animal bodies and homeostasis
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Animal bodies andhomeostasis
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Chapter 40
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All animal cells share similarities in the waysin which they
Exchange materials with their surroundings
Obtain energy from organic nutrients
Synthesize complex molecules
Reproduce themselves
Detect and respond to signals in theirimmediate environment
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Cells with similar properties group to form
tissues Tissues combine with other types of tissues to
form organs Organs are anatomically or functionally linked to
form organ systems 33
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Tissues
Specialized cells of a given type clustertogether
4 categories
Muscle
Nervous
EpithelialConnective
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Muscle tissue
Cells specialized to contract generating force
3 types
Skeletal attached to bone or exoskeletonfor locomotion, voluntary control
Smooth surrounds hollow tubes andcavities for propulsion of contents,
involuntary control
Cardiac only in the heart, involuntarycontrol
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Bronchiole
Lungs
Heart
Smoothmusclelayer
Smoothmusclelayer
Smoothmusclecells
Skeletalmusclecell
Cardiacmusclecell
(left): Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (middle): Sinclair Stammers/Photo Researchers, Inc.;(right): Dr. Richard Kessel/Visuals Unlimited
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Nervous tissue
Initiate and conduct electrical signals fromone part of the animals body to another
Single nerve cell called a neuron
Electrical signals produced in one nerve cellmay stimulate or inhibit other nerve cells to
Initiate new electrical signals
Stimulate muscle to contractStimulate glands to release chemicals
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Spinal cord
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Epithelial tissues
Sheets of densely-packed cells that
Cover the body or individual organs
Line the walls of body cavitiesSpecialized to protect and secrete or absorb
All are asymmetrical or polarized
Rest on basal lamina or basementmembrane
Can function as selective barriers
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Basillamina
Nasal passage:
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Kidney tubules:Simple cuboidal
Esophagus lining:Stratified squamous
Lungs:
Simple squamous
Intestines:Simple columnar
Urinary system:Transitional
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Connective tissues
Connect, anchor, and support
Includes blood, adipose, bone, cartilage,loose and dense connective tissue
Form an extracellular matrix around cells
Provides scaffold for attachment
Protects and cushions
Mechanical strength
Transmit information
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`
Blood
Adipose tissue
Bone
Cartilage
192 m
Dense connectivetissue
Loose connectivetissue
160 m160 m
(inset a): Dennis Kunke Microscopy/Phototake; (inset b): Ed Reshke/Peter Arnold; (inset c): Innerspace Imaging/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (inset d): Dr. John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; e-f: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Tesler, photographer
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Organs
Composed of 2 or more kinds of tissues
Organ system different organs worktogether to perform an overall function
Organ systems frequently work together nervous and endocrine system
Spatial arrangement of organs into organsystems part of overall body plan
Body plan controlled by highly conservedfamily of genes with homologs in all animals
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Stomach
Intestine
Nervous tissue
Connective tissue
Connective tissue
Lumen of stomach
Simple squamousepithelial tissue
Layers of smoothmuscle tissue
Small arteryand vein
Simple columnarepithelial tissue
Layers ofmuscle tissue
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Organ Development andFunction Are Controlled by
Homeotic GenesHomeotic genes family of ancient highlyconserved genes found in all animals
Determine timing and spatial patterning of theanteroposterior body axis during development
In vertebrates known as Hoxgenes
Important role in determining where organs
formHoxgenes also important for growth,development and function of organs in adults
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Body fluids
2 main compartments
Intracellular fluid inside cells
Extracellular fluid outside cells
Plasma fluid portion of blood
Interstitial fluid fluid between cells
In vertebrates, kept separate
In invertebrates, intermingled fluid calledhemolymph
Intracellular and extracellular fluid can bevery different in solute composition
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Plasma
Blood vessel (capillary)
Intracellularfluid
Interstitialfluid
Extracellularfluid
Red
bloodcell
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Movement of solutes
Passive diffusion
Movement of a solute down its concentrationgradient
No carrier or ATP required
Only nonpolar or extremely small polarsolutes
Rate of diffusion depends on Concentration gradient
Area for diffusion
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Movement of most solutes betweencompartments or across plasma membranesis mediated by transport proteins
Facilitated diffusion passiveActive transport
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Movement of water
Plasma membranes tend to be highly permeableto water and
Fluid moves readily between compartments
Osmosis
Swollen or shrunken cells are more fragile and willdie if membrane ruptures
Can happen when cells exposed to more dilute(hypoosmotic) or more concentrated(hyperosmotic) extracellular fluids
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When red blood cells swell, they mayburst, a phenomenon called hemolysis Shrinkage of red blood cells is called
crenation
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Form and function are
closely relatedCompare respiratory systems of insect andmammal
Structural similarities suggest similar
function
Tubes connect with the outside environmentterminating in 1 cell thick structures
Tubes serve as air conduits
Thin cells with high surface area for diffusionof gases
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(a) Insect respiratory system
Body surface
Spiracle
Air
Air
Tracheae
(b) Human respiratory system
Strip of skeletalmuscle
Trachea(pseudostratifiedciliated epithelium)
Alveoli
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All respiratory organs have an extensive surface area
All cells, tissues, and organs that mediate diffusionrequire extensive surface area
Maximizes abilityIncreasing surface area comes at expense of greatlyincreasing volume without shape change
SA/V surface area to volume ratio
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Homeostasis
Process of maintaining a relatively stableinternal environment despite changes in theexternal surroundings
Conformers maintain same fluidcomposition as environment cheaper
Regulators internal composition of fluidsdifferent from environment more expensive
Animal can be both with respect to differentvariables
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No physiological function is constant for very
long, which is why we call them variablesNormally, blood sugar (glucose) remains atfairly steady and predictable levels in anyhealthy individual
After a meal the level of glucose in yourblood can increase quickly
If you skip a meal, your blood sugar level
may drop slightly
Homeostatic mechanisms restore bloodglucose to normal levels in the blood
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Homeostatic controlsystems
Set point normal value for controlledvariable
Sensor monitors particular variable
Integrator compares signals from thesensor to set point
Effector compensates for deviations
between actual value and set point
Example body temperature in mammals
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Homeostatic challenge(cooling)
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Homeostatic challenge(cooling)
Sensor(neurons)
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Homeostatic challenge(cooling)
Sensor
(neurons)
Integrator(in brain)
Set point: 37CInput:
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Homeostatic challenge(cooling)
Sensor(neurons)
Integrator(in brain)
Set point: 37CInput:
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Homeostatic challenge(cooling)
Sensor(neurons)
Integrator(in brain)Set point: 37C
Input:
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