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1
1-INTRODUCTION
1.1 Genesis of Short Story
When first curiosity aroused in human mind on earth it was the birth moment
of short story. No other literary art is as spontaneous as short story in its
primary form. Literature in its written form is historically a recent innovation;
yet long before the innovation of writing, for thousands of years ancient
people developed complex oral tradition of literature; these primitive stories,
dealing with the creation of the cosmos and the origins of gods and
goddesses, demons and semi demons and the birth story of chief characters
formed a body of myths, supernatural narratives widely believed to be true by
the people of any culture, and legends, popular stories about characters and
events that may contain trace elements of historical truth.
In modern societies, elements of this primitive folk lore survive in regional or
ethical ‗tales passed on through the generations, most often taking the written
form of folk tales collected by literary scholars. Stories with animal characters
such as those of Aesops‘, ‗Panchtantra’, ‘Hitopdesh’ and ‗Katha sarit sagar’,
short realistic tales like those found in religious and mythical literatures of
nearly all cultures. They are to some degree didactic, with the narrative events
illustrating a moral that is either stated or implied.
There is no agreement about the precise origins of the modern short story.
Ann Charters, the author of The Story and its Writer says: ‗Stories have such
a long history, and their forms are so divers, that anyone attempting to
investigate their earliest development in close detail would be taking on a
herculean task.‘(Bedford)1 One important influence in its development was
the Italian novella of the later middle ages and Renaissance. The most
famous collection of these realistic prose narratives is The Decameron by
Giovannie Boccacio(1313-1375). The famous Arabian collection A Thousand
and One Nights is one of the earliest examples of this genre. Frank O‘
Conner rightly puts the art of story:
2
In its earlier phases storytelling, like poetry and drama
was public art but the short story, like the novel, is a
modern art form; that is to say, it represents, better
than poetry or drama, our own attitude to life.
(O‘Conner) 2
As an art form, short story developed during the 19th century with writers like
Poe and Hawthorne in America, Pushkin, Gogol and Chekhov in Russia, Sir
Walter Scott and Somerset Maugham in England and in France Maupassant
and Balzac. These and other writers, with their skillful art of storytelling
contributed in this genre, have put the short story on the literary map very
impressively. Expressing the difficulty in giving the concrete definition of short
story, Valeri Show says,
It seems reasonable to say that a firm definition of
the short story is impossible. No single theory can
encompass the multifarious nature of a genre in
which the only constant feature seems to be the
achievement of a narrative purpose in a
comparatively brief space.‘ (Shaw) 3
1.2 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature
The narrative tale in Classical Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, the
earliest extant literature. The development of the narrative tale in ancient India
was one of the simple expansion aided by a lively imagination. Beast fables
developed after a long time covering the Upanishadic as well as the Epic
period. The Jataka Tales of Buddhism as well as Jain literature incorporated
them. Besides the fable form, there developed the popular tale, mainly aiming
to represent colours and shades of human nature and giving expression to
man's ambitions and aspirations in this world.
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India is one of the very few countries with an ancient
tradition in storytelling.. depicting with kaleidoscopic
colours and patterns the soil and life of India
(jagmohan)4
The ancient Indian tale took broadly two forms- the fable, and the popular tale
or folk tale. The fable form is best exemplified in the tales of the Panchatantra
as well as Jataka katha. True to the universally known traditions of the fables,
they are nearly always epigrammatically in structure, frequently ending with a
significant utterance by one of the characters. Most of them are beast fables,
in which the characters are animals symbolizing human beings. The ancient
Indian tale is an example of the typical Oriental tale, a loosely constructed
narrative of adventure and romance. The popular tale, as typified in the well
known Kathasaritsagara or the Daskumarcharita , has one quality which has
fascinated the Indian writers in English – its successful depiction of human
desires and aspirations in a highly imaginative way. . They have been
influenced by the ancient literature. According to Manjri Isvaran,
India was the nursery of story and fable and the
Indian story-teller was as fertile in tales inculcating
practical wisdom as in illuminating epic and
religious myth. (Isvaran) 5
The Indian English short story writers have not been influenced
by the development of the short story in the West at all but
fundamentally their way of story-telling reminds one of their own
hoary past and its literature rather than of the sophisticated
modern methods. As Mulkraj Anand says:‗I have always thought
of this as a symbol of the highly finished art of story-telling of
India.‘ (Venugopal)6
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The ancient Indian fable is certainly much more than an anecdote; it depicts
unconscious animal rots in human nature as well as comments on it. Our
epics and mythological legends are also full of fables and tales. The fable and
the popular tale have also the virtue of satisfying the curiosity of the reader by
imparting to him some useful knowledge of essential human nature in the
most interesting way.
Popular tales of romances are vastly different from Panchtantra and Jatak
tales in length and content but not in appeal. The Kathasarisagara based on
the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya and the Dasakumaracharita of Dandin are the
most well known of them.
This form of literature was earlier described variously as Katha, akhyan,
upakhyan, afsana and dastan.Today the short story as a form is considered
as the youngest child of modern literature, though it has its roots in ancient
India. The short story has now taken deep root in all the languages of India
and has blossomed considerably well. In this genre, as in other fields, the
poet Rabindranath Tagore was pioneer.
1.3 Development of Short Story in Indian Writing in English
The Indian short story in English can be said to have begun to take
definite shape in the nineteen twenties, and is thus hardly more than eighty
years old, but its development so far unmistakably indicates a distinct
possibility of its becoming one of the most significant forms in the field of
Indian writing in English. Conscious efforts have been continually put in,
mainly by our major writers, in shaping it into a fit vehicle to convey the
essential Indian thought and scene, to the reader here as well as his
counterpart abroad. The Indian short story in English has been successful in
presenting a faithful picture of India, a picture colored neither by an
exaggerated sense of patriotic attachment nor by unjustified censure. Time is
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now propitious for further development, both in the handling of themes and in
the introduction of newer techniques. The future of the Indian short story in
English is certainly promising, in spite of attempts being made to discourage
the use of English in several of our universities.
The Indian short story writers in English have tried a synthesis of the
salient features of both the fable and the tale while avoiding the over
didacticism of the fable and the pure description of the popular tale in his
attempt to arrive at a deeper and more analytical interpretation of life.
Shoshee Chunder Dutt in London published the earliest collection of
short stories entitled Realities of Indian Life: Stories Collected from Criminal
Reports of India (1885). S. C. Dutt and Sourindra Mohan Tagore published The
Times of Yore: Tales from Indian History in the same year. P. V. Ramaswami Raju,
Kshertrapal Chakravarty and Kamala Sattianandhan also published their short
story anthologies during the nineteenth century. However, there was no
considerable output of short stories before the beginning of the twentieth century.
Cornelia Sorabji was the first Indian woman short story writer with
impressive work to her credit. S.M. Nateshaa Sastri, Dwijendra Nath Neogi, A.
Madhaviah and Sunita Devee are also important short story writers in the early
part of the twentieth century.
The early women writers led to the emergence of the Indian women in
the fast changing social milieu. Raja Lakshmi Debi, Mrs. Krupabai
Satthiannadhan, S.B.Nikambe, Rocky Sakhawat Hossain, Pandit Ramabai
Saraswati—are a few early women writers who wrote about women‘s
condition. Swarna Kumari Ghosal, elder sister of Rabindranath Tagore, was a
novelist, poet, playwright, songwriter and a journalist. She is one of the most
distinguished literary figures of the time, and a torchbearer in the tradition of
women‘s writing in Bengal. She showed the strength of women‘s writing and
raised women‘s creations to a position of respect.
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The stories written in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century
are a retelling of the folktales, legends and parables. They tend to be anecdotal,
sentimental and didactic in nature. The ancient Indian classics have proved to be
a source of inspiration for the Indian short story writer. But the short stories
also show a considerable influence of the western writers.
After 1920s, the Indian short story in English reached its maturity. The
spread of the English education and the advent of periodicals shaped the prose
style of the short story writer. Shankar Ram wrote The Children of Kaveri (1926)
and Creatures All (1933). He presents rural reality, superstitions, caste system and
poverty. This period of 1930s and 1940s came to be known as the Gandhian era.
The short story writers of this period, like A.S.P. Ayyar, K.S. Venkataramani
and K. Nagarajan, concentrated upon social reform. The tension between tradition
and modernity is clearly reflected in their works. The short story of this phase
was developed under the light of national freedom movement started by
freedom fighters and Mahatma Gandhi. Events of that time highly affected
and moulded the temperament of contemporary short story like other literary
forms. It was a transitional period in every sense so every references,
thoughts and changes were seriously taken by short story writers of that time.
Love for nation, sacrifice, non-violence, human emotions, mercy were clearly
and automatically depicted. contemporary writers had given short story a
realistic frame during this phase.
The earlier work by Indian authors projects the traditional image of
woman with the thrust of her sense of frustration and alienation. The
characters they created, represented force of tradition and modernity. Their
crisis of value adaptation and attachment with family and home pulled them
asunder. The plight of the working woman was still worse, aggravated by her
problems of marital adjustment and quest for assertion of her identity. The
predicament of new Indian woman has been taken up for fuller treatment by
many authors. These authors have generally concentrated on the plights and
problems of educated women mostly with an urban base while many others
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have portrayed the challenges faced by the educated ‗socialite‘ woman with
an urban base and sensibility.
However, in the post-independence period, there came a change in the vision
and perception of the writers. Their chief concern was to build a new India.
Dreams and promises for a better India are portrayed in these stories.
The women short story writers of this period are concerned with feminist
issues and the life of non-resident Indians respectively. They are highly
educated and intellectual. They are very vocal and expressive with regard to
their thoughts and vision. They are also innovative in their art and craft. In the
post-independence era, there also arose a new class of women writers who
began to explore new sexual mores, fresh possibilities in human relations,
marriage and motherhood.
The post-independence writers witnessed the society where the wave of
independence had also inspired women to throw their veils which had covered
all their mental abilities and accomplishments. They had decided to move out
of the four walls and go into the world with a new confidence and
determination. However they had to face a lot of hurdles, created not only by
men but also by other women. There were a lot of actions and reactions. The
women writers of this period have captured this situation in their works.
Woman started realizing that she was fettered by the stereotyped roles
the society had conferred upon her and gradually chose her own course and
followed her own ideals. This theme of feminism finds expression in so many
short stories of post-independence women writers who have given voice to
women‘s feelings and problems in their short stories. They have expressed
the feelings of women and their struggle for existence in society.
Women's contribution to the short story is invaluable. Both women writing
and the short story form have developed simultaneously in the twentieth
century, especially in its later half. Some of these women writers have also
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become famous all over the world. The medium of English language, which they
chose, has a lion share in their popularity.
The first generation women writers depicted, women who were
traditional in outlook and resigned themselves to life. They wrote mainly to
voice their concern for and sympathize with the suffering of Indian women,
rather than to censure the society. The post-independence India witnessed a
spurt of fiction writing by women writers of greater quality and depth. The
most outstanding women writers between the second—generation women
novelists, Is undoubtedly Kamala Markandaya, Her women protagonists are
the repertoire of transitional Indian Society. She presents a cross section of
the Indian society where her women characters go in quest for autonomy. The
irregularities in the social system confine her women to time honoured and
taboo-ridden path. Ruth Pawer Jhabvala finds life in India to be an
overwhelming burden to European woman. Her women are well aware of the
changing values of the evolving Indian Society; she portrays the predicament
of the modern urban that face the Challenges of the contrasting cultures
between the traditional Indian way of life and the western modernism. Santa
Rama Rao, appears to believe in the innate strength of the traditional Indian
culture even when it comes in contact with the western culture. The
characters are portrayed mostly with international background. Nayantara
Sehgal delineates with keen perception and sensitivity the problems and
suffering of women in marriage, who feel entrapped, oppressed and doomed
to the care of husband and home, and shows her own reaction in her novels.
Most of her women are aware of the injustice done to them in marriage. Anita
Desai, differs from other women novelists, through her method of the
psychological exploration of her women protagonists, who are essentially
lonely and sensitive. The isolation and insecurity that her characters suffer is
human, and the growth of women is from self-alienation to self—identification.
Bharathi Mukharjee, an Indian, American immigrant writer, liberates her
women protagonists for a ‗New World Order‘, Her portrayal of women is
inspired by her experience in India as well as in abroad. Her protagonists are
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sensitive and they lack a stable sense of personal and cultural identity. Gita
Hariharan, the distinguished recipient of the prestigious common wealth
award for her maiden novel, ‘The Thousand Faces of Night, for the year 1993,
portrays women who battle in their relationship with men and society. Uma
Vasudev‘s woman is called truly liberated. They are not bothered by
traditional middle class attitudes, views, opinions, and taboos, which render
them as destitute and condemn them to live within the four walls of their
homes. Jai Nimbkar deals with the middle class married woman‘s identity
crisis in the contemporary male dominated Indian society.
Shashi Deshpande takes up for study the issues and problems of
contemporary middle class women. Her female protagonists are sensitive,
intelligent and career—oriented. She is one with Anita Desai and Nayantara
Sehgal in not merely describing the pathetic life styles of Indian women but
trying to understand and suggest measure for amelioration. It is now that all
our major women writers made their appearance; some who have written
stories which can find place in any international short stories are: Jay Nimbkar,
Bharti Mukherjee, Raji Narsimhan, Shashi Deshpande, Sujata Bala, Anita
Desai, Indriyani Sowkar, Jumpa Lahiri and R. P. Jhabvala.
Women writers‘ work constitutes a major segment in Indian English
literature. They had to struggle a lot to establish one‘s identity and to assert
one‘s individuality; it has led the women to wage a desperate fight against the
existing social order of the day. Hence it becomes essential for women to
assert their role models and redefine its parameters. Their concerns and
preoccupations paved way to establish the relational and rational
development and continuity in the construction of the subjectivity of women.
The similarities and dissimilarities in the writers view of the selfhood of
women, given in their different socio cultural milieu, suggest hundreds of
different possible responses.
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1.4 Development of Short Story in Hindi Literature
The birth of Hindi short story was around eighth decade of eighteenth
century. There are different opinions about the first short story of Hindi
literature but most of them considered ‗Jamindar ka Drashtant‘ by reverend J.
Newton published in 1871 as a first Hindi short story. At present Hindi short
story reaches a milestone of more than hundred years.
Most of critics considered 'Premchand era' as a pivotal point thus the
different phases are also called pre-Premchand and post-Premchand era, and
contemporary phase of short story is also called 'Samkalin Kahani' in Hindi
literature. Many others believed that by entitling Premchand era the qualities
and varieties which emerged and seen in post Premchand era is neglected so
it looks convenient for critics to divide them into such phases.
Following are the short stories considered to be the beginning chief
short stories of Hindi literature .
(1) 'Jamindar ka Drashtant' - Revrend J. Newton (1871)
(2) 'Pranayini Parinaya' - Kishorilal Goswami (1887)
(3) 'Chali Arab ki Katha' (1893)
(4) 'Subhashit Ratna' - Madhavrai Sapre (1900)
(5) 'Indumati' - Kishorilal Goswami (1900)
(6) 'Ek Tokari Bhar Mitti' - Madhavrai Sapre (1901)
(7) 'Gyarah Mannu ka Samay' - Ramchandra Shukla (1903)
(8) 'Dulai Vali' - Bangmahila (1907)
These beginning chief short stories might have looseness of structure
and confusion of language but they had enough moral ground to be said the
chief stories of initial phase. Every short story has an idea and sensitivity at its
centre thus from the view paint of enriching value, Hindi short story proves its
social concern from its beginning.
In the second decade of twentieth century between 1910-1935 many
new writers‘ stories came into literary sky simultaneously. Chandradhar
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sharma Guleri, Jayshankar 'Prasad', Premchand, Sudarshan, Chatursen
Shastri, Raja Radhikaraman have shown future possibilities and potentialities
of Hindi short story. Journals like 'Indu' and 'Saraswati' had a great
contribution in the development of short story. Though more than dozen
talented writers were active this phase was called ‗Premchand yug‘,. It was
beyond doubt that Premchand was pioneer among them. Pre Premchand
stories did not have that much strength and capacity to be categorized under
any school or movement or any particular tradition. Premchand and his
contemporary writers had established true identity of Hindi short story. In the
form of Prasad and Premchand two schools came into existence. Universal
truth is seen at the centre in the short stories of Premchand School. Prasad
school doesn't deny the universal truth but by reducing characters changing
dilemma as a chief feature is found out.
Sudarshan, Vishavambhar Sharma, Kaushik, Vrindavanlal Verma,
Chatursen Shastri were writers under Premchand school, while Vinodshankar
Vyas, Chandiprasad Hridayesh, Rai Krishnadas, Radhikaraman Prasadsinh
etc. considered from Prasad school. These divisions are surfacial in the sense
that neither emotional drametism absent in Premchand school nor description
related to universality is absent in Prasad school. Dr. Devesh Thakur rightly
says ‘Prasad is the first writer who made Hindi story free from Bangali,
English and French translations. (Amitabh)7
Munshi Premchand contributed less than three hundred stories in the
development of Hindi short story, which are highly important on the basis of
the dimension and quality. Use of local language is other main feature of
Premchand's stories.. Psychological subtleties are depicted in the characters
of Premchand. Ushadevi Mitra was chief woman who wrote hundred and thirty
six stories in which authentic picture of contemporary woman is emerged. In
48 stories of Subhadra Kumari Chauhan major stories were based on
woman's pain and sorrow.
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Post Premchand short story, between 1935-1955, developed in
three different directions. some of them are limited up to personal psychology
and psychoanalytical ideas. Jainendra, Agneya, Illachandra Joshi etc. were
writers of this stream. In second direction short story reflected social problems
and marxsist ideology. The chief writers of this type are Yashpal, Rangeya
Raghav, Bhairav Prasad Gupta, Amrutrai etc. In third direction of development
of short story, they didn't follow any ideology or discipline but the personal
truth and universal truth are juxtaposed. Upendranath Ashq, Amrutlal Nagar,
Bhagvaticharan Verma etc are classified under this category.
Jainendra is considered first psychological short story writer in Hindi
who depicted personal truth in his hundred and fifty stories. Agneya's stories
are an experience of sheer intellectual faculty. His most of the stories depicted
human values. In Bhagavatiprasad Vajpeyee's psychological stories, we could
see the balance between individual and society as well as art and narration.
We can also see a good combination of sociability and psychology in the
stories of Dwijendranath Mishra Nirguna.
The relationship between social awareness and literature is deep and
inevitable because of exploitation in society so it is important for writers to
clear their stand against exploitation. Keeping this view point at centre,
Yashpal, Rangeya Raghav, Rahul Sanskrutayana and Bhairav Prasad Gupta
constructed their bases for story writing. Yashpal, after Premchand, is the
writer with brightness and full of intellectual energy. His stories are rightly
called the true representative of life. Yashpal also dared to postmortem
Gandhism on intellectual ground.
This phase of development of Hindi short story flowed in two clear
directions. Some stories centered round individual values and biographies on
which layer of psychology can be observed. While in the other trend, they
tend to give much importance to social commitment where most of the stories
are disciplined by leftist ideology.
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After 1955 'Nayi Kahani' started movements and issues in Hindi short
story. This is the first movement which affected most of story writers of Hindi
literature. Madhu Naresh compares this movement with flood that ‗on one
hand flood leaves fertile earth, on the other hand gives birth to so many
calamities and wrong meanings, this is the situation with Nayi Kahani.‘
(Quoted in Amitabh)8 where some achievements on one side and limitations
on other side were shown.
Nayi Kahani gave new direction and dimension in Hindi short story.
Post independent social changes, changing values, all kinds of internal
conflicts of Indian life are rightly expressed in Nayi Kahani. Demand for
newness in short story is not new. After independent, Constitution has highly
affected literary thinking in which capitalism and feudal values were made
weaken in order to strengthen the new democratic tradition so equality,
fraternity and unexploitation etc. values got chance to be emerged.
Short story before the birth of Nayi Kahani did not
have any pressure or compulsion of settings as there
was a vast crack between creativity and settings.
Nayi Kahani presented the proof of joining with
variety of settings so in one way it is said that it is the
outcome of settings (Amitabh)9
Kamleshwar gave credit to Dushayantkumar for giving a name to Nayi
Kahani. According to him Jitendra and Omprakash tried to shape Nayi
Kahani. Rajendra Yadav credited Dushayant Kumar and Namvarsingh for
naming Nayi Kahani. Nayi Kahani movement was maintained and kept alive
by writers like Rajendra Yadav, Kamleshwar, Mohan Rakesh, Shiv Prasad
and critics like Namvarsingh and Bhairav Prasad Gupta.
Nahyi Kahani took newness in many dimensions of story writing. It has
reflection and realism of life and has a vast canvas ranging from village to
metropolis. Nayi Kahani emphasized on authenticity of experience and living
truth of life thus it also challenged established moral code of life. The stories
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of Mohan Rakesh, Rajendra Yadav, Kamleshwar Renu, Mannu Bhandari,
Shiv Prasad Sinh, Markadeya, Nirmal Varma, Harishankar Parsai, Usha
Priyamvada etc.are considered as Nayi Kahani. Nayi Kahani is influenced by
foreign thinkers. The thoughtfulness of Nayi Kahani is cleared, opened and
developed in certain direction. It is free from superficial emotionalism and has
motivation of intelligence rather then pressure of emotions. Nayi Kahani
created its living language. The movement of Nayi Kahani ceased around 63-
64 and symptoms of change were emerged.
The weaknesses of Nayi Kahani were clear from its beginning.
Madhunaresh distinguished short story of this phase by calling it as 'Story of
changing emotional world'. The central note of the story after Nayi Kahani is to
live in present by free from past. Young writers are not bound by any
traditional morality and social commitments. Day to day reality reflected in the
short story of seventh decade. The short story after seventies passed
thorough many movements in which some major movements are Akahani
(non story or Anti story),Sahaj Kahani (simple story), Sachetan Kahani
(Conscious story), Samantar Kahani (Parallel story), Janvadi Kahani
(Countryman story), Sakriya Kahani (Active story)
Akahani was called undefined term which also reflected non
relationship or absence of relative situations in short story. Gangaprasad
Vimal, Ravindra Kalia, Dudhanath Sinh and Satish Jamali are chief writers of
this movement. Sahaj Kahani born out to overcome the limitation laid by Nayi
Kahani. Ravindra Kalia, DudhanathSinh, Gangaprasad Vimal and Satish
Jamali were pioneers of Akahani movement. Sahaj Kahani inclined towards
nonshowmanship or absence of hypocrisy in story. It was not considered as a
movement because the term derived from Sahaj Kavita - simple poetry. Sahaj
Kahani opposed unnatural situations of sex in short story.
Sachetan Kahani movement is the movement of modern sight or
vision. Sachetan means in which life can be lived and life can also be
understood which depends on conscious living experiences. Mahipal Sinh,
15
Kulbhusan Baldev Vanshi, Manhar Chauhan, Himanshi Joshi, Somabira etc.
are the eminent writers of Sachetan Kahani. Depth and varieties of
experience can be shown in Sachetan Kahani.
Samantar Kahani or parallel story was primarily considered as a
movement but later it was denied by calling it as a highly wide canvas opens
for co-thinking. The centre point is to maintain a balance between timely truth
and creation that is to say that thinking in parallel with contemporary time and
writing accordingly. Samantar Kahani emphasized 'involvement' instead of
'commitment'. Madhukar Sinh, Keshav Dube, Mithileshver etc. are chief
writers of Samantar Kahani. Janvadi Kahani mainly centered on crises of
lower middle class people. Janvadi Kahani writers have deeply thought on
political issues and problems. Niraj Sinh, Ramesh Upadhyay, Asgar Vasant,
Pradeep Mandav, Namita Sinh etc‘s. stories represent movement of Janvadi
Kahani
Sakriya Kahani or active story initiated by Rakesh Vatsa. He explained
that active story is the story of liveliness and conscious energy of human
being. This is the story of an understanding which strengthen human, first
against his inner and them outer conflicts. The adjective 'Active' was used by
Maxim Gorki. Ramesh Batra, Surendra Kumar, Chitra Mudgal, Rakesh Vatsa,
Kumar Sambhav, Shrikant etc young writers pioneered Sakriya Kahani.
Every movement has given some good outcomes. Generally
movements are not considered good for literature but somehow they are the
sign of liveliness. Activity of movements related to short story suggests
newness while values pierce all these and shine, they are beyond any label.
1.5 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Literature
Indian women, mostly illiterate in those days, had a different status in
society; a daughter was regarded as a burden, a wife was considered to be a
non-entity, for her sole obligation and only aspiration was to cater to the
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needs of a husband and his family. The lot of the widow was even worse, for
the social norms did not permit her any relief or salvation. Seen in this light,
the portrayal of women in Indian literature could be considered authentic.
The predicament of the Hindu widow which was to become a major
concern in Bengali and Marathi fiction found expression in Philip Meadows
Taylor's novels Tara (1863) and Seeta (1872). His portrayal of women,
particularly of widows, was only authentic insofar as their misery and
sufferings were concerned. In the latter half of the last century, many reformist
movements directed against orthodox and superstitious Hindu practices,
enjoyed considerable support in Bengal before spreading to other parts of the
country.
In Bengali fiction, there were a few stray and scattered efforts towards
a realistic and authentic projection of the Indian woman of this period; Social
documents which contain biographical details about the hardships
experienced by women were published. The widow as a protagonist
reappeared at a later stage in Rabindranath Tagore's and Sarat Chandra's
work adopting ‗an increasingly bolder approach to the actualities of life. The
beginning of the 1920s, the independence movement, Gandhian ideology and
larger social problems supplied the material for much of Indian fiction so that it
drifted away from individual to global problems.
As was the case in the fiction of the regional languages, the nationalist
movement and the social problems provided the backbone for other Indian-
English novelists. In this sense, one observes the same phases of
development in Indian-English fiction as in the regional languages, except for
the fact that these were squeezed into a much shorter 'span of time. Quite
unconsciously, or perhaps for purposes of investing the themes and the
portrayals with 'local colour', Indian-English fiction also made free use of the
Sita/Savithri/Sakuntala myths, a tendency that endured until the seventies.
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1.6 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Writing in English
Woman has inspired literature and has been its pivotal theme in
Literature all over the world. She herself is also a creator of literature and
therefore a woman's presence in literature is all pervading. This is true of
Indian literature in English also. A high concept of womanhood prevailed in
ancient India, the basic mythic and archetypal image which existed in ancient
times has such a strong appeal and is fundamental to our culture that it still
continues in our literature.
There is no dearth of idealised and glorified images of women in all
literatures even today. But the other end, the cruel reality also exists in all its
crudeness and ghastliness. Right from its beginning, the Indian writer in
English has responded with his sensitivity. His sensibility records with a
dissenting voice, and with a note of revulsion the social evils relating to
women.
Toru Dutt (1856-1877) deals only with the archetypes of Indian
womanhood like Sita and Savitri. She creates these pictures in the English
language and reinforces the conventional myth in a patriotic manner.
Robindranath Tagore (1861-1941) who really belongs to the world of Bengali
Literature wrote some of his poems and plays in English in which Woman is
projected as a full-blooded creature but still full of surrender.
The Gandhian whirlwind and the Freedom Movement catapulted Indian
women into the forefront. Literature written at the time of the Freedom
Movement projects a new image of the Indian woman. The work of Raja Rao,
and Mulk Raj Anand could not have been possible without it. Mahatma
Gandhi's autobiography and Pandit Nehru's writings give short sketches of
brave women fighters. The influence of Gandhian Philosophy gave rise to a
new humanism and a new morality based on human values rather than
religious orthodoxy. The trend was towards a positive, brave and outspoken
effort to find out a new way of life for women. Kanthapura unveiled the
immense potential of Indian women.
18
On the attainment of Freedom and the country acquired a National
Identity of its own, the woman's quest of her own self also followed. But there
was no overnight revolution. The image of the archetypal woman still loomed
large on the horizon in spite of the fast growth and development of women's
education. But in actual literary practice, numerous characters are found to
adhere to classic prototypes—especially the women of fiction who persistently
enact the suffering, sacrificing role of Sita and Savitri. The National Movement
and the spread of modern education swept numerous women into modernity.
The image of woman in Indian Literature of the Post Independence period
shows a perceptible trend towards it.
One of the major trends in recent literature is to reinterpret the ancient
myths, humanize them or offer a totally new interpretation. In Sri Aurobindo's
(1872-1950) Savitri (1954) the character of Savitri is imbued with a new
meaning and life. The entire legend itself is made more meaningful. Such
archetypal images from mythologies are being portrayed today in several new
ways. In the last fifty years or so, India has witnessed profound
changes in almost every aspect of her life. Since the advent of
independence in August 1947, the pace of change has greatly accelerated.
( Kapur)10
The image of the New Woman is being projected in post-independence
literature and particularly in recent literature. The feminine psyche disturbed in
a period of transition from tradition to modernity is voiced both in poetry and
fiction. Authenticity, candor, boldness, ebullience, frankness, vehement
assertion, sadness - are some of the qualities associated with the new image.
In the poetry of Kamla Das (1934) a vehement protest against the senseless
restrictions which compel a sensitive and an intelligent woman to lead a vapid
kind of existence.
In the poetry of A.K. Ramanujan, (1929) the family relationships play
an important role. His sense of alienation in U.S.A. and the accompanying
nostalgia are poured forth through the metaphor of the family.
19
The woman portrayal is seen on a wider scale in fiction as there is a
scope for weaving a complex network of human relationships. Among the first
generation of novelists, Raja Rao (1908 ) still upholds the mythic pattern. His
concept of womanhood precludes individualism. R.K. Narayan (1906)
portrays a wide range of feminine characters—from the conventional to the
rebellious. The conventional women dominate and are shown as supporters
of the institution of family but he has identified the turmoil in the minds of
women.
Mulk Raj Anand, (1905-) emerged as the spokesman of the
downtrodden in his novels who wrote for the emancipation of women.
Although there is no dearth of conventional women in his novels. In the
novels of Bhabani Bhattacharya (1906), women are full of exuberance and
vitality but once the woman tries to come out into the world, she is victimized;
only the strongest survive. He also assigns women a new role, that of a bridge
between the East and the West and the old and the New. In the novels of
several other novelists like Arun Joshi, Manohar Malganokar and Chaman
Nahal there is a preoccupation with other wider themes and the portrayal of
women characters has no special significance. However, different areas of
experience have been explored by these novelists and varied types of women
characters are presented.
A number of women novelists have arrived on the literary scene and as
in poetry, they have set out making new arrival into the world of women. In the
novels of Anita Desai (1937), there is the world of radical female resistance
against a defined concept of normality. Women are mostly failed questers. In
her psychological novels, she creates the image of a suffering woman
preoccupied with her inner world, her sulking frustration and the storm
within—the existential predicament of a woman in a male dominated society.
Kamla Markandeya (1924) portrays a large repertoire of women in a changing
India. She portrays struggles and exploitation in a changing village, battles
between tradition and modernity in contemporary India. What distinguishes
Kamla Markandeya's novels is an awareness of the socio-economic forces
20
and their impact on women. In the novels of Nayantara Sehgal (1927), the
emphasis is on freedom and a new definition of the virtuous woman. She
emphasizes the need of awareness for women. In most of her novels, the
heroines are aware of the injustice done to them in their marriages and they
walk out of their homes. Most of her female characters feel that man is still not
fit to be an equal partner. Nayantara Sehgal portrays women mostly from the
upper strata and often a political backdrop is created. Promila Kapur, a
sociologist, analyzes the change:
With a change in women's personal status and social
status has come a change in her way of thinking and
feelings and the past half century has witnessed great changes
in attitudes towards sex, love and marriage.(Kapur)11
Shashi Deshpande shows considerable promise in delineating
characters from the middle class.Her women wish to be architects of their own
fate. Hers is the authentic, poignant tale of the middle class educated women
and their exploitation in a conventional male-dominated society. She writes
about the Herculean obstacles in their path. Using the stream of
consciousness method and a narrative technique which goes back and forth,
she unravels the inner world of women. Middle class educated women seem
to be her area and there is a remarkably authentic and realistic portrayal.
The writings of Shashi Deshpande depict effectively a disturbed but a
brave feminine psyche in the new ethos. What is heartening is the fact that
her protagonists are determined to encounter the world. However, it is in the
novels of Raji Narasinhan (1930) that the New Liberated woman in the
contemporary society really blossoms
Veena Paintal started writing with the specific objective of writing about
the educated upper middle class women stripping away the facade of chiffon
sarees and cocktail parties—to delve into their lives and personalities and
their particular struggles.
21
The image of the New Woman and her quest and struggle for an
identity of her own is emerging in the Indian English Novel. Such a struggle
needs some support structures outside the family to enable women to survive.
Christina Gomez's novel Fire Blossoms portrays in a very thoughtful manner,
efforts at doing so. In transitional period women can play an important role as
agents of change. This is depicted in Rama Mehta's novel Inside the Haveli,
where the Haveli becomes a symbol of Tradition, which was like a fortress
protecting them from the outside world, giving them security and a sense of
superiority.
1.7 Portrayal of Woman in Hindi Literature
There are many writers projecting the image of the New Woman and
there are as many writers, if not more, writing in the traditional vein about the
meek, suffering wife and self-abnegating mother. Literature of rebellion in
India has to be, therefore, understood with great care in the context of the
heritage of our social laws, our literary audience, and its relationship to the
inherent social code. As it is observed:
With all their fascination with modernity however,
most of the Writers see woman basically in the role of
an ideal wife and mother. An innate reverence for
conformity seems to have become the second nature
of Indian woman owing to her samskaras and mental
make-up. Only while retaliating or taking revenge
does she transcend all limits of dignity, even
probability.(Bhat)12
Premchand who was the first to put the Hindi novel, like short story, on
22
a realistic, social base. Many writers of the late 30s and 40s have projected
the new woman defying the social and moral code; quite a few writers of the
80s and 90s have cast her and seen her in the traditional mould. In as early
as 1951, for example, Agneya had portrayed a love relationship free of any
restrictive inhibitions and promiscuity. It is not easy to find another woman in
the whole of Hindi Literature who is as strong, as independent and as
rebellious in her attitude towards love, fulfillment and social and moral code as
Rekha is in Nadike Dweep (1951).
It was Premchand who for the first time gave to the Hindi novel its
compelling human interest. Instead of the artificial stories of complicated
intrigues and contrivances, and the world of fashionable gallantry, duels and
quarrels of the high-life setting, explored his contemporary world of
rottenness analyzing its causes while faithfully depicting the wretched
condition of those who suffer. But, then, though he stressed the indignities
heaped upon women, His tone was fundamentally conformist. While he hated
cant, hypocrisy, cruelty and arrogance, his moral indignation and pain
was almost invariably accompanied by idealistic solutions.
In the post Premchand period writers attempted to understand the
innermost, deep-rooted complexes of their female characters that had
condemned them to a certain way of life or thinking. The family theme is
portrayed in the modern Hindi novel in all its possible articulateness.
Mothers have lost their sovereignty but not necessarily their deep-
rooted prejudices. Girl is given all possible love and affection till her brother is
born. Thereafter it's a tale of neglect and cruelty. In lower middle class
families we can understand the inextricable connection between the economic
and the psychological aspects of the changed equation. In Surya Bala's Agni
Pankhi (1984) the mother turns both an emotional and physical wreck
because of the cruel treatment meted out to her by her brothers-in-law and
their wives and also her son and her daughter-in-law.
The stepmother has also been divested of the traditional prejudice in
23
Malti Joshi's and Surya Bala's work where she is portrayed as an
understanding and self-sacrificing mother, which is a major change from the
stock image. Himanshu Joshi has taken up the problem of the young girl who
denies herself everything for her family. Parents' self-indulgence and apathy,
and young girls' ignorance and/or helplessness seem to be responsible for the
rise in the instance of unmarried mothers. Most of them are victims of
circumstances. Those who do it by choice and are bold enough to declare it to
the world are still an exception.
Earlier, Premchand, like Jaya Shanker Prasad, seemed to think that
woman's dedication and love would sooner or later bring the drifting husband
back on the right track. Wives, undaunted love, dedication and self-sacrifice
have been extolled by the writers of this period even though their husbands
are habitual drifters and do go astray every now and then.
Earlier it was assumed that a woman would or should remain faithful
only to the man she gets married to—if she fails to do so, she has fallen from
grace and the high ideals of Indian womanhood. These ideals didn‘t last long
in modern Hindi literature. Bhagawati Prasad Vajpeyi, Vrindavan Lal Verma,
Ila Chandra Joshi and Agneya portrayed a wife loves her husband's friend
and does not for a moment think her weakness a sin and made no secret of it.
She even confessed it to her husband in some cases.
Rangeya Raghav and Achala shows a married women who not only
forgets her love before marriage but also confesses it to her husband. While
the early Hindi literature reinforce the traditional morality—the evil can never
triumph. The moral view has always condemned prostitution. But in Yashpal's
Divya (1945), the prostitute is the only free woman, capable of exercising her
free will. The shame complex of the earlier days has been replaced by an
angry questioning of the social and moral codes.
Bhagavati Charan Verma offers a new interpretation of virtue and sin,
Sajjan feels that morals, sin, good, evil etc. have obstructed man's natural
growth more than anything else. In Amrit Aur Vish a new definition of mortality
24
is offered that morality does not lie in how truthful, sacrificing and authentic
one is, the question is of how much freedom one had to give a shape to one's
desires, aspirations and conduct. There is no such thing as sin, it's all our
weakness/' says Lakshmi Narain Lai in Kale Phool Ka Pauda (1955). Sharad
of Rajendra Yadav's Ukhade Hue Log (1956) says, ‗Yesterday‘s definitions of
sin and piety have toppled and turned hollow. And we have no faith in
tomorrow.‘ Rekha of his Shah Aur Mat (1959) talks of the social base of sin.
Mallika of Shivani's Chaudah Phere (1965) claims that one commits a sin only
under compulsion, not willingly.‘ In Ateet Ke Chal-Chitra (1948), Mahadevi
Varma finds the limits of dignity imposed by a woman's own soul much more
definitive than any social parameters of her virtue.
These changing concepts of morality have not only revolutionized our
attitudes to the prostitutes who are now seen as victims of the socio-economic
forces rather than as fallen women but also affected the marital relations. It is
no longer imperative to marry the man you love or to love the man you marry.
Pre-marital and extra-marital relations are still a cause for anxiety but not for
surprise or outright condemnation. Attempts are made to explain, and even
justify them in the context of larger socio-economic power structures.
Today's new woman has shed her inhibitions and acquired a new
candor about her sexual self. Ranjana of Jainendra's Dashark (1985) indulges
in extra-marital relations with rich men as a part of her experiment. In Mridula
Garg's work married women have an extra-marital relationship as part of the
process of their growing up and exploring their own personality, and not
because the husband in either case was a blackguard or a drunkard or cruel
or deficient in character. It is significant that all liberated women reject social
conventions but view their deviations in the context of these very conventions
The clash between the traditional and the modern is, of course, present
everywhere is perhaps inevitable. With nuclear families and the ensuing re-
alignment of familial equations have come new pressures to cope with within
the husband-wife relationship and tensions of working environments.
25
In Durga Hakare‘s and Manjul Bhagat's work we come across a bold,
proud woman who doesn't succumb to her circumstances. She does care for
her good-for-nothing, drunkard husband but has to work for 10 families to
provide for her own. She is right when she says that work covered the body.
Work gave us food. Then that alone is my Suhag, my master.
Usha Priyamvada and Mrinal Pandey portrayed the woman who does
not commit suicide or allow herself to die of tuberculosis in a sanatorium when
her husband abandons her for another woman. After the initial shock, she
picks up the threads of her life and works for a respectable career and a
happy home.
The New Woman cannot remain confined to her role as a housewife.
She finds lasting fulfillment in work not only out of boredom and the monotony
of household routine, but also to establish her identity, her individuality to seek
equality in marriage and other relationships.
We have no doubt seen many changes and made many advances.
Indian woman has come a long way from the days she was told what to do
and how to do it. Working woman no longer carries the stigma of family
hardships, of men being unable to provide for their families. Though a
necessity for many, it is no longer a slight on the family. The New Woman can
realize her ambition herself, not vicariously through husband or children. She
can realize her dream of becoming anything—an educationist, a doctor, an
engineer, an architect, a pilot, an air force officer, even a prime minister or PM
maker. She has even begun to articulate her sensuality. She can live alone or
have a live-in relationship. She is less hesitant to get a divorce.
But even though she may be a highly placed executive, she is
expected to be a good mother and wife at home. And even though she may
find it exhausting and even intolerable at times to meet the demands of her
family, we need to remember that her safety net is the network of relatives
and friends and family she can fall back upon. We should remember that
family still plays a pivotal role in our scheme of things and counts most in
26
moments of stress and that the Indian woman still needs the emotional
support of understanding parents, communicative and supportive husband,
loving children and caring relatives. We must also remember that mostly it is
the middle class, educated urban woman who has carved a niche for herself.
Women in the rest of the country are for the most part still tradition-ridden. We
have the enlightened, sophisticated new woman and we have the helpless
housewife existing side by side. Is women's liberation then a mere cliché or a
slogan? Only time will tell whether these changes are either positive or
negative or inevitable as part of a process of social, economic and political
change.
1.8 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
Short story written during the last three decades provides a glimpse
into female psyche and deals with the full range of female experiences.
Short stories written by Indian women writers present the Indian
woman‘sconditions, her conflicts and predicament against the background of
contemporary India. The writings reflect the analysis of the socio-cultural
modes and values that have given women their image and role towards
themselves and the society. In the changing contexts of our country
and times, the women now find themselves at cross purposes with
themselves as well as the society. Accordingly, both Shashi Deshpande
and Mannu Bhandari explore the psychic and moral dilemmas and
repercussions of the situation in their women characters trying to
achieve a new harmony of relationships with themselves and their
surroundings.
Shashi Deshpande has been accepted as a significant literary figure on
the contemporary literary scene. Many comparisons have been made
between her fiction and the fiction of other writers. A comparative
approach ought to lead us to a more comprehensive and adequate
understanding of the works and their authors. Keeping this in view, I
have tried to compare the short stories of Shashi Deshpande with that of
27
Mannu Bhandari, a Hindi woman writer. Interestingly, both these writers
share common concerns despite medium of expressions and socio-cultural
differences. However, a few dissimilarities can also be observed in these
aspects.
Some similarities in the portrayal of woman are found in the short
stories of Shashi Deshpande and those of Mannu Bhandari.
Therefore, in this thesis I have adopted a comparative method to study
the above mentioned topic. The basic aims and objectives of the present
study are:
• To provide an overall view of women short story writers in Indian
English and Hindi literature.
• To assess their contribution to the form and literature in general.
• To examine how far Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have
succeeded in presenting a realistic picture of woman in their short
stories in the family set up as well as outside family.
• To make a comparative study of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu
Bhandari as short story writers.
I have some basic assumption in my mind with which I will direct
my study. These have formed the hypothesis for my research. They are
as mentioned below:
• Short stories written by Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have
been neglected in spite of being so significant. They have
been pushed to the dusty corners of libraries and remain
rot in the darkness of unrecognition. The dearth of enough
critical works is in itself a sign of this.
• Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have many similarities and
dissimilarities in themes, characters and style though they
respond to the same time, place and circumstances.
• The short stories of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari
28
are significant in formulating a new feminine consciousness in
keeping with changing times.
• An extensive range of women belonging to different classes, castes
and educational levels is found in the short stories of Shashi
Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari.
• Their protagonists come to awakening through a crisis.
Thus, this research aims at making a comprehensive comparative study
of the portrayal of woman in the short stories of Shashi Desphande and
Mannu Bhandari. What ultimately emerges is a comprehensive exploration of
these writers' understanding of the dilemma of the new woman as well as
their courageous attempt to suggest new patterns of feminine existence.
This study aims ultimately to establish the positive role of Indian women
writers in English as well as in Hindi in the vital on-going battle of
establishing female selfhood. By juxtaposing the two women writers and
studying their concern for the cause of woman, the present study will add to
the spectrum of Comparative Indian Literature. It will spotlight
Deshpande's and Bhandari's contribution to Indian writing in English and Hindi
respectively.
Shasi Deshpande is an Indian writer in English and Mannu Bhandari is
an Indian writer in Hindi. They happen to be distinct female writers from the
rest of her generation's other female writers. Both provide glimpse into female
psyche and deal with the full range of female experience in their
writings. A number of critical studies have appeared on the novels of
Deshpande and Bhandari but critical and comperative studies on their
short stories are less. Moreover these writers have been studied
separately. But a comparative study of this kind was still to be
undertaken. A comparative approach ought to lead us to a more
comprehensive and adequate understanding of the work and their
authors. Again, barring a few articles in journals and books, there is no full
29
length comparative study of the short stories of both the writers. Hence
there is the need for a close study of their short stories with a
comparative approach to the themes delineated by these writers. The
present research is restricted to the study of some selected short stories from
the complete collection of short stories in two volume by Deshpande and
complete collection in one volume by Bhandari. The stories with different
themes from women-centered themes are not included in the present
study. Textual quotations from Mannu Bhandari are simply paraphrased
and are not in shape of polished literary translation. Another limitation of
the thesis is that certain repetitions became inevitable, in the course of
emphasizing the similar thematic concerns of the two writers. Since the
study is focused on the portrayal of woman in the short stories of
Deshpande and Bhandari, it could not assess the growth and change
in the writers as artists who could be taken up for further study. The
effort of the present study has been to analyze the themes and portrayal
of woman from their different short stories under certain major titles and
devote the last chapter exclusively to the comparison of Desphande and
Bhandari.
The chapterization of the dissertation is as below.
Chapter I: Introduction.
1.1 Genesis of Short Story.
1.2 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature.
1.3 Development of Short Story in Indian Writing in English.
1.4 Development of Short Story in Hindi Literature.
1.5 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature.
1.6 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Writing in English.
1.7 Portrayal of Woman in Hindi Literature.
1.8 Outline of The Thesis.
30
Chapter II: Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari: An Introduction.
2.1 Life and Work of Shashi Deshpande.
2.1.1 Women Characters in Her Short Story.
2.1.2 Style and Technique in Her Work.
2.1.3 Shashi Deshpande as a Short Story Writer.
2.2 Life and Work of Mammu Bhandari.
2.2.1 Mannu Bhandari as a Short Story Writer.
2.2.2 Women Characters in Her Short Story.
2.2.3 Style and Technique in Her Work.
Chapter III: Woman Portrayed in the Short Stories of Shashi Deshpande.
3.1 Girlhood and Adolescence.
3.2 Daughters and young girls.
3.3 Wife and Life Partner.
3.3.1 Alienated wife.
3.3.2 Sexual predicament.
3.4 Woman at Work.
3.5 Mother the Caretaker.
3.5.1 Conventional Mother.
3.5.2 Unconventional Mother.
3.6 Pain and Predicament of Widowhood.
3.7 Mythical Reincarnations.
Chapter IV: Woman Portrayed in the Short Stories of Mannu Bhandari.
4.1 Girlhood and Adolescence.
4.2 Pain of Young Girl and Premarital Agony of young Woman.
4.2.1 Pain of Deception.
31
4.2.2 Agony of Suffocation.
4.2.3 Predicament of Misunderstanding.
4.3 As a Wife and Life Partner.
4.3.1 Conventional Image.
4.3.1.1 Wife at Home.
4.3.1.2 Wife at Work Place.
4.3.2 Unconventional Image.
4.4 Motherhood.
Chapter V: Conclusion: A Comparison of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu
Bhandari.
5.1 A Comparison of Thematic Concerns.
5.2 A Comparison through Characterization.
32
References
[1] Charters, Ann. The Story and its Writer, Boston: Bedford/st.Martin‘s, 1999
p. no.1677.
[2] O‘Conner frank. The lonely voice London: Macmillan. 1965. P no.13.
[3] shaw, Valerie. The short story: a critical introduction. London:. Longman.
1983. P.no.21.
[4] Jagmohan, Sarala. (ed.) ‗Introduction’ Modern Indian Short Stories. New
Delhi: Kumar Printers; 1976.p.no.1.
[5] Isvaran, Manjeri. A Madras Admiral. Madras; 1959. P.no.ii.
[6] Venugopal C.V. The Indian Short Story in English: A Survey.
Bareilly. Prakash Book Depot. 1975 p.no.2.
[7] Amitbha, Ved Prakash. Hindi Kahani Ke Sau Varsh: Mathura. Madhuvan
publication, 1987. p.no.64.
[8] Ibid. p. no. 41.
[9] Ibid. p.no.43.
[10] Kapur, Promilla. Marriage and Working Women in India: Bombay: Vikas
Publication (ab.ed.); 1972.p.no.3.
[11] Ibid. p.no.4-5.
[12] Bhat, Dr. Yashoda. (ed.) The Image of Woman in Indo-Anglian
Literature Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation; 1993. P. no.49.
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