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A Better Look at the History of Teaching English as a Second Language
ED.810.629/Supporting English Language Learners in Literacy and Content Knowledge Development (SELL)
Susan Zimmerman-OrozcoSeptember 18, 2010
By PresenterMedia.com
Read about and seen examples, if possible, of some of the principal approaches to language teaching as well as some of the kookiest;
Outcomes:By the end of this PowerPoint you will have: Reviewed a short history of the developing field of language learning theory and teaching English as a Second Language;
Read highlights of the major contributors to the research behind the major methodologies;
Completed a chart that summarizes the defining characteristics of language learning methodologies
Felt confident that the quiz on second language learning methodologies will be a “piece of cake.”
Major approaches to language learning
Great Moments in Language Learning History
Behavioral• B.F. Skinner: Verbal Behavior (1957)• Children produce language in response to stimuli
Nativist • Chomsky: 1965• All human brain are equipped with a “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)”
Functional• Wilkins- 1972• Language from a functional standpoint
Krashen’s theories of second language acquisition• Krashen: 1982- the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis (Cognitive LL), - the Monitor hypothesis, - the Natural Order hypothesis, - the Input hypothesis, - the Affective Filter hypothesis
The behaviorists believe that FLL consists of learners imitating what
they hear and develop habits in the FL by routine practice: drills.
Learners are thought to relate what they know of their L1 to what
they recognize in the L2.
It is associated with the audio-lingual method.
Problems with this view of FLL include the fact that imitation does
not help the learner in real-life situations. Learners are continually
required to form sentences they have never previously seen.
Behavioral
Chomsky: We are born with a set of rules about language in our heads which he refers to as
the Universal Grammar.
The universal grammar is the basis upon which all human languages build. If a Martian
linguist were to visit Earth, he would deduce from the evidence that there was only one
language, with a number of local variants.
Chomsky’s rationale:. Children are exposed to very little correctly formed language but they
learn it. When people speak, they constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds,
make slips of the tongue. Yet, children deduce rules from it, which they use to produce
sentences that they have never heard before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and
sayings, as the behaviorists believe, but a grammar that generates an infinity of new
sentences.
Nativist
Critical period hypothesis. Over the years from 2-7, when language
is mastered, children constantly adjust their grammar until it
matches that of the adult speaker population.
Eric Lenneberg (1967) hypothesized that if a child does not learn a
language before the onset of puberty, the child will never master
language at all.
Largely borne out by instances of wild or abused children who
essentially grew up without language.
•Nativist, con’t
In 1972, the British linguist D.A. Wilkins published a document
that proposed a radical shift away from using the traditional
concepts of grammar and vocabulary to describe language to an
analysis of the communicative meanings that learners would
need in order to express themselves and to understand
effectively.
Functional-Notional
•Functional-Notional Approach
In the cognitive view FL learners are thought to creatively use
their skills of cognition in order to figure out the L2 on their
own.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of
all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely
known among linguists and language practitioners. According to
Krashen there are two independent systems of second language
performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'.
Cognitive* Approach - Language Acquisition vs. Learning
*Cognitive refers to how the brain processes language
The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious
process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire
their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target
language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated
not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and
it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge
'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
Acquisition & Learning
Krashen's theory consists of five main hypotheses:
1. the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
2. the Monitor hypothesis,
3. the Natural Order hypothesis,
4. the Input hypothesis,
5. and the Affective Filter hypothesis
•Language Acquisition
• L2 acquisition is a subconscious process of incidentally “picking up” a language, as children do when becoming proficient in their first languages.
• Language learning, on the other hand, is studying, consciously and intentionally, the features of a language, as is common in traditional classrooms.
• Krashen (1982) sees input as essential to language acquisition (Input Hypothesis).
• Krashen applies Chomsky ‘s Universal Grammar (UG) to SLA by proposing a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that uses L2 input to define the learners emerging understanding of the L2, within the constraints of UG, and to increase the L2 proficiency of the learner.
Language Acquisition /Learning
The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning . The monitoring
function is the practical result of the learned grammar.
• Krashen says there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use: learners
that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not
to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately
(optimal users). Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users.
Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.
Monitor Hypothesis
Acquisition system initiates the L2
speech.
The learning system
performs the role of
the 'monitor'
or the 'editorThe 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and
correcting function when three specific
conditions are met:
(1) the second language learner has sufficient
time at his/her disposal,
(2) he/she focuses on form or thinks about
correctness, and
(3) he/she knows the rule.
• The Natural Order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable.
• For any given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late, independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure.
• Statistically significant similarities in research reinforce the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.
• Krashen however points out that the natural order hypothesis does NOT mean not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
•The Natural Order
• According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
• For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'.
Look at Krashen’s explanation: Krashen's lecture
• Input Hypothesis AKA Comprehensible Input
Since not all of the learners can be at the same
level of linguistic competence at the same time,
Krashen suggests that natural communicative
input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring
in this way that each learner will receive some
'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
• The Affective Filter hypothesis refers to Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' influence second language acquisition, including: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety.
• Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition.
• Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
• Has your own learning ever been affected by any of these variable?
Affective Filter
• Grammar translation
• Direct Method
• Audio-lingual
• “Designer “ methods
• Communicative Language Teaching
Methods of teaching English as a Second Language
• Also known as the Classical Method• Used for the study of Latin and Greek• Focus on grammatical rules, memorization and translation.• No attention paid to oral language development.
Grammar Translation
The basic premise of the Direct Method is that students will learn to communicate in the target language. (1) by learning how to think in that language and (2) by not involving L1 in the language learning process whatsoever. Objectives include teaching the students how to use the language spontaneously and orally, linking meaning with the target language through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime.There is to be a direct connection between concepts and the language to be learned.
Direct method Developed by Charles Berlitz
Early 20th CenturyGrammar
taught inductivelyNo translation
Model and practiceUse of objects and visuals
(1) Reading Aloud (Reading sections of passages, plays or dialogs out loud)
(2) Question and Answer Exercise (Asking questions in the target language and having students answer in full sentences)
(3) Student Self-Correction (Teacher facilitates opportunities for students to self correct using follow-up questions, tone, etc)
(4) Conversation Practice (Teacher asks students and students ask students questions using the target language)
(5) Fill-in-the-blank Exercise (Items use target language only and inductive rather than explicit grammar rules)
(6) Dictation (Teacher reads passage aloud various amount of times at various tempos, students writing down what they hear)
(7) Paragraph Writing (Students write paragraphs in their own words using the target language and various models)
Direct Method techniques
The Audio-lingual method is the product of 3 historical circumstances.
1. American Linguistics like Leonard Bloomfield in the early 20th century worked to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. Without enough trained linguists to assist, linguists had to rely on observation and a strong focus on oral language.
2. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learned through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement.
3. The outbreak of World War II created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. To provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, easy to adapt to teaching large numbers. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.”[
Audio-lingual method
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session :Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeatStudents: There's a cup on the tableTeacher: SpoonStudents: There's a spoon on the tableTeacher: BookStudents: There's a book on the tableTeacher: On the chairStudents: There's a book on the chair
Audio-Lingual, continued
Drills and pattern practice are typical of the
Audio-lingual method. These include:
Repetition: where the student repeats an
utterance as soon as he hears it
Inflection: Where one word in a sentence
appears in another form when repeated
Replacement : Where one word is replaced by
another
Restatement : The student re-phrases an
utterance
Community Language Learning
Suggestopedia
The Silent Way
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Notional-Functional Syllabuses
The Natural Approach (Krashen)
DESIGNER METHODOLOGIES
(1) Takes its principles from the “Counseling Learning Approach” developed by Charles A. Curran.
2) Created especially for adult learners who might fear to appear foolish, so the teacher becomes a language counselor who understands them and leads them to overcome their fears .
3) Follows Krashen’s Monitor Theory & Affective Filter Hypothesis and the cognitive Theory where the human mind is active .
Community Language Learning
Lesson Presentation Student raises his hand, teacher comes behind him.
Student says phrase/sentence in native language. Teacher helps him say it in target language.
Teacher records target language only.
Teacher sits and asks students how they feel about the experience.
They listen to the conversation
Teacher plays tape again & writes target L sentences on the board; waits for volunteers to give native language equivalents. (Students don’t write anything down). Teacher writes French/ESL translation
Teacher asks students to relax and just listen while he reads/plays the transcript 3 times .
• Community Language Learning, con’t
Post-Lesson Activities Pronunciation practice : Student raises hand, teacher comes behind him. Student says a word or sentences in any language. Teacher gives back only correct target language and stops only when student stops. Group work: Groups create new sentences based on transcript; each group reads his sentences
Closure Teacher asks the students to talk about the experience .
Good demonstration, bad video: Community Language Learning
• Based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov.
• PresentationA preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.
• First Concert "Active Concert"This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.
• Second Concert "Passive Review"The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.
• PracticeThe use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
Suggestopedia
The Silent Way: Caleb Gattegno, 1970’s
The Silent Way, Pt. 1 & 2
Cattegno's basic theories included "teaching should be subordinated to learning“ & "the teacher works with the student; the student works on the language."The teacher typically stayed "silent" most of the time, as a facilitator and stimulator. Language learning is a problem solving activity to be engaged in by the students both independently and as a group. The teacher needs to stay out of the way in the process as much as possible.
The Silent Way is also well-known for its
common use of small colored rods of varying
length (cuisinere rods) and color-coded word
charts depicting pronunciation values,
vocabulary and grammar. It is a unique method
and the first of its kind to really concentrate on
cognitive principles in language learning.
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response: James Asher, 1969
Components:
Second language learning is parallel to first language
learning and should reflect the same naturalistic
processes.
Listening should develop before speaking
Children respond physically to spoken language, and
adult learners learn better if they do that too
Once listening comprehension has been developed,
speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.
Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while
the left hemisphere watches and learns
Delaying speech reduces stress.
Based on a Communicative view of language . Emphasis on language as a set of messages that
can be understood.
The Natural Approach is based on the following tenets:
• Language acquisition is different from language learning, and language acquisition is the only way
competence in a second language occurs.
• Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been
acquired. (The monitor hypothesis)
• Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in
another order. (The natural order hypothesis).
• People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence. (The
input hypothesis)
• The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The
affective filter hypothesis)
The Natural Approach is the foundation of Lead to Communicative Language Teaching…
The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977.The Natural Approach
A broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method
David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:• Emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in
the target language.• Using authentic texts in the learning situation.• Opportunities for learners to focus but also on the managing
their own learning.• Emphasizing the learner’s own personal experiences as part of
class content.• Linking classroom language learning with language activities
outside the classroom.
•Communicative Language Teaching
What a classroom looks like:• Teachers are facilitators: talking less and
listening • The teacher sets up the exercise
between two or more students, steps back and observe, and monitor.
• The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.
• Students have increased responsibility to participate and develop they gain confidence in using the target language.
Communicative Language Teaching
This is a GREAT example of CLT! CLT Classroom in action
Study Guide…
• Stephen Krashen is a curmudgeonly yet sane voice in the wilderness of NCLB. If you have time, watch and listen to his irreverent take on NCLB, reading, and language acquisition:
Stephen KrashenJust for fun!
Part 1: http://youtu.be/IqukbEigUtk
Part 2: http://youtu.be/BO7NQHPZ6z0
Part 3: http://youtu.be/xY53f4PPniE
Part 4: http://youtu.be/erF3fZHJCDk
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