a brief history of language teaching
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Approaches to SecondLanguage Teaching
Fundamentos Metodolgicos do Ensino de InglsProfa. Andra Mattos (FALE/UFMG)
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A brief history of language teaching
Today, English is the most widely studiedlanguage;
500 years ago, it was Latin. The study of classical Latin and an analysis of its
grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreignlanguage study from the 17th to the 19th centuries
Textbooks consisted of statements of abstract grammarrules, lists of vocabulary and sentences for translation
Latin was taught by means of the so-called ClassicalMethod or Grammar-Translation Method.
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The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of thehen.
My sons have bought the mirror of the duke.The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than
the dog of your uncle.
(Titone, 1968 apud Richards and Rodgers, 2001)
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The Grammar Translation Method The Classical Method or Grammar Translation Method
is still used nowadays. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, through lists
of isolated words, long elaborate explanations of theintricacies of grammar, and the reading of difficultclassical texts.
Grammar provides the rules for putting wordstogether, and instruction often focuses on the formand inflection of words.
Exercises concentrate on translation of disconnectedsentences and little or no attention is given topronunciation
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The Grammar Translation Method Goal of language learning = to read literature in order to
benefit from mental discipline and intellectual development Language learning consists of detailed analysis of rules
(syntax and morphology) and translation of sentences Reading and writing are the major focus Vocabulary selection is based only on the reading texts
used, words are taught through bilingual word lists,dictionary study and memorization
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and languagepractice
Accuracy is emphasized Grammar is taught deductively L1 is the medium of instruction
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The Direct Method
Naturalistic (=L1 learning) Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in
the target language Everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught;
grammar was taught inductively Oral communication skills were the focus New teaching points were modeled and practiced Concrete vocabulary (demonstration); abstract
vocabulary (association of ideas) Correct pronunciation and grammar were
emphasized
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The Methods Era What should the goals of language teaching be? Should a
language course try to teach conversational proficiency,reading, translation, or some other skill?
What is the basic nature of language, and how this affectthe teaching method?
What are the principles for the selection of content inlanguage teaching?
What principles of organization, sequencing, andpresentation best facilitate learning?
What should the role of native language be? What processes do learners use in mastering a language,
and can these be incorporated into a method? What teaching techniques and activities work best and
under what circumstances?
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H. D. Browns (1994) principles oflanguage learning and teaching
Cognitive Principles: mental andintellectual functions
Affective Principles: feelings about self,about relationships in communities oflearners, and about emotional tiesbetween language and culture.
Linguistic Principles: language itself andhow learners deal with complex linguisticsystems.
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Automaticity Efficient second language learning
involves a timely movement of the controlof a few language forms into theautomatic processing to a relativelyunlimited number of language forms.Overanalyzing language, thinking toomuch about its forms, and consciouslylingering on rules of language all tend toimpede this graduation to automaticity.(1994:17)
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Meaninful Learning
Meaningful learning will lead tobetter long-term retentionthan rote learning. (1994:18)
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The Anticipation of Reward Human beings are universally
driven to act, or behave, by theanticipation of some sort ofreward tangible or intangible,short term or long term thatwill ensue as a result of thebehavior. (1994:19)
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The Intrinsic MotivationPrinciple
The most powerful rewards are thosethat are intrinsically motivated withinthe learner. Because the behaviorstems from needs, wants or desireswithin oneself, the behavior itself isself-rewarding; therefore, noexternally administered reward isnecessary at all. (1994:20)
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Strategic Investment Successful mastery of the second
language will be due to a learnersown personal investment of time,effort, and attention to the secondlanguage in the form of anindividualized battery of strategiesfor comprehending and producingthe language. (1994:20)
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Language Ego
As human beings learn to use asecond language, they also develop anew mode of thinking, feeling andacting a second identity. (1994:22)
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Self-confidence
The eventual success thatlearners attain in a task is at leastpartially a factor of their beliefthat they indeed are fully capableof accomplishing the task.(1994:23)
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Risk-taking Successful language learners, in their
realistic appraisal of themselves asvulnerable beings yet capable ofaccomplishing tasks, must be willingto become gamblers in the game oflanguage, to attempt to produce andto interpret language that is a bitbeyond their level of competence.(1994:25)
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The Language-CultureConnection
Whenever you teach a language, you alsoteach a complex system of culturalcustoms, values and ways of thinking,feeling and acting. () Especially insecond language learning contexts, thesuccess with which learners adapt to anew cultural milieu will affect theirlanguage acquisition process, and vice-versa, in some possibly significant ways.(1994:25)
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The Native Language Effect The native language of learners will be a
highly significant system on which learnerswill rely to predict the target languagesystem. While the native system willexercise both facilitating and interferingeffects on the production andcomprehension of the new language, theinterfering effects are likely to be the mostsalient.(1994:26)
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Interlanguage
Second language learners tend to gothrough a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental process asthey progress to full competence inthe target language. (1994:27)
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ANTHONYS MODEL Approach Method Technique
(assumptions (Theory is (classroomand beliefs) put to practice) procedures)
approachmethod
technique
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Richards and RodgersModel
Method- Approach: Theory of language
Theory of language learning- Design: Objectives
SyllabusTypes of activitiesLearner rolesTeacher rolesRole of materials
-Procedures
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The Audiolingual Method
Theory of Language: Language is a system of rule-governed structures hierarchically arranged
Theory of Learning: Habit formation; oral skillsprecedes written skills; analogy not analysis
Objectives: control of sound, form, order;memorization of vocabulary; native-speaker model
Syllabus: arranged around grammar points;contrastive analysis
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The Audiolingual Method
Activity types: dialogues and drills, repetitionand memorization, pattern practice
Learner roles: learners can be directed byskilled training techniques to produce correctresponses
Teacher roles: central and active; providesmodel, controls direction and pace
Types of materials: teacher oriented; tapesand visuals, language lab
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Total Physical Response
Theory of language: grammar-based view oflanguage (structuralist)
Theory of learning: L2 = L1; comprehensionbefore production; is imprinted throughcarrying out commands; reduction of stress
Objectives: teach oral proficiency to produceuninhibited learners
Syllabus: sentence-based, with grammaticaland lexical criteria, but focus on meaning
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Activity types: imperative drills to elicitphysical actions
Learner roles: listener and performer, littleinfluence over the content of learning
Teacher roles: active and direct; the directorof a stage play with students as actors
Types of materials: no basic text; voice,action, and gestures are sufficient
Total Physical Response
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The Silent Way
Theory of language: each language iscomposed of elements that give it a uniquerhythm and spirit. Functional vocabulary andcore structure are a key to the spirit of thelanguage.
Theory of learning: L1 L2; L2 learning is anintellectual cognitive process; silentawareness then active trial
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The Silent Way
Objectives: near-native fluency; correctpronunciation; basic practical knowledge ofgrammar; learner learns how to learn alanguage
Syllabus: basically structural lessons plannedaround grammatical items and relatedvocabulary; items are introduced accordingto grammatical complexity
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The Silent Way Activity types: learner responses to commands,
questions, and visual cues; activities encourage andshape oral responses without grammaticalexplanation or modeling by the teacher
Learner roles: learning is a process of personalgrowth; learners are responsible for their ownlearning and must develop independence,autonomy, and responsibility
Teacher roles: teachers must (a) teach, (b) test, (c)get out of the way. Teachers must resist thetemptation to model, assist, direct
Types of materials: colored rods, color codedpronunciation and vocabulary charts
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Community Language Learning
Theory of language: language is more than asystem for communication; it involves wholeperson, culture, education, developmentalcommunicative processes
Theory of learning: involves the whole person;social process of growth from child-likedependence to self direction and independence
Objectives: near-native mastery of language Syllabus: no set syllabus; course progression is
topic-based and provided by the learners
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Community Language Learning
Activity types: translation, group work, recording,transcription, observation, listening and freeconversation
Learner roles: members of a community; learningis not viewed as an individual accomplishment butsomething that is achieved collaboratively
Teacher roles: counseling / parental analogy;teacher provides a safe environment in whichlearners can learn and grow
type of materials: textbooks inhibit growth
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Suggestopedia Theory of language: very unconventional but
memorization of whole meaningful texts isrecommended; lexis seems to be the focus
Theory of learning: occurs through suggestion,when learners are in a deeply relaxed state.Baroque music is used to induce this state
Objectives: to deliver advanced conversationalcompetence quickly; learners are required tomaster long lists of vocabulary pairs, but the goal isunderstanding not memorization
Syllabus: ten unit courses consisting of 1200 worddialogues graded by vocabulary and grammar
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Suggestopedia Activity types: questions and answer, role play,
listening exercises under deep relaxation; classroomwork is essential
Learner roles: must maintain a passive state andallow the materials to work on them (rather thanvice-versa)
Teacher roles: to create situations in which thelearner is mos suggestible and present material in away most likely to encourage positive reception andretention; authority and confidence by the teacher
Roles of materials: texts, tapes and music
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Methods tend to have a relatively short shelf
life (some practices tend to becomeunfashionable and/or discredited).
have an advantage over approaches,because their application is veryclear, solving many of the problemsbeginner teachers have to strugglewith.
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The Post-Method Era: Criticismto Approaches and Methods
The concept of learner centeredness and teachercreativity tend to be absent of a traditional view ofmethods
Role of contextual factors: approaches and methods areproposed as all-purpose solutions
Lack of research basis: approaches and methods areoften based on the assumption that the processes of L2learning are fully understood
Similarity of classroom practices: it is very difficult for ateacher to use approaches and methods in ways thatprecisely reflect the underlying principles of the method.
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Beyond Approaches andMethods
Approaches and Methods draw on a largeamount of experience and practice fromwhich a lot can be learned
Teachers can develop their personalapproach to teaching
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Despite changes in status ofapproaches and methods, we canexpect the field of secondand foreign language teachingin the twenty-first century to be
no less a ferment of theories, ideas,and practices than it has beenin the past.
Richards & Rodgers (2001:254)
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