AMERICAN REVOLUTION1763-1782

Sea Power & Maritime AffairsLesson 2

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Today’s Overview

American Revolution– Causes– Battles– Outcomes– Role of Navies

Learning Objectives

Comprehend the American Revolution in the context of European politics and the regeneration of the struggle between Great Britain and France.

Know and be able to identify the causes of the American Revolution.

Comprehend the uses of sea power by the Americans, British and French.

Learning Objectives

Know the course of the war and representative campaigns.

Comprehend the relationship of military and naval policy, diplomacy, and strategy as demonstrated during the war.

Review

8 Key Themes1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC

Relevant Definitions

Strategy Tactics Guerre de Course Guerre de Escadre Commerce Raiding Letters of Marque and Reprisal Privateer Piracy

American Revolution

Video

22 minutes

Precursors to American Revolution

Peace of Paris (1763)– Ends Seven Years War– Truce, not really a treaty

Outcome– Advantage to the British

• More land throughout the world• Dominant world navy

– Advantage to Colonies• UK owns land from Atlantic to Mississippi River

– Downside: UK Treasury is bankrupt• Britain cannot afford any more wars• They must pay for Seven Years War first

Rivalry for North America Remains

Precursors to American Revolution

What do they do? Maintain military force in the colonies– French & Native Americans still a threat– Royal Proclamation of 1763• No colonization past Appalachian Mountains

Raise taxes on all British citizens

Does this make sense?

Precursors to American Revolution

What do they need from the Colonies? 300,000 ₤ yearly military expense in Colonies

– 100,000 ₤ yearly tax revenue from Colonies

200,000 ₤ needed yearly

Where will they get it?– Start enforce existing Colonial taxes– Impose new Colonial Revenue Acts

Is this fair?

Precursors to American Revolution

Revenue Acts– Molasses Act, Stamp Act, Townshend Acts,

Intolerable Acts, Tea Act, etc. (1764-1777)

Other British Measures– Royal Proclamation of 1763 (no westward expansion)

– Quartering Act– Declaratory Act of 1766

• Parliament declared "full power and authority to make laws and statutes... to bind the colonies and people of America...in all cases whatsoever."

Precursors to American Revolution

Why do the Colonies Care?– Departure from long-standing, implicit

agreement:1. Colonies self-govern, self-tax, and self-defend

(militias)2. Taxation without representation is unlawful

– End to autonomy from Parliament• No more “Benign Neglect”• In the future, Parliament would be even more

heavy handed

Rising Animosity

Animosity Grows in all colonies– Especially in New England where taxes

hurt merchant trade.• Boston & New York become hot-beds of

confrontation• Philadelphia, Virginia, Charleston, SC

Rising Animosity How does tension manifest itself?

– Vocal criticism of the Crown• Patrick Henry: “Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death”• Thomas Paine: Common Sense

– Protests• Peaceful• Violent

– Organization of Colonial government• Continental Congress

– Organization of rebellious groups• Sons of Liberty• Massachusetts Spy

– Organization of militias• Minutemen• Stockpiling of arms

Rising Animosity

Violence Tar & Feathering Boston Massacre (Mar 1770) Boston Tea Party (Dec 1773)– And Tea Parties elsewhere

Rising Animosity

Boston Massacre Boston Tea Party

Rising Animosity

British reaction–More troops in Americas– Enforcement of taxes– Closing of Colonial assemblies and

governors• New York, then Boston

– Closing of ports• Boston, then New York

Pressure is building for revolution.

Outbreak of War

April 1775: GEN Gage plans to send 800 troops into countryside– Capture Sons of Liberty leaders• Sam Adams & John Hancock

– Capture stockpile of weapons in Concord Problem with plan– Expansive network of colonial militiamen– Advanced warning of operation• GEN Gage’s Wife (?), Paul Revere, “One if by

land, two if by sea”

April 1775

Gen. Gage

Adams & HancockSamuel Adams John Hancock

Paul Revere’s RidePaul Revere William Dawes

Lexington & Concord

– British Regulars march into Massachusetts countryside.

– Fire on Minutemen assembled in Lexington common: “Shot heard around the world”

April 1775

vLexington

Boston

Lexington & Concord

– Brits march onto Concord but find no cache

– Ambushed on road back to Boston• Only 273 of 800 British Regulars return

April 1775

Concord vLexington

Boston

April 1775 – Mar 1776• 15,000 in Continental Army• 6,500 in British Army• Battle of Bunker Hill - 16 Jun 75 - Brits use Navy for transport and artillery against Colonists• Dorchester Heights Artillery Battery• British Unopposed Evacuation by Sea

- 17 Mar 76

Siege of Boston

Revolutionary War Begins• What should American Colonies do?• What means do they have to resists?• What are the conditions of their

government and military?

American Colonies

Fighting on “home turf” Ready market for raw

resources No specific center of

gravity Lots of territory to

invade

Weak central government – Continental Congress

Economy designed to support Britain– mercantilist system

Disunity – Loyalists (Tories) make

up 1/3 of population

Advantages Disadvantages

Great Britain

Large economy Large population Well established

government Professional army World’s strongest navy

Fighting ocean away– On foreign soil– Long lines of

communication– Long supply lines

Hostilities in Europe Unfamiliar with guerilla

warfare Not enough manpower

to occupy all 13 colonies

Advantages Disadvantages

State of Militaries

Government:– Scramble to create one– Reps to Continental

Congress

Army:– Rabble of militiamen– George Washington at

CIC

Navy:– Nothing– Just merchantmen

Government:– Established and powerful

Army:– Established and powerful– Large– Well trained & led

Navy:– Powerhouse– Most powerful in world

Colonies Great Britain

David vs. Goliath

What must Colonies do to win?

1. Organize– Continental Congress– Army– Navy

2. Leverage strengths and minimize weaknesses– Could they defeat the British navy?– If not, what should they do?

Naval Strategies

Survival– Win war of attrition

Guerre de Course– Commerce Raiding– Privateering

Diplomacy– Gain European allies with

large navies - France.

Command of the Sea – Blockade American ports– Transport troops to areas

of rebellion– Sustain supply chain

Divide & Conquer– Hudson River Valley

Campaign• Cut off New England from

middle and southern colonies.

American British

Bottom Line

American Navy:– Non-existent at beginning of war– Ineffective during war• Relied on French and Spanish

– Disbanded after the war– NEVER TRULY CHALLENGED GREAT BRITAIN

Few instances of success came down to individual bravery, heroism, and luck

British Trade Route

Major Battles of the Revolution• How did the British Navy contribute?

British Trade Route

Blockade

Major Battles of the Revolution• How did the British Navy contribute?

British Trade Route

• Troop Movement• Supply• Amphibious Costal Raids• Convoy escort for British commerce

Blockade

Major Battles of the Revolution• How did the British Navy contribute?

Overview of the War

On Land & Sea

Major Battles of the RevolutionEvacuation of Boston

Battle of Valcour Island

Battle of Penobscot Bay

Siege of Yorktown

Battle of the Capes

New York Campaign

New Jersey Campaign

Pennsylvania Campaign

Battle of Charleston

Southern Campaign

Navies battle in the West Indies

Canadian Campaign

French Arrive (Army & Navy)

Battle of Quebec

Battle of Saratoga

Send announcement to France

Navies of the American Colonies

Too many to organize

Competing Naval Strategies

1. Washington’s Navy2. Privateering (Guerre de Course)3. Continental Navy4. States Navies5. French and Spanish Navies

Problems – Fragmented organization and efforts–Mostly ineffective during war

Reason for Fragmentation

1. Sectionalism– States didn’t cooperate well– Continental Congress was indecisive

2. Lack of good administration3. Lack of formal warfighting experience or

training– Only one CAPT had ever been in British Navy– None familiar with fleet maneuvering

4. Privateering eroded effort– Very profitable– Stole ships, men and material

Washington’s Navy

GEN George Washington Commander-in-Chief of

the Continental Army– Appointed by 1st Continental

Congress

Dispatched to Boston– Organize militia

Washington’s Navy Problem: Continental Army needed supplies

– Pleaded with Continental Congress for a Navy – Congress debated but did nothing

Washington dissatisfied: Starts his own.– Commissions 11 merchant schooners in 2 years– Manned by army personnel– Goal: capture unescorted British supply ships

• Wants food, clothing, guns, ammunition, etc.• NEEDS gunpowder

1775-1777

Washington’s Navy

Results– 55 British supply vessels taken in 11 months– Hannah (first vessel)– Lee

• 22 prizes• Captured ordinance Brig Nancy• Muskets, flints, mortars, tec.

– All decommissioned after Brits evacuated Boston– Success leads to stronger calls for Continental Navy

1775-1777

Privateering

Piracy?

Privateering

Letter of Marque and Reprisal Began in New England– Colonial states issued them• Massachusetts (Nov 1775)• Rhode Island (Jan 1776)

– 2000 state licenses in New England alone Continental Congress authorizes it–Mar 1976– 2000 continental licenses

Throughout War

= 4,000 total letters issued

Privateering

Result– Annoyed and harassed British– 600 prizes worth $28 million– Increased British insurance rates– Forced British to disperse naval forces to

protect supply convoys

Problem– Lured skilled sailors away from army & navy– Devoured war supplies that the army and

navy needed– War profiteering

Throughout War

Continental Navy

(and Marines)

Continental Navy

13 October 1775 - Navy Birthday– Learn of two unescorted British supply ships

headed for the St. Lawrence River– Continental Congress approves purchase of two

commercial vessels for conversion into warships.

10 November 1775 - Marine Corps Birthday– Continental Congress authorizes two battalions of Marines.

• Tuns Tavern, Philadelphia

– Capt. Samuel Nicholas first Marine• De facto 1st Commandant of Marine Corps

Fall 1775

Continental Navy

Administration: Unstable1. Marine Committee (1775)

• 13 delegates • Navy Boards to manage regions• Rules for the Regulation of the

Navy– Adams plagiarizes British naval policy

2. Board of Admiralty (1789)• 2 delegates & 3 commissioners

3. Secretary of the Marine (1781)• Robert Morris interim “Agent of

Marine”

John Adams(Chairman)

Robert Morris

Continental NavyCongress authorizes 13 frigates– Construction spread across colonies

• Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Portsmouth, Baltimore, etc.

• Early example of “pork barrel” spending– Highly inefficient because of:• Distance• Materials

– Particularly cannon. No foundry in colonies.

• Political haggling

Countless smaller merchant ships also purchased and converted to warships.

Fall 1775

Continental NavyDebate continues over the need for a Navy– North: Pro-Navy

• Merchant tradition• Fighting was happening there

– South: Anti-Navy• Expensive• No way to compete with British• But dealing with blockade and British naval raids

Pro-Navy Idea: – Win southern support by sending fleet south to

break blockade of Chesapeake Bay and Carolina coast

Fall 1775

New Providence Expedition

Continental Fleet Sets Sail Departs Philadelphia 8 small warships COMMO Esek Hopkins

commanding

Jan 1776

Esek Hopkins

Hopkins’s Orders• Rid Chesapeake Bay of

British warships then proceed to Carolina coast to do same. Return to

OR

• “follow such courses as your best judgment shall suggest.”

Hopkins’s interpretation• Do whatever I want

What Hopkins Did

What Hopkins Did:• New Providence Expedition

to Nassau, Bahamas• Rationale:

1. Caribbean is where fleets go in the winter

2. Attack Britain’s merchant ships

3. Steal war material from British forts in New Providence

What happened• Landed Marines at New

Providence• Stole 58 artillery pieces, 15

mortars, and shot and shell• Headed for Newport

New Providence Expedition

On return, a British warship successfully alluded Continental fleet

• Cause: poor ship handling and fleet maneuvering

Congress was livid– Relieved Hopkins of command– Poor maneuvering induced change in

Navy’s strategy:• General abandonment of fleet concept• Shift to single-ship ops• Commerce raiding (harassment)

Continental Navy

General assessment: Utter disappointment– Manning issues

• Privateering steals good men

– Construction challenges• Congress spreads construction among the colonies• No pre-existing foundries for canon

– Only 6 of 13 frigates ever get to sea• Two burnt in Philadelphia, one run aground at Penobscot

Bay, two destroyed in Charleston, and the British even use a captured Continental frigate to capture another Continental frigate

– Lack of warfighting experience shows during formal ship engagements (abysmal record)

– Guerre de course is only positive

Commerce Raiding

Commerce Raiding

Guerre de Course (war on commerce)

– Commissioned ships praying on enemy’s merchant ships

– Goal: wear down enemy’s resolve to fight• General harassment diminishes morale• Expense to shipping industry

–Were colonies successful? YES• Makes a few heroes• Few instances of naval success

Commerce Raiding

1777 Dropped off Ben

Franklin in France

English Channel– 23 prizes in

two voyages Ship lost at sea

Lambert Wickes

1777-1779 “Dunkirk Pirate” English Channel

– Captured 60 merchantmen or privateers in 18 months

Captured by Brits

Gustavus Conyngham

1778-1779 “Father of

American Navy” Took Marquis de

Lafayette to France

Two cruises into British waters

John Paul Jones

Commerce RaidingJohn Paul Jones

– Born “John Paul” in Scotland– Merchant Capt. at early age– Came to colonies to escape

murder charges• Added “Jones” as alias

– Earned commission as LT• Served under Esek Hopkins

during New Providence expedition

– Promoted to Captain• Ferried Marquis de Lafayette back

to France after Battle of Saratoga• Received first salute of American

flag upon arriving in France

“I wish to have no connection with any

ship that does not sail fast, for I intend to go in

harm’s way.”

Voyage #1• The Ranger• Spring 1778• Several prizes• Captured HMS Drake• Raid on Whitehaven• Attempted capture of Earl of Selkirk -Ransom for colonial prisoners• Hero’s return to France

Voyage #2• Bonhomme Richard• Fall 1779• Small squadron of ships• Several prizes• Battle of Flamborough Head

• Baltic Convoy• HMS Serapis• 3-hr dual• “I have not yet begun to fight!”• Sails prizes to Netherlands

Commerce Raiding

After the battle– Jones is a hero in Europe and Colonies

• Even British admire him a little

– Returns to colonies and appointed CAPT of the only ship-of-the-line (under construction)

– War ends. Navy disbanded. No job.• Earned commission as ADM in Russian Navy• Left Russian navy for Paris

– Died in obscurity and poverty in Paris at age 45– In 1905, Theodore Roosevelt had his body

exhumed and relocated in crypt under USNA chapel

Commerce Raiding

Commerce Raiding

Jones’s Legacy– Hero of revolution– Excellent fighter and ship handler– Visionary educator and reformer– “Father of the American Navy”

Arnold’s NavyBattle of Valcour Island

October 1776

Benedict Arnold’s NavyFailed Invasion of Canada Gen. Benedict Arnold Battle of Quebec (1775) Retreat into NY

– Waterway to Lake Champlain

British take offensive Pursue into NY Goal:

– Continue along Hudson Valley toward NYC

– Split New England from other colonies

Problem: – Needed to control waterway

Oct 1776

Benedict Arnold’s NavyOct 1776

Naval Shipbuilding Race Lasts into fall Brits: Northern lake

– Disassemble Frigate – Reassemble on lake

Arnold: Southern lake• Uses “green wood”• Small craft• Manned by army soldiers

– Realizes can’t win building race

– Sails small fleet north– Hides at anchor behind

Valcour Island

Benedict Arnold’s NavyBattle of Valcour Island Brits sail south

– Pass Arnold’s fleet & double-back Engagement

– Arnold’s fleet out-fought– Night falls so Brits discontinue battle – Fog rolls in, and Arnold uses it to

escape In morning

– Brits notice escape– Chase down Arnold’s fleet– Total annihilation

• Arnold’s entire fleet destroyed or scuttled

Oct 1776

Benedict Arnold’s NavyTactical Loss but Strategic Victory Shipbuilding race cost Brits the

invasion season (summer) Brits put offensive on hold

– Return to northern lake for winter– Don’t resume offensive for almost a

year Gives Colonies precious time

– Reinforce army in NY– Strategize defense

Oct 1776

States Navies

Divided we fall

States Navies

Most had their own navies– Goal: costal protection force for

commerce and trade (want to keep ports open)

– Problem: Minimal cooperation Instances of cooperation– New England navies–Maryland, Virginia & Delaware on

Chesapeake Bay– Penoboscot Bay Expedition (1779)

States Navies

Penobscot Bay (1779)–Mission: execute largest amphibious

landing of war at Penobscot Bay to retake Maine from British

– Assets• 19 warships / 24 transports

– Frigate Alfred

• 1,000 militia & Marines• Command: CAPT Dudley Saltonstall

States NaviesPenobscot Bay• August 1779• Boston & Portsmouth to Maine• Goes poorly from beginning

• Disagreement between commanders

• Disorganized fleet• Delayed landing

• British squadron appears in middle of landing• Ship-of-the-line, Frigate, many

smaller ships• Colonial navies scramble

• All scuttled or captured• Men disappear into the

countryside or are prisoners

Worst naval loss of the war

French & Spanish Navies

Why did they get involved?

French & Spanish NaviesAm. Revolution is extension of Seven Years War

– Renewed Anglo-French war– Want revenge– Want to reclaim territory

Catalyst: Victory at Saratoga– French, Spanish, Dutch declare war on Brits

• France also signs military and commercial treaty with Colonies• Spain and Netherlands don’t sign alliance

Naval Contribution: 80 Ships-of-the-Line– American Reaction: Congress ceases nearly all

investment in Continental Navy.

Ships-of-the-Line

1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 17820

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

66 66

90 95 94 94

52

121 117

137146

British Total Allied

French and Spanish give naval advantage in 1779

French & Spanish Navies

What does this mean for British?– Serious enemies on all oceans– Need to protect all colonies and trade

• Throughout the world• Particularly in Caribbean

– Seen as more valuable than American colonies

– Must divide naval forces across world

Brits launch southern campaign• Battle of Charleston• Move north through Carolinas

• Running out of supplies• Hole up in Yorktown, Virginia• Wait for Navy to resupply

French Navy Departs Boo!!• Goes to Caribbean• Reasons:

1. Protect West Indian colonies (And maybe take some)

2. Protect trade3. The weather is better

• Fight Brit Navy with Spanish until 1781

French Arrive (Army & Navy) Yay!!!• ADM Comte d’Estaing• Short blockade of Brits in NY• Attacks Brits at Newport

Washington seizes opportunity• Colonial & French Armies move south• Siege British at Yorktown• Need Navy to cut off British sea escape

French Navy Departs Caribbean • ADM Comte de Grasse• Combined French & Spanish fleet

• 24 Ships-of-the-line

British Navy Pursues• ADM Hood

• 14 Ships-of-the-line• Sails past French/Spanish fleet

• Doesn’t find them at Yorktown• Sails north to keep searching

• Gets to Newport • Learns he out-sailed

French/Spanish fleet• ADM Graves takes over

• Back to Yorktown• 19 Ships-of-the Line

• British Army is desperate• Graves challenges de Grasse• Battle of the Capes

2nd Siege of CharlestonMar – May 1780

French Navy Departs Caribbean • Brits blockade American ships• 5,500 Americans surrender

• 3rd largest in US history• 7 warships destroyed

Battle of the CapesSept. 5, 1781

Battle of the CapesSept. 5, 1781

Battle of the Capes

Outcome– Tactically indecisive– British back off and head north– Abandon Gen. Cornwallis

Siege ends in surrender (Oct. 19, 1781)– 7,500 British soldiers– Shocks Great Britain

Hostilities end in American colonies– Continue fighting overseas

Sept. 5, 1781

Fighting Overseas

French/Spanish try to take:– Gibraltar– British colonies in India– Jamaica: Battle of Saints (1782)• Large naval battle

British public suffers war fatigue– Costly global war– British agree to peace talks

1781 - 1782

Treaty of Paris

April 1782

Peace negotiations began

Nov 1782 Preliminary treaty

Sept 1783 Official Treaty Signed

Jan 1784

Approved by Continental Congress

Results of War

American independence– Out of British Empire– Lose protection on seas

Brits angry with France– Renewed tensions create

22 years of war

Brits still dominant naval force in world– Not weakened at all

Navy soon disbanded– “Wasteful expense”

Guerre de Course– became American naval

dogma

World Politics American Navy

How did the Navy do?

What can we learn?

What can we learn?

Did we ever challenge the British?– No. The French and Spanish saved us.

British Navy proves:– Control Seas -> Control Land– Safe Retreat– Blockading– Resupply & Reinforcement– Disruption of opponents trade, supply and

reinforcement

Review

8 Key Themes1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC

Next ClassTopic American RevolutionAssignment(s)QuizOther Info

Supplemental Slides

Purchased Launched Captured Loaned

Number of Ships

26 20 5 6

2.5

7.5

12.5

17.5

22.5

27.5

Sources for Continental Navy ShipsN

umbe

r of S

hips

Total: 57 ShipsMore purchased than launched.

Less than 10

10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 74

Ship Count 13 25 14 11 3 1

2.5

7.5

12.5

17.5

22.5

27.5

Guns on American ShipsG

UN

S

Total: 57 Ships

American ships were weak compared to British ships

De-stroyed

Captured Sunk Burned Lost at Sea

Siezed Wrecked Sold Re-turned

Un-known

Given

Ship Count 16 12 3 2 2 1 1 11 4 4 1

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

Disposition of ShipsN

umbe

r of S

hips

Total: 57 Ships

American warships have terrible record during war.

David Bushnell

American inventor First submersible– Turtle