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12 - Alarm Assessment
The Twenty-Sixth International Training Course
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12. Alarm Assessment
October 24 – November 11, 2016Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Gabe Birch
Alarm Assessment
Learn ing Object ives
After completing this module, you should be able to:• Discuss the purpose of alarm assessment• List alarm assessment methods• Identify response force assessment components• Identify video assessment system components &
requirements• Discuss design considerations for video assessment
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INFCIRC 225 Revision 5 Recommendations for Cat I, II, and III Nuclear Material
4.15. Provision should be made for detecting unauthorized intrusion and for appropriate action by sufficient guards and/or response forces to address a nuclear security event.
4.19. Contingency plans should be prepared to counter malicious acts effectively and to provide for appropriate response by guards or response forces. Such plans should also provide for the training of facility personnel in their actions.
4.23. A protected area should be located inside a limited access area. The protected area perimeter should be equipped with a physical barrier, intrusion detection and assessment to detect unauthorized access.
These protection measures should be configured to provide time for assessment of the cause of alarms, and provide adequate delay for an appropriate response, under all operational conditions.
Alarms generated by intrusion detection sensors should be promptly and accurately assessed and appropriate action taken.
4.47. Provisions, including redundancy measures, should be in place to ensure that the functions of the central alarm station in monitoring and assessment of alarms, initiation of response and communication can continue during an emergency (e.g. a backup alarm station). 3
Alarm Assessment
INFCIRC 225 Rev is ion 5 Recommendations for H igh-Consequence Fac i l i t i es
5.21. A protected area should be located inside a limited access area. The protected area perimeter should be equipped with a physical barrier, intrusion detection and assessment to detect unauthorized access. These protection measures should be configured to provide time for assessment of the cause of alarms, and provide adequate delay for an appropriate response, under all operational conditions. Alarms generated by intrusion detection sensors should be promptly and accurately assessed, and appropriate action taken.
5.36. A permanently staffed central alarm station should be provided for monitoring and assessment of alarms, initiation of response, and communication with the guards, response forces, and facility management.Provisions, including redundancy measures, should be in place to ensure that the functions of the central alarm station in monitoring and assessment of alarms, initiation of response and communication can continue during an emergency (e.g. backup alarm station).
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Alarm Assessment
A larm Assessment
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Physical Protection System Elements
Detection
Intrusion Detection
Entry Control
Contraband Detection
Alarm Communications and Display
Passive Delay
Active Delay
Response Force (RF)
RF Training and Tactics
RF Equipment
RF Communications
Delay Response
Alarm Assessment
Alarm assessment: Security operator determines the cause of an alarm
Completes the detection function Provides information if alarm is real or
nuisance/false alarm Provides information for response force action
• How many intruders?• What equipment are intruders bringing in?
Alarm Assessment
What is A larm Assessment?
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Detection is not complete without Assessment
SensorActivatedSensor
ActivatedSensor
Activated
AlarmSignal
Initiated
AlarmSignal
Initiated
AlarmSignal
Initiated
AlarmReported
AlarmReported
AlarmReported
Alarm Assessed
Alarm Assessed
Alarm Assessed
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Alarm Assessment
Assessment Methods
• Personnel
• Technology
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Alarm Assessment
Assessment Methods
• Personnel Assessment by on-site personnel
• Guards or security officers• Local law enforcement (police)
• Technology Assessment camera display at
Central Alarm Station
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Assessment with Personnel
• Assessment with Security Personnel Elevated towers or hardened response team building Dedicated response team Response equipment and vehicles Patrols
Alarm Assessment
Assessment with Personnel
• Advantages Flexible deployment
• Special situations, different target locations
If intrusion, provide immediate response and/or delay Patrols provide detection and deterrent capabilities
• Disadvantages Time between alarm and assessment reduces probability of
correct assessment Can tolerate only a limited number of nuisance alarms Labor costs: expensive
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Modern Video Assessment Systems
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Intrusion Detection
Event
Video Subsystem
Alarm Assessment
Assessment with Video Technology
• Assessment with cameras and video monitors Assessment video displayed on monitors at a Central Alarm
Station (CAS) for operator assessment Complete camera coverage of entire sensored detection areas so
any location where an alarm can be created can be assessed with cameras
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Assessment with Video Technology (cont ’d)
• Advantages Efficient use of personnel
• One person can assess multiple areas• Operator alerted to alarm• Nuisance alarms quickly assessed
Electronics perform consistently Minimal time between alarm and assessment / response Pre-and post-alarm video recording possible
• Disadvantages Initial expense for infrastructure Expense for ongoing testing and maintenance
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Alarm Assessment
V ideo Assessment and Video Survei l lance
Assessment – Video monitor displays the scenes captured by a camera, ONLY when triggered by an alarm from a sensor, to alert an operator of intrusion into sensored area
Surveillance – Scenes are continuously displayed on a video monitor of an area that does NOT have sensors for intrusion detection
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V ideo Survei l lance
• Continually monitor activity in an area without an intrusion sensor to cause an alarm and direct CAS operator attention to a specific event or areas
• Low probability of detection Used when time is not critical to an event
• Can be useful for specific activities, such as observing deliveries or construction work
• Is usually effective for short periods of time and for watching a single area
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Alarm Assessment
Three Major E lements for E f fec t ive V ideo Assessment
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Camera Lens
Lighting
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Env i ronmental – Factors to Consider
Environmental considerations Snow, rain, fog, and other environmental factors should be
considered prior to investing in technology Technology typically performs about the same as personnel for
assessment Fair weather visibility
Adequate illumination in detection zone
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Heavy Snow
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Ra in
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Heavy Rain with Thermal Imager
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Fog
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B l ind Spot
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Day and Night Exter ior Camera View
• Observe camera views for adequate image: daytime and nighttime
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Day Night
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Cameras
• Function Converts a scene image to a video image • Types
Black & White Color Day/Night – color during day; B&W at night Near-infrared (IR) enhanced black & white Intensified Thermal Imager
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Cameras of different technologies used together provide a wide spectrum of solutions for specific applications, particularly at low light levels or for an obscure scene
These cameras can be analog or digital
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Examples of Inter ior Cameras
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Examples of Exter ior Cameras
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C lose-ups o f Exter io r Cameras w i th Enc losures (Hous ings)• Many exterior cameras are just interior cameras mounted
in an environmental enclosure
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Alarm Assessment
Some of the Conf igurat ionsof Commerc ia l Pan-T i l t -Zoom Cameras
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Some of the Conf igurat ions o f Commerc ia l D ig i ta l IP Cameras
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• Similar to analog cameras but with Local Area Network (LAN) connection
• Video images are compressed to minimize bandwidth use• Can be externally powered or use “Power over Ethernet”• Have IP address for Ethernet connection• Encoder modules are required for interfacing analog
cameras to the network• Can send changes to the digital IP camera settings from
the Alarm Monitoring Station• Can install video motion detection software
in digital cameras
Alarm Assessment
D ig i ta l IP Cameras
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F ixed and PTZ Cameras
• Fixed Camera Non-motorized mount Fixed focal length lens
• Pan-Tilt Zoom-(PTZ) Camera Motorized mount Motorized zoom lens
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F i xed and PTZ Camera – Factors to Cons ider
• Fixed Camera Always pointed at the area of interest
• Assessment – detection sensor area
Captures pre-alarm and post-alarm video Requires more cameras for complete coverage
• PTZ Camera Low probability camera will be pointed at alarm location Single PTZ camera cannot provide video for two
simultaneous alarms in camera coverage area Requires fewer cameras for complete coverage Requires an operator to “follow” some incidents with PTZ’s joy
stick mechanism
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• Color enhances daylight scenes Color at night – gold-brown images with sodium vapor lamps
• Standard black-and-white camera has 18% more resolution than color
• Day/Night cameras Color during day, switches to black-and-white mode at night
Alarm Assessment
Co lor vs. B lack-and-White Cameras
33Black and White
ColorColor at Night
Alarm Assessment
Day / Night Cameras
Some cameras are color during the day and black-and-white at night Sensor measures ambient light level and controls switching from day
to night mode Can adjust light level when switchover occurs Camera monitors video level and switches when scene is too dark
Mechanically removes infrared cut filter - allows camera in black-and-white mode to see in near infrared spectrum Increases amount of scene illumination reaching camera imager
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Day / Night Cameras (cont ’d)
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Thermal Cameras
• A thermal camera responds to emitted thermal / infrared energy
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Thermal Camera Propert ies
Thermal cameras are a passive device Do not require illumination to produce a usable video image Respond to the differences in temperature of objects against a
background temperature reference Video images are based on the temperatures of objects Thermal cameras are relatively expensive compared to visible light
cameras
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Alarm Assessment
Two Examples of Thermal Camera Images
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Thermal Camera Video
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Radar Track.avi
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Intens i f ied Low- l ight Cameras
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CameraSection
IntensifierSection
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Intens i f ied Low- l ight Cameras (cont ’d.)
• Intensified low-light cameras respond to near-infrared illumination from stars, the moon, and artificial lighting
• Intensified cameras are light receivers only do not emit infrared light
• These cameras are more expensive than standard cameras
• The low-light Intensifier has a limited life of approximately 2500 to 3500 hours of use
• Bright light sources in the scene can distort images captured by the intensified low-light camera
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Near-IR Sens i t ive Cameras
• Infrared sensitive cameras operate in black-and-white mode with enhanced sensitivity to the near-infrared portion of the light spectrum
• Requires an infrared light source for scene illumination. An infrared light source can be seen with night vision goggles could detract from their usefulness in some situations
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Near Infrared
Visible
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Near-IR Sensi t ive Camera Image
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V is ib le L ight Camera Imager
• The camera imager is the part of a camera that captures the optical image and converts it to video signals
• Several solid-state imagers are available – attributes include:
Resolution
Sensitivity
Color, black-and-white, or near-IR enhanced
Quality standard resolution cameras are usually• ~640 horizontal pixels resolution for Color
• ~760 horizontal pixels resolution for black-and-white
Megapixel cameras have 1280-4400 pixels horizontal resolution
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Imager Format
Format/Size (Wi)1 inch = 16 mm diagonal = 9.6 mm X12.8 mm
2/3 inch = 11 mm diagonal = 6.6 mm X 8.8 mm1/2 inch = 8 mm diagonal = 4.8 mm X 6.4 mm VARIES1/3 inch = 6 mm diagonal = 3.6 mm X 4.8 mm VARIES1/4 inch = 4 mm diagonal = 2.4 mm X 3.2 mm1/6 inch = 3 mm diagonal = 1.8 mm X 2.4 mm1/8 inch = 2 mm diagonal = 1.2 mm X 1.6 mm
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Format – Diagonal dimension of pixel area imager size specified in English units
English unit designation originally established for CRT-type imaging devices
English to metric conversion –measurement not equivalent size
6mm
4.8mm
3.6mm
1/3-inch Imager
Imager Format
(Wi) = Width of imager
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Camera Lens
Focuses reflected light from the scene on the camera imager Determines size of scene image projected onto the camera imager at
a specified distance behind the lens Lens selection factors include:
Format Focal length Field of View (FOV) Aperture Resolution
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Lens Format
Lens Format: Diameter of projected image circle at the distance behind the lens where imager is located
The lens has a format specification like camera imager Lens format must match the camera format size to optimize
video image display on camera sensor
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Lens Format (cont ’d.)
Lens Format 1/8" 1/6" 1/4" 1/3" 1/2" 2/3" 1"
Imager Width (Wi)1.6mm
2.4mm
3.2mm
4.8mm
6.4mm
8.8mm
12.8mm
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The lens has a format specification like camera imager Lens format must match the camera format size to optimize
video image display on camera sensor Standard format sizes are
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Lens Format Mismatch
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Example 1 Mismatch Example 2 Mismatch
Format of the lens must match the format of the camera imager
Below are depictions of matched, smaller format lens, and larger format lens mismatch
Alarm Assessment
Format Mismatch Example 1
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Example 1 Mismatch: Lens format smaller than imager format
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Format Mismatch Example 2Example 2 Mismatch: Lens format larger than imager format• Field of view is smaller than specified for the lens• Portion of field of view is focused outside the imager
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View with Matched Format View with Mismatched Format
Lens Focal Length
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Lens focal length determines field of view and image magnification Wide angle lenses have small focal lengths for near views Telephoto lenses have large focal lengths for distance views
Smaller numbers indicate a shorter distance & wider field of view (e.g., 4mm, 6mm)
Larger numbers indicate longer distance & more narrow field of view (e.g., 50mm, 75mm)
Object Distance
Focal Length
Camera
Short FocalLength Lens
Medium FocalLength Lens
Long FocalLength Lens
Focal Length: Distance from the lens to the camera imager when lens is focused at infinity
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24 mm 50 mm
100 mm 250 mm Cou
rtes
y of
Mic
hig
an T
ech
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Examples o f an Image at Four D i f fe rent Foca l Lengths
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Lens Aperture
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Regulates amount of light that passes onto the imager Can be manual or electronic adjustment Calibrated in f-numbers or f-stops
Manual Iris – For use where the amount of light is constantAutomatic Iris – For use where the amount of light is not constant –
Controlled by signal from camera
Alarm Assessment
Aperture: Adjustable opening that controls the amount of light entering the lens
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Levels of Assessment Resolut ion
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Detection
DeterminePresence ofObject
Identification
DetermineIdentity ofObject
DetermineNuisance or Real Alarms
Classification
Important factors are Contrast, Motion, and Upright Human Figure
2‐3 pixels/30 cm 6‐9 pixels/30 cm 10‐16 pixels/30cm
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Assessment Resolut ion Detect ion
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Assessment Resolut ion Class i f icat ion
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Assessment Resolut ion Ident i f icat ion
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• Camera resolution is commonly measured using a standardized resolution chart
A laboratory chart, field chart, and Rotakinfield resolution chart are shown
Resolution limitation is location where distinct black and white lines are no longer distinguishable
Camera Resolut ion Measurements
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Assessment Resolut ion (cont ’d.)
• Dependent on Camera resolution Lens focal length Size of object Object contrast to background Object stance and motion
• Assessment Objective: distinguish (classify) between animal and crawling person with head facing camera
• Can better determine if a human is in standing position
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Assessment Resolut ion (cont ’d.)
• Tests at Sandia showed that 8 pixels on a 30-cm target at a 30m far-field viewing width is minimum to classify human shape
• This affects number and placement of cameras• Recommend: Cameras be tested for specific application
Do not just rely on manufacturer’s data
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Far F ie ld Resolut ion
• Examples of images from standard definition and high‐definition cameras
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760 x 480 pixel resolution 1376 x 1032 pixel resolution
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F ie ld of V iew and Resolut ion Test ing
• Camera far-field resolution adequacy is commonly measured in the field by using 30cm circle, triangle, and square geometric shapes
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Addi t ional Camera Considerat ions
Photo courtesy of D
AV
ID M
cMA
HO
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An exterior camera should be focused at dusk when there is the most red in the sky or at night with artificial illumination
Why? Focusing during daylight with a small
iris opening increases the depth of field
When the iris is open at night, looking through a larger diameter portion of the lens causes de-focus
Reds will not bend in a lens like visible light, causing de-focus at sunset
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Spec ia l ized Lenses
• Different wavelengths (i.e., colors) can focus to different positions on detector
• Can result in color blurring on edges
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Apochromatic Elements – to accurately focus different wavelengths
StandardLens
APOLens
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V ideo Monitor
• Major types Black and white Color
• Flat Screen (LCD, Plasma, LED)• CRT
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Display resolution must be equal to or greater than camera resolution
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L ight ing
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L ight ing
• Function Illuminates scene for nighttime video assessment Allows camera to produce usable video Provides lighting for response personnel to see the situation and
the intruders
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Alarm Assessment
L ight ing Requirements
• Minimum lighting intensity 10 lux minimum
• Uniform illumination 6:1 light-to-dark ratio, maximum 4:1 design goal
72VIDEO
VIDEO
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Natura l L ight ing
Natural Lighting: Sunlight, moonlight, starlight Sun and moon light contain broadband visible and infrared light Broadband – all colors and wavelengths of visible light
• Spectral Response Changes at sunrise and sunset Intensity and angle changes by the time of day
• Effects shadows, color rendition, illuminating
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Example: Uni form L ight ing
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Perimeter Isolation Zone Application
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Ar t i f ic ia l L ight ing
Incandescent
Fluorescent
Mercury vapor
High pressure sodium
Low pressure sodium
Metal Halide
Light emitting diode (LED)
Near-IR
Compatible with camera type
Color vs. black and white
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Camera Spectra l Response
• Illumination must match camera spectral response
589SodiumLine
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D ig i ta l V ideo Recorders (DVRs)/Network V ideo Recorders (NVRs)
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D ig i ta l V ideo Recorder Advantages
• DVRs and NVRs have significantly improved the process for recording security video and playback in the past 12 years DVRs and NVRs make VCR tape recorders obsolete They record images from 1 to 16 video cameras at the same
time The user can adjust the number of frames per second of video to
record and the resolution of video images stored
• DVRs and NVRs greatly improve the time required to access recorded video for playback Tapes do not have to be rewound to playback video
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What Is a DVR/NVR?
• Attributes of a DVR/NVR: Digital video capture and storage Reasonably fast processor and special software Large amounts of disk drive storage space Ability to connect to existing or network (IP) video cameras Stand alone box, integrated into a desktop computer or server
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These types of DVRs work independently, like a VCR
Examples o f In tegrated DVRs & V ideo Capture Cards
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Examples o f V ideo Recorder Sys tem E lements
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DVR–NVR Connect ion Di fferences
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Features/Capabi l i t ies
• DVRs/NVRs record video on computer hard-disk storage devices
• With a DVR/NVR you can Automatically record, organize and save days, weeks or months
of video depending on memory storage size Instantly playback video from a specific date and time Copy video clips and images to other storage devices Send an e-mail of alarm video to response force personnel Save large amounts of video possible because computer hard
drives are very large and not expensive
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Features/Capabi l i t ies (cont ’d.) These systems overwrite previously saved video when maximum memory
storage limit reached Can set up single or multiple camera images viewed as separate windows
on digital monitors Monitor views can be configured to display live and recorded pre-alarm
video DVRs/NVRs with Video Motion Detection (VMD) allow the DVR to
automatically store video when movement in the scene causes an alarm which triggers recording
User-friendly operation Because the DVR is computer-based, many setup and control parameters
can be customized for specific applications
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Examples of different display configurations for DVR/NVR captured video scenes 85
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F rame Rate Example (5 fps)
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Most current DVRS/NVRs can capture video at 1 to 30 FPS
Reduced rate recording (3-5 FPS) when no movement detected
Record as many FPS as possible when an alarm is triggered
e Rate Example_5f
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Image Qual i ty
• Image storage size can be controlled by increasing the amount of image compression
• Camera may initially capture a high resolution image, but images are compressed to save storage space
• Image is de-compressed for viewing video, but resolution can suffer• Image quality
controlled by Camera resolution Captured resolution Compression
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Compress ion Example: “Low” Qua l i ty (~10 kB)
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Compress ion Example: “Medium” Qual i ty (~20 kB)
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Compress ion Example: “H igh” Qua l i ty (~40 kB)
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• Camera type, lens, imager detector number of pixels, compression/bandwidth, monitor number of pixels all impact detection, classification, and identification values
• Linear process that can be constrained by any individual element
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V ideo Mot ion Detect ion (VMD)
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What Is VMD?
• Analysis of video from analog or digital cameras• Alarm video is captured, marked up, and stored• Detection algorithms for specific behavior alarms• Video from VMD can be stored on a DVR or NVR
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VMD
• Significant advances in state of the art since 2000
A viable enhancement to video assessment
• Existing assessment cameras become an another intrusion detection sensor
• With alarm assessment cameras, VMD sensor’s infrastructure is already installed
• Camera video analyzed in real time for intrusions
• Video “marked up” with box around the moving target and may also have highlighted trail
• VMD software provides an alarm to alert operator of an intrusion and a log of alarm events
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VMD Technology Attr ibutes
• VMD can be used with analog or digital cameras Effective with daylight, near-infrared, thermal imager
and 360-degree view cameras
Requires addition of hardware modules or alarm processing hardware and software
• Modular technology can be implemented at the camera or at the Central Alarm Station (CAS)
• In the camera configuration, VMD softwareis embedded into cameras with digital signal processor chips (DSP) and memory
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VMD Technology Attr ibutes (cont ’d.)
• Digital camera can be configured to send low frame rate video during normal operation
• When intrusion detected, camera sends alarm message to the CAS and then increases frame rate during alarm event
• Pre-alarm video is stored in camera’s memory and transmitted to CAS when alarm event occurs
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Three Types of VMD Technology Avai lab le
• Software running on a PC with video capture card Located at or near CAS Analog or digital cameras connected to VMD
computer
• Standalone single- or multi-channel modules Located at camera or CAS Analog or digital cameras connected to VMD
modules Hardware/software complement
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Three Types o f VMD Techno logy Ava i lab le (cont ’d .)• Software embedded in a digital camera with on-board
digital signal processor (DSP) & memory Inside digital camera at camera location
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With digital cameras having on-board video processors, analysis can be performed at the camera
With analog cameras analysis performed at the CAS
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How VMD Works – Detect ion Rules
• Detection based on a set of rules and areas of interest Rules can be applied to areas of interest rather than entire view
Allows specific detection rules to be active only within portions of the camera’s field of view
• Movement in areas of interest triggers alarm
• Movement in other areas does not trigger alarm
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VMD Sources of Nuisance Alarms
• Applications can create challenging environments Indoor environments produce fewer challenges than outdoor
environments Large changes in lighting, reflections from shiny objects, shaking
cameras, out of focus cameras, low contrast scene, target color near same color as background, target not occupying enough pixels in view, movement of large items in view (trees, large birds), blowing snow and driving rain
• Some VMDs produced no or very few alarms while others produced significant number of alarms
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Assessment Zone Calcu lat ions
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Far Field
Assessment Zone
Near Field
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12m 30m(D2‐D1)
D1
D2
( FOV2 )
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Ca lcu lat ion for Zone Length
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fl ‐ Focal Length of lens
Wi ‐Width of imager
FOV ‐Width of camera view at a distance (D)
D ‐ Distance from camera
Zone Length = D2 – D1
wi = 6.4 for 8mm (1/2 inch) format
wi = 4.8 for 6mm (1/3 inch) format
wi = 3.2 for 4mm (1/4 inch) format
wi = 1.6 for 2mm (1/8 inch) format
( FOV1 )
Zone Length
Use to calculate HFOVand distance to camera D = FOV x fl
Wi
D FOVWi fl
D1 = FOV1 x flWi
D2 = FOV2 x flWi
Near-Field
Far-Field
D flFOV Wi
:
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Geometry of Assessment Zone
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800 pixels across
30 m across
Far-Field
Near-Field
Another way to calculate is using ratios:
8 pixels to 30 cm = 800 pixels to X
8 px = 800 px
30 cm X
Solve for X = 30 m
30 cm at 8 pixels = 3.75 cm per pixel
If a camera/monitor provides 800 pixels of horizontal resolution, then maximum field of view width is:
3.75 cm x 800 pixels = 3000 cm = 30 m
What if the camera imager was 1000 pixels?
Alarm Assessment
Resolut ion at Far F ie ld
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Alarm Assessment
Camera V iew Geometry for In ter io r Assessment
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12 - Alarm Assessment
The Twenty-Sixth International Training Course
Page 55
Alarm Assessment
Summary
• Alarm assessment ends the alarm detection function by determining the cause of a sensor alarm
• Assessment may be performed using response force / security guards or camera video alarm assessment
• Response force assessment includes: Sufficient trained personnel in appropriate locations Sufficient lighting Effective communication
• Camera video assessment includes: Camera, lens, lighting and video control system
• Video assessment system must provide complete coverage and display of sensored areas at all times
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