sp. Mantidae - + +
36 Mantodea sp. Mantidae + - -
+ is Presence; - is Absence
74
Annexure 3
List of thrips from Kaziranga National Park, Assam
(Singh and Varatharajan 2013)
Suborder: Terebrantia; family: Thripidae
1. Anaphothripssudanensis Trybom,1911
2. AyyariachaetophoraKarny1927
3. Chaetanaphothripsorchidii(Moulton,1907)
4. Craspedothripsminor(Bagnall,1921)
5. Dendrothripsstannardi(Ananthakrishnan,1957)
6. DichromothripsnakahariMound, 1976
7. Dichromothripssmithi(Zimmerman,1900)
8. Frankliniellaintonsa(Trybom,1895)
9. Fulmekiolaserrata(Kubos, 1893)
10. HydatothripsaureusBhatti, 1973
11. Lefroyothripslefroyi(Bagnall, 1913)
12. Megalurothripsdistalis(Karny 1913)
13. M.mucunae (Priesner,1938)
14. M. pecularis(Bagnall,1918)
15. M.typicusBagnall, 1915
16. M.usitatus(Bagnall,1913)
17. Microcephalothripsabdominalis(Crawford,1910)
18. Mycterothripssetiventris(Bagnall,1918)
19. NeohydatothripsraniaeBhatti,1967
20. Rhamphothripsparviceps Hood,1919
21. Sciothrips cardamomi (Ramakrishna,1935)
22. ScirtothripsdorsalisHood,
23. Stenchaetothripsbiformis(Bagnall,1913)
24. TaeniothripsmajorBagnall, 1916
25. Thripsandrewsi(Bagnall,1921)
26. T.coloratusSchmutz, 1913
75
27. T. flavidulus (Bagnall, 1923)
28. T. flavus Schrank, 1776
29. T. hawaiiensis (Morgan, 1913)
30.T. kodaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish,1966
31. Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis (Bagnall, 1915)
32. T. palmi Karny, 1925
33. T. tabaci Lindeman, 1889
34. Astrothrips tumiceps (Karny, 1923)
35. Helionothrips kadaliphilus (Ramakrishna and Margabandhu, 1931)
36. H. parvus Bhatti, 1968
37. Monilothrips kempi Moulton, 1929
38. Panchaetothrips indicus Bagnall, 1912
39. Phibalothrips peringueyi (Faure, 1925)
40. Retithrips syriacus (Mayet, 1890)
41. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood, 1919
42. Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard, 1901)
43. Zaniothrips ricini Bhatti, 1967
Suborder: Tubulifera, family: Phlaeothripidae
44. Androthrips flavitibia Moulton, 1932
45. A. ramachandrai Karny, 1926
46. Araeothrips longisetis Ananthakrishnan, 1976
47. Araeothrips vamana Muraleedharan, 1982
48. Arrhenothrips longisetis Sen, 1977
49. Bamboosiella nayari (Ananthakrishnan, 1958)
50. Crotonothrips cacharensis Muraleedharan & Sen,1978
51. Dexiothrips madrasensis (Ananthakrishnan, 1964)
52. Dolichothrips indicus (Hood, 1919)
53. D. montanus Ananthakrishnan, 1964
54. Ecacanthothrips tibialis (Ashmead, 1905)
76
55. Eurynchothrips ordinarius (Hood, 1919)
56. Gigantothrips elegans Zimmerman, 1900
57. G. tibialis (Bagnall, 1921.
58. Gynaikothrips bengalensis Ananthakrishnan, 1973
59. G. cecidii Ananthakrishnan, 1968
60. G. uzeli Zimmerman, 1900
61. Haplothrips ceylonicus Schmutz, 1913
62. H. ganglbaueri Schmutz, 1913
63. H. gowdeyi (Franklin, 1908)
64. H. longisetosus Ananthakrishnan, 1955
65. Haplothrips (Haplothrips) montanus (Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970)
66. H. tenuipennis Bagnall, 1918
67. Hoplandrothrips flavipes Bagnall, 1923
68. Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, 1928
69. Leeuwenia ananthakrishnani Varatharajan and Sen, 2000
70. L. karnyiana Priesner, 1925
71. Liophloeothrips amoenus Ananthakrishnan, 1966
72. L. pavettae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969
73. Liothrips aequilus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969
74. L. associatus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969
75. L. himalayanus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970
76. L. infrequens Muraleedharan and Sen, 1979
77. L. mohanrami Bhatti et al., 2006
78. L. morulus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1970
79. L. ramakrishnae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969
80. Membrothrips indicus (Hood, 1919)
81. Mesothrips ambasensis Muraleedharan and Sen, 1981
82. M. extensivus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969
83. M. lividicornis (Karny, 1923)
77
84. Mimothrips orientalis Ananthakrishnan, 1949
85. Neodixothrips assamensis Sen amd Muraleedharan, 1976
86. Tylothrips indicus Sen & Muraleedharan, 1977
87. Xylaplothrips pusillus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969
88. Dinothrips sumatrensis Bagnall, 1908
89. Elaphrothrips curvipes Priesner, 1929
90. E. denticollis (Bagnall, 1914)
91. E. greeni (Bagnall, 1914)
92. E. procer (Schmutz, 1913)
93. E. spiniceps Bagnall, 193
94. Meiothrips nepalensis Kudo and Ananthakrishnan, 197
95. Nesothrips brevicolis (Bagnall, 1914)
96. N. lativentris (Karny, 1913)
78
Annexure 4
Checklist of butterflies observed during this study
Sr.
No. Common Name Scientific name Family
1. Zema Banded Ace Halpezema Hesperiidae
2. Pale Palm-Dart Telicota colon Hesperiidae
3. Dark Palm-Dart Telicotabambusae Hesperiidae
4. Common Small Flat Sarangesadasahara Hesperiidae
5. Black Angle Tapenathwaitesi Hesperiidae
6. Water Snow Flat Tagiadeslitigiosa Hesperiidae
7. Common Snow Flat Tagiadesjapetus Hesperiidae
8. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoladeniadan Hesperiidae
9. Common Spotted Flat Celaenorrhinusleucocera Hesperiidae
10. Dark Velvet Bob Koruthaialosbutleri Hesperiidae
11. Chestnut Bob Iambrixsalsala Hesperiidae
12. ExtraForest Bob Scoburacephala Hesperiidae
13. Dingy Scrub Hopper Aeromachusdubius Hesperiidae
14. Restricted Demon Notocryptacurvifascia Hesperiidae
15. Spotted Demon Notocryptafeisthamelii Hesperiidae
16. Common BrandedRedeye Matapa aria Hesperiidae
17. SmallerDartlet Oriensgoloides Hesperiidae
18. Common Pierrot Castaliusrosimon Lycaenidae
19. Elbowed Pierrot Caletaelna Lycaenidae
20. Straight Pierrot Caleta(Pycnophallium)roxus Lycaenidae
21. Banded Blue Pierrot Discolampaethion Lycaenidae
22. Common Tit Hypolycaenaerylus Lycaenidae
23. Fluffy Tit Zeltusamasa Lycaenidae
24. Common Imperial Cheritrafreja Lycaenidae
25. Blue Imperial Ticherraacte Lycaenidae
79
26. Witch Araoteslapithis Lycaenidae
27. Dark Cerulean Jamidesbochus Lycaenidae
28. Silver Forget-me-not Catochrysopspanormus Lycaenidae
29. Zebra Blue Leptotesplinius Lycaenidae
30. Malayan Megisba malaya Lycaenidae
31. Common Hedge Blue Acytolepispuspa Lycaenidae
32. Acute Sunbeam Curetisacuta Lycaenidae
33. Purple Sapphire Heliophorusepicles Lycaenidae
34. Common Ciliate Blue Antheneemolus Lycaenidae
35. Lesser Grass Blue Zizinaotis Lycaenidae
36. Pale Grass Blue Pseudozizeeriamaha Lycaenidae
37. Dark Mottle Loganiadistanti Lycaenidae
38. Yamfly Loxuraatymnus Lycaenidae
39. Plum Judy Abisara echerius Riodinidae
40. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas Riodinidae
41. Large Yeoman Cirrochroaaoris Nymphalidae
42. Vagrant Vagransegista Nymphalidae
43. Common Baron Euthaliaaconthea Nymphalidae
44. Powdered Baron Euthaliamonina Nymphalidae
45. Common Earl Tanaeciajulii Nymphalidae
46. Common Bushbrown Mycalesisperseus Nymphalidae
47. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesismalsarida Nymphalidae
48. Common Evening Brown Melanitisleda Nymphalidae
49. Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica Nymphalidae
50. White-bar Bushbrown Mycalesisanaxias Nymphalidae
51. Common Faun Fauniscanens Nymphalidae
52. Nigger Orsotriaenamedus Nymphalidae
53. Angled Castor Ariadne ariadne Nymphalidae
54. Rustic Cuphaerymanthis Nymphalidae
80
55. Psyche Leptosianina Nymphalidae
56. Grey Count Tanaecialepidea Nymphalidae
57. Courtesan Euripus nyctelius Nymphalidae
58. Common Palmfly Elymniashypermnestra Nymphalidae
59. Grey Pansy Junoniaatlites Nymphalidae
60. Peacock Pansy Junoniaalmana Nymphalidae
61. Lemon Pansy Junonialemonias Nymphalidae
62. Yellow Pansy Junoniahierta Nymphalidae
63. Commander Moduzaprocris Nymphalidae
64. Staff Sergeant Athymaselenophora Nymphalidae
65. Colour Sergeant Athymainara Nymphalidae
66. Common Sergeant Athymaperius Nymphalidae
67. Unbroken Sergeant Athymapravara Nymphalidae
68. Common Four-ring Ypthimahuebneri Nymphalidae
69. Common Five-ring Ypthimabaldus Nymphalidae
70. Tawny Rajah Charaxesbernardus Nymphalidae
71. DingiestSailer Neptisharita Nymphalidae
72. False DingiSailer Neptispseudovikasi Nymphalidae
73. Sullied/CreamySailer Neptis soma Nymphalidae
74. Small Yellow Sailer Neptismiah Nymphalidae
75. Clear Sailer Neptisnata Nymphalidae
76. Plain Tiger Danauschrysippus Nymphalidae
77. Common or Striped Tiger Danausgenutia Nymphalidae
78. Blue Tiger Tirumalalimniace Nymphalidae
79. Glassy Tiger Paranticaaglea Nymphalidae
80. Dark Blue Tiger Tirumalaseptentrionis Nymphalidae
81. Common Indian Crow Euploea core Nymphalidae
82. Striped Blue Crow Euploeamulciber Nymphalidae
83. Magpie Crow Euploearadamanthus Nymphalidae
81
84. DanaidEggfly Hypolimnasmisippus Nymphalidae
85. Knight Lebadeamartha Nymphalidae
86. Common Nawab Charaxesathamas Nymphalidae
87. Wizard Rhinopalpapolynice Nymphalidae
88. Pallid Nawab Charaxesarja Nymphalidae
89. Leopard Lacewing Cethosiacyane Nymphalidae
90. Common Lascar Pantoporiahordonia Nymphalidae
91. Common Birdwing Troideshelena Papilionidae
92. Common Mormon Papiliopolytes Papilionidae
93. Common Bluebottle Graphiumsarpedon Papilionidae
94. Paris Peacock Papilioparis Papilionidae
95. Great Mormon Papiliomemnon Papilionidae
96. Tailed Jay Graphiumagamemnon Papilionidae
97. Lime Butterfly Papiliodemoleus Papilionidae
98. Yellow Helen Papilionephelus Papilionidae
99. Mottled Emigrant Catopsiliapyranthe Pieridae
100. Common Emigrant Catopsiliapomona Pieridae
101. Yellow Orange-tip Ixias pyrene Pieridae
102. Great Orange-tip Hebomoiaglaucippe Pieridae
103. Chocolate Albatross Appiaslyncida Pieridae
104. Painted Jezebel Deliashyparete Pieridae
105. Red-spot Jezebel Deliasdescombesi Pieridae
82
83
Annexure XIII: Images of Butterflies
84
Some Butterflies recorded by BNHS team during the Survey
Colour Seargeant Athyma nefte
Paris Peacock Papilio paris
Common Lascar Pantoporia hordonia
Unbroken Sergeant Athyma pravara
Common Birdwing Troideshelena
Courtesan Euripus nyctelius
All
photo
s by D
r. R
aju
Kas
ambe
85
Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice
Large Yeoman Cirrochro aaoris
Common Earl Tanaecia julii
Knight Lebadea martha
Nigger Orsotriaena medus Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica
All
photo
s by D
r. R
aju
Kas
ambe
86
Swinhoe’s Forest Bob Scobura isota
Dark Mottle Logania distanti Witch Araotes lapithis
Long-banded Silverline Spindasis lohita
Pygmy Scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus
Common Ciliate Blue Anthene emolus
All
photo
s by D
r. R
aju K
asam
be
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