aircraft design phases

Overview of the Aircraft Design Process Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

V60a - May 2011

Objective

2

This lecture is intended to provide an

overview of the aircraft design process

Content • Introduction

• The Product Development Process

• The Conceptual Design Phase

• The Preliminary Design Phase

• The Detailed Design Phase

• Entry Into Service

4

Introduction

5

Recommended Further Reading

• D. Howe - Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis

• Loftin- Subsonic Aircraft: The Evolution and the Matching of Size to Performance. NASA Referendum Publication 1060.

• D. Raymer - Aircraft Design, A Conceptual Approach.

• E. Torenbeek - Synthesis of Airplane Design.

• J. Roskam - Airplane Design Vol. (1-8).

• Askin Isikveren - Quasi-Analytical Modeling and Optimization Techniques For Transport Aircraft Design, PhD. Thesis, 2002.

Introduction

6

• L.Jenkinson, P.Simpkin & D.Rhodes – Civil Jet Aircraft Design

• D.Stinton – The Design of the Aeroplane

• S.Brandt, J.Stiles & R.Whitford – Introduction to Aeronautics – A Design Perspective

• M. Abzug & E. Larrabee – Airplane Stability and Control, Cambridge Press

Recommended Further Reading

Introduction

Specific Industry journals AEROSPACE DAILY

AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY

BUSINESS & COMMERCIAL AVIATION

THE WEEKLY OF BUSINESS AVIATION

AEROSPACE DAILY & DEFENSE REPORT

AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING AND AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

AEROSPACE AMERICA

AVIATION DAILY

ENGINEERING FAILURE ANALYSIS

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS

AVIATION SPACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE

IEEE AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS MAGAZINE

JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT

PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING …

Introduction

Designing Aircraft

8

Introduction

Design:

• Not a clear-cut/scientific or completely rational process

– Despite efforts to formalize

– Neat flow charts of steps aren’t real life, still needed as goals

– But! Some systematic procedures available

• Creativity/imagination, but not pure inspiration

• Broad understanding of physical world

• Beware of cookbook approach:

- understand your concept

• Never stop asking questions!

Good Designs

9

Introduction

Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

The Process

10

Introduction

Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

Aircraft Design is a Compromise

11

Introduction

• It is the task of the aircraft design engineer to balance the customer requirements with the physical constraints, cost and time-scale, in order to produce the most effective aircraft possible.

• Aircraft Design Requires Teamwork

• No “one” design group is more important than the others.

• Note: All Engineering involves Compromises!

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Aircraft

• Aeronaves são sistemas multidisciplinares complexos

– Requerem tempo considerável para projetar e construir (vários anos).

– Investimento considerável (custo unitário também elevado).

– Mercado extremamente competitivo.

– Requisitos extremamente exigentes de certificação do produto.

• Incerteza no projeto e desenvolvimento conduz a:

- aeronaves que são entregues fora do prazo e do orçamento.

- aeronaves inadequadas e não-competitivas.

12

Introduction


Aeronaves São Sistemas Multidisciplinares Complexos

• Sistemas multidisciplinares são intrisincamente difíceis de modelar e entender devido a uma única pessoa não ser capaz de possuir conhecimento detalhado nas áreas requeridas.

• Sistemas frequentemente tornam-se muitos complexos para que se possa reduzir a incerteza e permitir uma previsibilidade razoável. – Requisitos de certificação cada vez mais exigentes.

– Requisitos de desempenho e operação mais exigentes e complexos (ex. aeronaves silenciosas e não-poluentes)

13

Introduction


14

Think Light, Think Simple, Think Accessibility, Think Maintainability,

and Think after all Cost

Introduction


15

Kelly Johnson’s Rules for

Project Management

Kelly Johnson established fourteen basic

operating rules to govern his projects.

Within the Skunk Works staff, these

rules were as sacred as the

Ten Commandments.

Many sites across the internet include

these rules. The rules differ slightly from

site to site. The following compilation is

from the stuff obtained them from these

various sites and selected from the

wordings. (For example, later wordings

seem to substitute "customer" for the

military and "vendor" for contractor.).

Introduction


16

Rule Number 1

The Skunk Works' program manager must be delegated practically complete control of his

program in all aspects. He should report to a division president or higher.

Rule Number 2

Strong but small project offices must be provided both by the military and industry.

Rule No. 3

The number of people having any connection with the project must be restricted in an almost

vicious manner. Use a small number of good people (10 percent to 25 percent compared to

the so-called normal systems).

Rule No. 4

A very simple drawing and drawing release system with great flexibility for making changes

must be provided.

Rule No. 5

There must be a minimum number of reports required, but important work must be recorded

thoroughly.

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Introduction


17

Rule No. 6

There must be a monthly cost review covering not only what has been spent and committed

but also projected costs to the conclusion of the program. Don't have the books ninety days

late and don't surprise the customer with sudden overruns.

Rule No. 7

The contractor must be delegated and must assume more than normal responsibility to get

good vendor bids for subcontract on the project. Commercial bid procedures are very often

better than military ones.

Rule No. 8

The inspection system as currently used by the Skunk Works, which has been approved by

both the Air Force and the Navy, meets the intent of existing military requirements and

should be used on new projects. Push more basic inspection responsibility back to the

subcontractors and vendors. Don't duplicate so much inspection.

Rule No. 9

The contractor must be delegated the authority to test his final product in flight. He can and

must test it in the initial stages. If he doesn't, he rapidly loses his competency to design other

vehicles.


Introduction


18

Rule No. 11

Funding a program must be timely so that the contractor doesn't have to keep running to the

bank to support government projects.

Rule No. 12

There must be absolute mutual trust between the military organization and the contractor

with very close liaison on a day-to-day basis. This cuts down misunderstanding and

correspondence to an absolute minimum.

Rule No. 13

Access by outsiders to the project and its personnel must be strictly controlled by

appropriate security measures.

Rule No. 14

Because only a few people will be used in engineering and most other areas, ways must be

provided to reward good performance by pay, not simply related to the number of personnel

supervised.


Introduction


19

Rule 15

Several sites suggest that there was an additional "unwritten rule" . . .

Rule No. 15

Never deal with the Navy.


Introduction


20

"Be Quick, Be Quiet, And Be on Time"

Kelly Johnson’s Most

Important Rule

Introduction


Weight Definitions • disposable load = payload + useable fuel (+any necessary ballast)

Where

Payload = the revenue earning load

Maximum ramp weight is that approved for ground maneuver

Maximum ramp weight = maximum take-off weight + start, taxi, and run-up fuel

Maximum landing weight = maximum weight approved for touchdown

Maximum zero fuel weight = the maximum weight approved – usable fuel


• APS weight (aircraft prepared for service), which is the same as the basic

empty weight, i.e. fully equipped operational, without crew, usable fuel or

payload (the load that generates revenue, income).

• AUW, Wo The all-up (gross) weight is the maximum weight at which flight

requirements must be met.

Maximum to take-off weight = gross (all-up) weight = MTOW

= operating empty weight + disposable load

in which operating empty weight and disposable load are built up as

follow

Operating empty weight = basic empty weight + crew

Basic empty weight = standard empty weight + optional equipment

Standard empty weight = weight of the standard aircraft (as

manufactured + unusable fuel + full operating fluids + full engine oil

Taper ratio is the term given to the ratio

of the wing chord at the wingtip (CT)

divided by the chord at the wing root

(CR). The symbol used to designate

taper ratio is the lowercase Greek letter

λ (lambda).

In the case of a wing having a complex

planform, it is possible to simplify the

shape to a simple “trapezoidal wing”.

The root chord is then the base of the

trapezoid at the airplane’s centerline,

and the tip chord is at the peak of the

trapezoid, the wingtip. In the illustration,

λ would be found from:

R

T

C

C


Aspect ratio, abbreviated as AR, is defined the square of the wing’s span divided by its area,

b2 /S.

As such, it’s a measure of the relative narrowness of the wing compared to its span. For a

rectangular wing, the aspect ratio would be equal to the ratio of the span to the chord. High-

efficiency wings such as those on high-performance sailplanes have very high aspect ratios.

That means that the span of the wing is very long compared to its chord. Commercial jet

transport airplanes, on the other hand, typically have much lower aspect ratios for reasons of

structural weight and fuel-carrying capability. The aspect ratio of the 747 wing is approximately

7, and is approximately 8 for the 757 and 767. A high performance “open-class” sailplane may

have an aspect ratio in excess of 40!

SbAR

2

Business Opportunities

Trainers

Surveillance

Transport

UAV

Attack

Executive

Agricultural

Helicopters

DEFENSE CIVIL

Airliners

Introduction

• Aircraft specifically use to teach someone to fly. C-152, Piper Tomahawk, Beech

Skipper

• Use of aircraft other than business or commercial use, 24% all hours flown.

• Beech - Sundowner, Sierra, Bonanza

• Cessna - largest builder of GA 179,500 - 172 Skyhawk, 182 Skylane, 185 Skywagon,

210 Centurion

General Aviation

Introduction


27

Commercial Aircraft

Introduction

Market Structure and Segmentation Transport Category


Jet Transport Aircraft

28

Airbus A319 Boeing 767-300

Embraer 190

Introduction Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Market Structure and Segmentation Transport Category

29

Executive or Business Aircraft

Introduction


Civil Aircraft Basic Data


Configurations


Basic Configurations


Tail Configurations


Tail Configurations (Cont.)


Engine Configurations Introduction Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

36

Lockheed Constellation

Some Successful Unusual Aircraft Configurations

Lockheed P-38 Lightning

Conceptual Phase

Kamov Ka-26


37


Savoia-Marchetti Jahú

Boeing 727

Convair B-36

Conceptual Phase Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

38


SAAB Viggen

North American P-82

Twin Mustang


39

Some Unsuccessful Aircraft Configurations: Budd Conestoga

When the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941, there were concerns whether American industry could produce the

huge quantity of materials needed to fight the war. One of the main concerns was whether the vast amounts of aluminum

needed for aircraft would be available.

The Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the manufacturer of munitions and railroad rolling

stock, approached the U.S. Navy (USN) with a proposal to build a twin-engined cargo aircraft comparable to the Douglas R4D,

q.v., but made of stainless steel. The USN accepted the proposal and placed an order for 200 RB-1's in August 1942; the U.S.

Army Air Forces (USAAF) also became interested and placed an order for 600 aircraft, designated C-93A-BU,

The RB-1 was a twin-engined high-wing monoplane with tricycle landing gear and 24-volt electrical system powered by 1,200

hp (894.8 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-92 14-cylinder, twin-row, air-cooled, radial engines driving three-bladed Hamilton-

Standard Hydromatic constant-speed, full-feathering propellers. The rear of the outer portion of the wing, i.e., from the engine

nacelle to the wingtip, and the elevators and rudder were fabric covered. The fuselage featured a bulbous nose enclosing an

elevated flight deck. The elevated flight deck permitted the cargo area to be unobstructed for its entire length.

The first flight of the RB-1 occurred on 31 October 1943 and this aircraft was delivered to the USN in March 1944. It crashed

during testing and the test pilot swore that the plane's stainless steel construction saved his life. The flying characteristics of the

RB-1 were poor and problems with the use of stainless steel developed delaying production and causing the price to rise.

These difficulties plus the adequate supply of aluminum and the availability of the C-47/R4D resulted in the USAAF canceling

their order for this aircraft and the USN reducing their order from 200 to a total of 26.

Feasibility Study Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Ugly is Most of Time not Good

Introduction

41

Designed by a Flight Enthusiast

Introduction


COMMOM PLATFORMS

42

Derivative Airliner

ERJ 145

Lockheed 188 Electra II

P-3 Orion

EMB 145 MP/ASW

EMB 145 AEW&C

EMB 145 RS/AGS


43

Embraer EMB-110 variants and Derivatives

Fonte: Revista Manche, 1978

Introduction Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Derivative

Military Transport

EMB-110 Bandeirante Version (Designation by FAB) EIS Role

EMB-110 (C-95) 1973 Military liaison

EMB-110A (EC-95) 1973 Aerial Laboratory (Calibration of Airport Instrumentation)

EMB-110B 1975 Aerial photography

EMB-110C 1973 Airliner (15 passengers)

EMB-110E/J 1975 Executive transport

(7-8 passengers)

EMB-110P 1975 Regional airliner

(18 pax)

EMB-110S1 1976 Remote sensing

EMB-110B1 1976 Conversível Passageiros/Aerofotogrametria

EMB-110K1 (C-95A) 1977 Cargo/Paratroops transport

EMB-110P2 1977 Regional Airliner

(21 pax)

EMB-111 1977 Patrolling

EMB-110P1 1978 Transporte de Passageiros e Carga (19 pax)

Introduction

EMB-100/100A

O EMB-100 Bandeirante foi desenvolvido no Centro Técnico de Aeronáutica (Atualmente Comando-Geral de Tecnologia Aeroespacial) a partir de 1965 (Programa IPD-6504) por uma equipe liderada por Osires Silva que também envolveu o francês Max Holste. Inspirado no Nord 262 desenvolvido inicialmente por Holste, o Bandeirante realizou o seu primeiro vôo em 1968. Foi o primeiro bimotor metálico projetado e construído no Brasil e a Embraer foi criada para produzí-lo em série. O EMB-100 serviu de plataforma para o EMB-110C (derivado do EMB-110 da FAB), o primeiro modelo civil que de fato foi comercializado pela Embraer. Vale ressaltar, que o terceiro protótipo foi fabricado após a criação da Embraer, equipado para ser um laboratório voador para pesquisas com sensoriamento remoto.

Informações Técnicas Unidades fabricadas: 3 Primeiro vôo: 22 de outubro de 1968 Capacidade: 2 tripulantes e 7, 9 ou 10 passageiros dependendo do protótipo Peso máximo de decolagem: 4500 kg Envergadura: 15,38 m Área da asa: 29,22 m2 Velocidade máxima de operação: 389 km/h Motor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A20 de 550 shp

Bandeirante Introduction


EMB-110 A/B/C/E/F/K1/J/P/P1/P1A/P2/S1

O EMB-110 (C-95 da Força Aérea Brasileira, FAB) e o EMB-110C Bandeirante foram uma modificação substancial do EMB-100, que havia sido desenvolvido no CTA. Trem de pouso totalmente escamoteável, motores mais potentes, naceles dos motores redesenhadas, maior capacidade de passageiros com a fuselagem aumentada em quase dois metros foram algumas, entre várias outras, modificações levadas adiante pela recém criada Embraer. A Transbrasil foi o primeiro operador civil do Bandeirante, que lhe foram entregues em abril de 1973. Foi a primeira vez que uma cia. aérea nacional foi equipada com um produto de origem brasileira. A Embraer continou aperfeiçoando e desenvolvendo novas versões de seu bimotor. Em 1978, obteve a certificação do P1 e P2 no mercado norte-americano, onde o Bandeirante foi um sucesso de vendas. Por conta de sua versatilidade e facilidade de manutenção, cerca de 500 exemplares foram fabricados até maio de 1990, quando a produção foi encerrada. Na África do Sul, a robustez do modelo foi mais uma vez comprovada com a conversão do Bandeirante para operar como avião agrícola, conversão feita por operadores locais. A FAB em 2008 contava com 105 Bandeirantes, em 9 versões e duas variantes, que desempenham cinco missões distintas operando em 14 esquadrões, além de dotar vários outros como aeronave orgânica. Além das versões mais comuns de transporte C-95, C-95A, C-95B e C-95C, são utilizadas pela FAB duas versões para calibragem de instrumentos, EC-95B e EC-95C, duas variantes para patrulha marítima, P-95A e P-95B, uma versão para busca e salvamento, SC-95B, uma versão para pesquisa de chuvas, XC-95, e, finalmente, uma de reconhecimento e levantamento aerofotográfico, designada de R-95.

Informações Técnicas Planes manufactured: 501 Entry into service: 1973 with the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) Shut down of the assembly line: May 1990 Accomodation: 15 pax + 2 cockpit crew (EMB-110C) MTOW: 5600 kg (EMB-110C) MLW: 5300 kg VMO: 426 km/h (EMB-110C) Powerplant: Pratt&Whitney PT6 turboprop ranging from de 680 to 750 shp for the several versions and variants

Bandeirante Introduction

Bandeirante EMB-110C

Em 1972 o Bandeirante foi homologado pelo Centro Técnico de Aeronáutica (Atualmente Comando-Geral de Tecnologia Aeroespacial). O EMB-110C foi a versão derivado do EMB-110 (C-95 da FAB) que a Embraer desenvolveu como transporte básico de linha aérea (15 passageiros podeiam ser transportados). Através de apoio a aviação de terceiro nível, empresas nacionais como a Transbrasil, Rio–Sul , VASP e TAM vieram a adquirir o Bandeirante. Em 26 de janeiro de 1973, a Trannsbrasil formalizou a compra de seis Bandeirante. A Transbrasil foi também a primeira empresa aérea a receber o modelo, o que se deu 11 de abril de 1973. Na segunda metade de setembro de 1973, foi realizado em São José dos Campos o 1o Salão Aeroespacial Internacional, ocasião em que foi anunciada a venda de 10 Bandeirante para a VASP. Posteriormente, os Bandeiantes da Transbrasil foram repassados à Nordeste Linhas Aéreas e os da VASP à TAM. Cinco exemplares foram fronecidos à Força Aérea do Uruguai. O EMB-110C(N) diferia bo EMB-110C pela instalação de equipamentos de degelo nas asas, hélices, empenagem, entrada de ar dos motores e pára-brisa.

Informações Técnicas Delivered: 37 planes Certified by CTA: December 20, 1972 Service entry: April 16, 1973 Accommodation: 15 pax + 2 cockpit crew Wingspan: 15,3 m Length: 14,2 m MTOW: 5600 kg MLW: 5300 kg Service ceiling: 8660 m Max. speed: 426 km/h Powerplant: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A27 de 680 shp

Introduction

Bandeirante EMB-110K1 (C-95A)

Concebido para operar com cargueiro militar, é utilizado também no transporte de pára-quedistas. O EMB-110K1 teve a sua fuselagem alongada em 0,85 em relação ao EMB-110 (C-95). Nesta versão, os tripulantes têm acesso direto à cabina de comando, sem passar pela fuselagem central, já que no lado esquerdo ao posto de pilotagem foi instalado uma porta de tripulantes (0,63 x 1,42 m). No lado direito, há uma porta de emrgência para os tripulantes. A fuselagem central dispõe de um volume útil de 14,7 m3. O piso foi reforçado, podendo suportar uma carga de 488 kg/m2. A porta principal da fuselagem foi alargada em relação ao C-95, passando a ter 1,80 m de largura por 1,42 m de altura. Ela é atuada hidraulicamente por meio de bomba manual. Nesta porta, foi incorporada um porta menor, que se abre para o interior da fuselagem e que serve como porta de emrgência,embora a sua finalidade principal é a de permitir o salto de pára-quedistas. O avião pode receber assentos laterais para a comodação de até 20 pára-quedistas.

Informações Técnicas Entry into service: 1978 Accommodation: 2 pilots + MTOW: 5600 kg MLW: 5300 kg Service ceiling: 7.620 m VMO: 426 km/h Powerplant: 750-shp Pratt&Whitney PT6-A34d turboprop

EMB-110P1/P1A/P2

Visualmente, o EMB-110P1 se destaca pela larga porta de carga na traseira da aeronave e pelo diedro de 10 graus na empenagem horizontal para livrá-la da esteira da asa e do motor. Operava tanto como versão cargueira como de passageiros, quando admitia até 18 assentos. Foi a versão que junto com a P2 (sem diedro na empenagem horizontal) foi homologada pela norte-americana Agência Federal de Aviação (FAA, “Federal Aviation Administration”) em 1978, o mesmo ano que o Congresso daquele país desregulamentou o mercado de aviação, permitindo um crescimento expressivo da aviação regional. Assim, o Bandeirante se tornou também um sucesso de vendas nos Estados Unidos.

Informações Técnicas (P1A) Entrada em serviço: 1978 (P1) Homologação CTA: 9 de maio de 1978 Capacidade: 19 passageiros + 2 tripulantes Peso máximo de decolagem: 5.670 kg Peso máximo de pouso: 5.450 kg Teto de serviço: 7.620 m Velocidade máxima de operação: 426 km/h Capacidade de combustível: 1.896 litros Motor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A34 de 750 shp

Bandeirante

At left . EMB-110P1

passenger cabin

Above. EMB-110P2

Above . EMB-110P1

EMB-111 Bandeirulha

O EMB-111 é uma versão de patrulha marítima do Bandeirante. Era dotado de um radar de busca no nariz do aparelho, faróis, tanques de ponta de asa (os mesmos do EMB-326GB Xavante) e de foguetes não-guiados SBAT 70/7. A Força Aérea Brasileira recebeu um primeiro lote de 12 unidades (P-95) entre 1977 e 1979. Um segundo lote de 8 aviões de uma versão aperfeiçoada (P-95B) foram comprados em fins de 1989. As principais diferenças se referiam ao diedro da empenagem horizontal e a aviônicos mais modernos. A Argentina utilizou o EMB-111 durante a Guerra das Malvinas em 1982.

Informações Técnicas Entrada em serviço: 1977 com a Força Aérea Brasileira Capacidade: 15 passageiros + 2 tripulantes Peso máximo de decolagem: 7.000 kg Peso vazio: 5150 kg Velocidade máxima: 385 km/h Alcance máximo: 3.250 km Envergadura: 15,95 m Grupo motopropulsor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A34 de 750 shp Operadores: Brasil, Argentina, Chile e Gabão

Bandeirante

COMMOM PLATFORMS

Airliner Military Plane

Boeing’s Heavy Lifter Concept Boeing 747-100

Introduction

In 1963, the United States Air Force started a series of study projects on a very large "strategic" transport aircraft. Although the

C-141 Starlifter was being introduced, they felt that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially the

capability to carry "outsized" cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft. These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-

Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of 180,000 pounds (81,600 kg) and a

speed of Mach 0.75 (500 mph/805 km/h), and an unrefueled range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,260 km) with a payload of

115,000 pounds (52,200 kg). The payload bay had to be 17 feet (5.18 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m) high and 100 feet (30.5 m)

long with access through doors at the front and rear.

Featuring only four engines, the design also required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel

economy. On 18 May 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin

Marietta; while engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney. After a downselect,

Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt &

Whitney for the engines.

All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features, but one in particular would become iconic on the 747. As the

CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. All of the

companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit to above the cargo area; Douglas had a small "pod" just forward and

above the wing, Lockheed used a long "spine" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while

Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing. In 1965 Lockheed's

aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, which was the largest

military aircraft in the world at the time.


Seaplanes Introduction


Seaplanes

Introduction

The Saunders-Roe Princess was a British

flying boat aircraft built by Saunders-Roe,

based in Cowes on the Isle of Wight. The

Princess was one of the largest aircraft in

existence.

By the 1950s, large, commercial flying boats

were being overshadowed by land-based

aircraft. Factors such as runway and airport

improvements added to the viability of land-

based aircraft, which did not have the weight

and drag of the boat hulls on seaplanes nor the

issues with seawater corrosion.


54

World War II Night Fighters

Introduction

55

Early VTOL Aircraft


56

Modern VTOL Aircraft

Introduction

U.S. Marine Corps MV-22B Osprey British Royal Navy FRS.Mk 1 Sea Harrier

Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II short

takeoff/vertical landing (STOVL) stealth fighter


Airworthiness Regulations & Certification


Structural Parts: Wing

• Wing box

• Fixed leading edge

• Fixed trailing edge

• Ailerons

• Spoilers

• Flaps

• Slats

Introduction

The structural concept for the wing is that part of the

airplane is essentially a beam which gathers and

transmits all the loads to the central fuselage attachment


Structural Parts: Wing

• Wing structure consists of – Internal structure

• Spars

• Ribs

• Stringers

– External structure • Upper skin

• Lower skin

• Wing structure should posses – Sufficient strength

– Stiffness

– Light weight

– Minimum manufacturing problems

Introduction


Structural Parts: Wing box • Front spar

• Rear spar

• Ribs

• Stringers

• Span wise beam

• Fuel tank

• Wing skins

Stringers

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Introduction

• Spars are generally a beam running from root to the tip of the wing

• There are two spars – Front spar

– Rear spar

• Multi-spar designs are used on larger wings and on military aircraft

• Spars carry the aerodynamic loads developed on a wing

• Spars consists of spar cap (flange) and web

• Spar cap carries bending loads and web carries shear loads

• Spars are generally I beams, some times C beams are also used

• All the structural parts of wing are attached to the spars

• Spars are of two types namely – Shear web

– Truss type

Structural Parts: Wing Spars

Introduction


TYPES OF SPAR

a) Built up spar

b) Truss type

c) Bent up channel

d) Frame truss

e) Sine wave web

f) Integrally machined

web

g) Integrally machined

truss

Introduction

SPAN WISE BEAMS

• Span wise beams are members in the wing which run from root to the tip

• Span wise beams are provided for additional support as well as to support the fuel tank

Introduction

Structural Parts: Fuselage

FUSELAGE ASSEMBLAGE


• Box truss type – The structural elements resemble those of

a bridge, with emphasis on using linked triangular elements. The aerodynamic shape is completed by additional elements called formers and stringers and is then covered with fabric and painted

• Monocoque – the exterior surface of the fuselage is also

the primary structure

• Semi-monocoque – A series of frames in the shape of the

fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture, or jig. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives

TYPES OF FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Fuselage-747.jpg

Semi-monocoque fuselage structure consists of • Longerons / stringers (Longitudinal members)

Longerons carries the bending load as axial load

Stringers also carry axial load

Stringers stabilize the skin

• Framing (Transverse members) Provide the shape to the fuselage

Reduce the stringer length thus avoiding overall instability

• Skin Carries the shear load from the cabin pressure, external

transverse and torsional loads

• Bulkheads Bulkheads are provided at concentrated loading regions

such as wing attachments, tail attachments and landing gear locations

SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE

SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE

Airbus A340 Fuselage Structure

Multi-layer skin

70

Cutaway: British High-Wing Airliner BAe146-200

Air brake

Front spar

Rear spar

Introduction

Why a four-engined configuration was chosen for this plane?


Cutaway of a Supersonic Carrier-based Fighter Boeing F-18

• Folding Wings

• BWB

• Multi-spar wing structure

• Leading-edge snag

• Full movable horizontal tail

• Air-refueling probe

Introduction


Flight Envelope Supersonic Airplane

Introduction


The left-hand side of the figure marks

the speed at any height below which

there is insufficient lift to fly straight and

level. The dip in the curve around Mach

1 is caused by the increased drag and

a decrease in aerodynamic and

propulsive efficiency. Some airplanes

exhibit this characteristic to a marked

extent, others hardly at all. The top of

the curve marks the region where the

minimum level speed coincides with the

maximum speed that can be attained

with the particular combination of

engine and airframe. The right-hand

side of the curve represents the

propulsive limit, and the structural

limits: where higher speed, kinetic

heating and higher dynamic pressure

would require an excessively strong

and heavy airframe.

Typical Technical Tasks in the Aircraft Development Process

73

Flight Tests planning

Manufacturing plant

Tooling and machinery for manufacturing

Drawings

Evaluation of some different concepts to fulfill the requirements

Business opportunities study

Product specification document

Aircraft certification

Introduction

In order to keep pace with lower risks

– Project is divided into phases

– Scheduled reviews

– Suppliers become partners

– Advanced engineering tools like CFD and MDO

– Market studies

– Launching customer

– Manufacturing of some prototypes

– Technology certification by technology demonstrators, laboratories, joint ventures, cooperation efforts with he academic community

74

Introduction

Revisões de Passagem de Fase de Projeto -REFAPs

•As Revisões de Fase do Projeto devem ser conduzidas com muito critério, tanto em relação aos participantes quanto em relação à periodicidade. São eficientes quando há pessoas certas - contribuição.

75

• Os principais objetivos dessas avaliações periódicas são:

• Devem ser focadas e baseadas nos “deliverables” definidos na fase de planejamento.

Tomar as ações corretivas para reconduzir o projeto ao seu rumo original.

Determinar se os objetivos originais ainda são válidos.

Determinar se os requisitos iniciais do projeto estão sendo atendidos.

Determinar se há condição totais ou parciais para passar à Fase seguinte.

Introduction

Revisões de Passagem de Fase de Projeto -REFAPs (2)

• Entre as REFAPs há três que se destacam: Conceptual Design Review Preliminar Design Review Critical Design Review

76

•Elas são marcos do: congelamento da configuração do produto; da definição do produto; e da liberação à fabricação, respectivamente.

•Há muitas outras Revisões intermediárias que acontecem segundo às necessidades de cada produto. Também, são repetidas para diversas partes diferentes do avião.

Aircraft Design Phases

77

Feasibility

study

Conceptual design

(Initial Definition)

Preliminary design

(Joint Definition)

Detailed Design

Production

• There is classic phases in aircraft development program:

0 1 2 3 4 5

Phase Out

~10 years Customer support

Introduction

Other Approach

78

Feasibility Study

Preliminary design

Projeto Detalhado

Protótipos/ Qualificação/

Certificação Production Phase Out

0 1 2 3 4 5

É comum encontrar, em publicações e nas divisões de outras empresas aeronáuticas, as Fases 1 e 2 reunidas como Preliminar, somente. Ou acrescentar uma de Qualificação/Certificação, ficando assim:

Feasibility

Study

Conceptual

design

Projeto de

Definição

Projeto Detalhado (Protótipos

Certificação)

Production Phase Out

0 1 2 4 5

Uma melhor forma de se definir as fases de um Projeto são como segue

3

Introduction

79

Years 5 3 2 5 30 - 40 20

Pro

du

ct

su

pp

ort

Product Support

Pro

-

du

cti

on

Series Production Spares Production

Basic Concept

related

Project

related Re

se

arc

h

Deve

lop

me

nt

Feasibility

phase

Concept

phase

Defi-

nition

phase

Development

phase

Product improvement

Basic version

Product improvement

(Stretch, MTOW)

Modifications

Retire-

ment Delivery last

A/C in series

Delivery first

A/C in series Go Ahead

Airbus Approach

Introduction

Description of the Aircraft Development Phases

Introduction

Phase Activities Focus

Feasibility study Market analysis; business

plan; technology assessment

Financing

Conceptual

Costs; performance; first wind-tunnel tests; CFD; MDO; layout of aircraft systems; partner and

supplier selection

Aircraft configuration selection; sizing; engine

selection

Preliminary design (JDP) System integration; mitigation of critical

engineering problems;

Complete aircraft definition

Detailed design Construction of

prototypes ; drawings; rigs; flight tests

Certification

Production

Production; preparation for entry into service;

production plan; quality control

Manufacturing, production rate

Operating life and phase out

Certification of maintenance shops;

service bulletins; fatigue life

Customer support/Recycling


Feasibility Study

82

Feasibility Study

Scope

83

•Market Analysis Trends and market dynamics Market Share Competitor aircraft database Competitive advantages Customer database Competitors menace

•Customer needs

Feasibility Study

•Business opportunities


Phase 0 Characteristics

84

• Althoug this phase is the first one, it is vital for the sucessful outcome of the aircraft program

• É dela que emanam a maioria das diretrizes: as estratégicas; as financeiras; e as de caracterização do produto.

•Esta Fase deve indicar se o projeto é viável, bem como avaliar todos seus riscos, para determinar o seu prosseguimento ou não.

Feasibility Study

Summary

Description of the company

Market analysis

Business financial parameters

Marketing strategy

Product development plan

Production scheme (requerido pelo órgão homologador)

Project management plan

Master Phase Plan

Risk assessment

Financial analysis

Capital amassment

Business Plan Feasibility Study

Product Development Process

Marketing Requirements & Objectives

• It all begins with … a potential need in the market • Identified through client comments, competitive and market analysis, market surveys …

• Important document : Marketing Requirements & Objectives •It covers different aspects, i.e. technical, operating cost, comfort, etc.

•The MR&O does not necessarily need to be comprehensive initially

•Written through use of surveys, focus groups

•• Getting the MR&O wrong may produce a devastating financial result for the company

•The requirements directly influence the function and form of the vehicle

Embraer CBA-123 Dassault Mercure SAAB 2000

See what

happens when

you do not get

the requirements

right!

Feasibility Study

Example of Wrong Specification Dassault Mercure

Feasibility Study

Instead of designing the aircraft for a maximum range, Dassault chose to design

the Mercure for the average range demanded by airlines. This range was only a

fourth of a typical maximum range, resulting in a design that was not flexible in

range and consequently it was an economic failure.

Boeing 737-100 Dassault Mercure

Range with max. fuel (nm) 1,440 nm 918

MTOW (kg) 43,999-49,896 56,600

Max. pax (FAA exit Limit) 124 (typical all-economy, 96) 150

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/acaps/737.pdf Source:


88

Program Failure: Beechcraft Starship

Feasibility Study

The Beechcraft Starship is a turboprop-powered

six- to eight-passenger seat business aircraft. The

design was originated by Beechcraft in January

1980 as Preliminary Design 330 (PD 330). Burt

Rutan was subsequently retained to refine PD330

and one of the significant changes he instituted

was the addition of variable geometry to the

canard (he holds a patent for this). Rutan's

California-based design and fabrication company

Scaled Composites was then contracted to build

scale-model prototypes to aid in development.

The Starship featured a carbon-composite

construction, unique design and rearward-facing

turboprop engines, which leased him a futuristic

look. But it was slow, difficult to fly and a bear to

maintain. A 85% scaled model performed its

maiden flight in 1983 and later three full-scale

prototypes were built. Beechcraft was able to sold

only sold a few of the 53 it built. The company

established a buy back program for the

exemplars that were sold but some owners

decided to keep the airplanes.

Program Failure: Sonic Cruiser

Conceptual Phase

Early in 2001 the Boeing company announced a new aircraft, the “Sonic Cruiser”. The most

impressive features of this new project were a range of up to 10,000 nm, a cruise Mach number

above M = 0.95 and the claim of a large reduction in flight time. A concept level study was

undertaken to design and analyze a possible aircraft configuration. One result of the study is the

fact, that the reduction of flight time by increasing the cruise Mach number to number of

Mach 0.98 is relatively small. A larger reduction of travel time seems to be possible only by using

direct point to point services instead of hub and spoke connections. Another result is, that the

claimed range would be very hard to reach.

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Case Study : Sonic Cruiser Configuration

Conceptual Phase

Mainly based on Boeings artists impressions and some published technical data like

approximate wing span, fuselage length and diameter it was possible to create a first design

sketch of the aircraft. The characteristic canard configuration with engines buried in the wing

and twin fins used for the analysis is shown in figure below. For the redesign a small capacity of

about 200 passengers has been assumed which seems to make sense for a point to point

connection concept.

Program Failure: Sonic Cruiser Fuselage

Conceptual Phase

Initially, a streamlined non-cylindrical cross section was selected for the sonic cruise in order to keep the transonic drag low.

Later, the center portion of the fuselage was replaced by a cylindrical part with a smooth transition between the cabin part and

the cockpit area respectively the tail cone to keep wave drag low.

The diameter of the cabin has been kept at a minimum which allows for a twin aisle 2-2-2 or 2-3-2 seating arrangement . The

diameter was chosen so, that it possible to carry two typical LD-3 containers side by side which requires a minimum diameter of

5.1 meters. Seating could be arranged so that 25 first class seats are available and the remaining seats can be used for a mixed

business / economy class seat arrangement as needed. Boarding would be behind the canard, with the main entrance/exit

separating first class and business class. The placement of emergency exits according to FAR guidelines poses no problems, but

all rear exits will be located over the inboard wing.

In order to avoid velocity peaks in the cockpit area, the flat windscreen windows have been aligned with the fuselage body as far

as possible. To ensure the required visibility angles, the windows would have to be larger than usual.

The canard wing was mounted high to achieve enough cabin height to access the first class compartment and the cockpit area.

The dihedral of the canard was initially copied from the publications and would help to avoid collision with ground equipment. On

the other hand it is not possible to establish sufficient lateral stability with the large angle of dihedral and the small tail fins so that

we can assume a small dihedral close to zero degrees.

From a structural point of view, the fuselage must sustain the somewhat higher pressure differential due to the increased flight

altitude and it must provide enough stiffness to carry the loads of the canard wing. The inboard wing extensions may provide

additional stiffness to the fuselage and can carry a large portion of the fuel.

Case Study: Ultra Long-range Business Jet

Bombardier Global Express XRS

Average completion costs US$ 10 million and custom ones even more.

It takes eight to 10 months to complete an aircraft and custom completions can take longer.

Most operators fly the aircraft 250-450 hours per year.

Most operator also say that they typically fly two or three people in transoceanic trips .

Bombardier projected a 51,200 lb BOW for the type. Operators say that it is a low-estimate for the airplane. According to them typical BOW lies in the range 52,000-54,000 lb because of optional cabin entertainment system.

The XRS is certified to flight to 51,000 ft, but most operators seldom climb above the mid forties.

Source: Business & Commercial Aviation, March 2010

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

93

Case Study: Chance-Vought Corsair

Originally designed as a carrier-capable fighter, it saw combat in Guadalcanal in 1943 as land-based fighter instead.

It was fitted with a single 2000-hp powerful engine. This required large propellers in order to obtain higher efficiency

from this large amount of power. The 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial was the largest engine

available at the time.

An inverted gull wing, a similar layout to the one used by Germany's Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber, provided to the F4U

Corsair fighter a considerably shortened length of the main gear legs.

Its long nose was the origin for poor visibility from the cockpit. This caused accidents at carrier operations.

The large fuselage panels were made of magnesium and were attached to the frames with the newly-developed

technique of spot welding, thus mostly eliminating the use of rivets.

The combination of an aft cockpit and the Corsair's long nose made landings hazardous for newly-trained pilots.

During landing approaches it was found that oil from the hydraulic cowl flaps could spatter onto the windscreen, badly

reducing visibility, and the undercarriage oleo struts had bad rebound characteristics on landing, allowing the aircraft to

bounce out of control down the carrier deck.

The longest production run of any piston-engined fighter in U.S. history (1942–1952).

Feasibility Study Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Case Study: Mitsubishi A6M Zero

Airframe was divided for manufacturing into two integral blocks (lower weight longer range and

higher maneuverability).

Although the airframe was of complex manufacture, over 10,000 Zeros left their respective

assembly lines.

The Zero was the first carrier-based fighter to outperform the land-based ones.

Lack of adequate armor resulted in loss of experienced pilots.

Most of the aircraft was built of T-7178 aluminum, a top-secret aluminum alloy developed by the

Japanese just for this aircraft.

Initially equipped with a 780-hp engine, in later versions power was increased to 1,130 hp.

Outperformed by the Grumman Hellcat fighter, Wildcat’s successor.

As Allied fighter design continually improved, the A6M would basically stay as the design first

conceived in 1937.

Feasibility Study


95

Case Study: North American P-51 Mustang

Designed to fulfill a British specification for the Spitfire replacement

Prototype flew just 119 days after program start

Laminar airfoils were selected to compose the wing geometry

After the Allison engine was replaced by the Rolls-Royce Merlin the P-51 fighter became

the outstanding fighter that everyone knows

Laminar flow can not be attained in practice due to manufacturing imperfections of the

aircraft surface and to accumulated dust and bugs on some parts of the airframe

exposed to airflow

It is believed that the P-51 Mustang fighter shot down half of German aircraft in World War II

Feasibility Study

96

Case Study: Convair 990

Conceived to fly at higher speeds than that of competition (Mach 0.92).

Although the commercial guideline to fly at high speed was wrong, the aircraft was

engineered to achieve this goal (Kücheman carrots at wings).

Later reengined with GE CJ-825-23 turbofans (fans placed at rear portion of the engine).

The engine was a simplified, non afterburning civilian version of the J79, used in military

fighters. Like the J79, the CJ805 was very smoky.

Lose the competition for Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.

Feasibility Study

General characteristics

•Crew: Four

•Capacity: 96 to 121 passengers

•Length: 139 ft 5 in (42.49 m)

•Wingspan: 120 ft (36.58 m)

•Height: 39 ft 6 in (11 m)

•Empty weight: 120,560 lb (54,690 kg)

•Powerplant: 4 × General Electric CJ805-23 turbofans, 16,100 lbf each

•Maximum speed: 534 knots (615 mph, 990 km/h) at 22,000 ft (6,095 m)

•Cruise speed: 495 knots (570 mph, 920 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,667 m)

•Range: 4,700 nm (5,400 mi, 8,690 km)

•Service ceiling: 41,000 ft (12,496 m)

• Stating the problem properly is one of the systems engineer’s most important tasks, because an elegant solution to the wrong problem is less than worthless.

• Problem stating is so important as problem solving.

• The problem must be stated in a clear, unambiguous manner.

97

Establishing Requirements

Viability Study

The problem statement describes the customer’s needs, states the goals of the project, delineates the scope of the system, reports the concept of operations, describes the stakeholders, lists the deliverables and presents the key decisions that must be made.

98


Viability Study


“Prevent the Germans from invading France through the Rhineland.”

According to this problem statement the, Maginot line was a success.

But with this problem statement

“Prevent the Germans from conquering France,”

The Maginot line was a failure. 99


Feasibility Study

HLR- Customer Needs

100

Business plan Configuration

What

customers

need?

What we

can deliver?

Lean - Servir valores acima dos concorrentes.

How is the way to achieve the goals?

Negócios: qual mercado servir e como servir este mercado?

Feasibility Study

Market Analysis – Business Opportunities EMB 312 Tucano

Feasibility Study

The single-engined Embraer EMB 312 Tucano replaced expensive jets being

employed in the advanced trainer role. It was developed to address a Brazilian

Air Force procurement for the replacement of the Cessna AT-37 side-by-side

trainer. After the Cold War was over declining budgets for armed forces around

the world forced many countries to decommission costly jets used as trainers.


Market Analysis – Business Opportunities Sikorsky Skycrane, Special Purpose Helicopter

Feasibility Study Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Market Analysis – Business Opportunities Fokker 100 Reloaded

Feasibility Study

Entrepreneurs behind the long-running effort to develop a Fokker 100 successor intend to modify an existing airframe this

year, after securing financing from the Dutch economics ministry.

The organization driving the program, NG Aircraft, is a successor to the Rekkof company which has pressed for years to

restart Fokker production. NG Aircraft says that the economics ministry is to provide a €20 million ($27 million) loan -

although this still needs European Union clearance.

This funding would come through the Dutch SenterNovem agency, which became part of the ministry's innovations support

arm Agentschap NL this year.

SenterNovem has a civil aviation department which funds pre-competitive work, such as design, simulation and tooling, for

the creation of non-commercial prototype aircraft.

Grants of up to €10 million are available for aircraft transporting fewer than 100 passengers, or €20 million for other cases.

Under an initial phase NG Aircraft will begin adapting a Fokker 100 with new systems and engines. The twin-jet will serve as

a demonstrator for the proposed Fokker 100 NG, the first example of which the company wants to assemble by 2015.

Source: Flight Global, March 2010


Establishment of aircraft mission profile

Supersonic SSBJ

Viability Study

MTOW

(kg)

Range

(nm)

Mach

(max)Pax Crew

Cruise

Altitude (ft)

Valor de

Mercado US$

1.000,00

41051 6500 0,885 13-19 4 51000 (max) USS 41.550,00

41277 6750 0,885 13-19 4 51000 (max) USS 41.550,00

33838 4220 0,88 12-19 3 45000 (max) USS 32.750,00

20500 3769 0,85 9-19 3 41000 (max) US$ 21.800,00

24040 3120 0,8 14-19 3 41000 (max) USS 24.900,00

17010 3100 0,82 8-16 2 45000 (max) USS 14.700,00

43207 6010 0,88 8-19 2-4 51000 (max) USS 38.000,00

40032 4800 0,88 8-19 2-3 51000 (max) USS 32.950,00

7711 1455 0,81 6-7 2 51000 (max) USS 6.525,00

9412 2120 0,81 up to 9 2 51000 (max) USS 9.420,00

10659 2510 0,81 up to 10 2 51000 (max) USS 11.970,00

16375 3390 0,92 8-12 2 51000 (max) USS 18.600,00

4808 1474 0,7 5-7 2 41000 (max) USS 3.800,00

5670 1738 0,72 6-7 2 45000 (max) USS 4.300,00

16238 3000 0,87 8-19 2 47000 (max) USS 23.500,00

18461 3800 0,87 8-10 2 47000 (max) USS 32.000,00

ModelsEquipped Empty

Weight (lb)

Gulfstream V 48000

Gulfstream V-SP 48300

Gulfstream IV-SP 42500

Challenger 604 26630

Challenger SE 33900

Continental 22350

Global Express 50300

Global 5000 N/A

Learjet 31A 11140

Learjet 45 13550

Learjet 60 14640

Citation X 19376

Citation CJ1 6460

Citation CJ2 7359

Falcon 2000 20735

Falcon 2000EX 22330

Market Analysis – Comparing Competitors

Feasibility Study

Market Analysis – Comparing Competitors Feasibility Study

Source: Flight Global

Market Analysis – Comparing Competitors

Feasibility Study

Source: Embraer

Market Outlook Drivers

Feasibility Study

Source: Boeing

Market Outlook

Feasibility Study

Market Outlook Feasibility Study

Source: Boeing

Market Outlook

Feasibility Study

Source: Boeing

Market Outlook Feasibility Study

Source: Boeing

Resilient domestic market

While many airlines around the world struggle with falling demand, China's

domestic traffic resumed its boom after a short slowdown in 2008, thanks largely

to the government's timely stimulus action. According to CAAC data, mainland

China RPKs grew by 13 percent in the first half of 2009. Domestic traffic, which

has seen passenger enplanements increase by almost 20 percent to 100 million

for the first six months, has driven this growth. International traffic, on the other

hand, is down by about 17 percent to 7 million passengers for the first half of

2009.

China is forecast to be the fastest growing economy in the world, with GDP

growth averaging 7.2 percent per year over the next 20 years. Within the next

decade, China will surpass Japan to become the second largest economy in the

world. By 2028, China will account for 42 percent of Asia Pacific's total economic

activity, a giant leap from 24 percent in 2008.

To accommodate the phenomenal growth in demand for air travel, China will

need to more than triple the size of its fleet to 4,610 airplanes by 2028. China will

take delivery of 3,770 new airplanes, which is 42 percent of the entire Asia

Pacific market and valued at $400 billion dollars. Single-aisle airplanes serving

the domestic market will account for 70 percent of the new deliveries.

Air services between China and Taiwan achieved a major milestone on August

31, 2009, with the initiation of scheduled nonstop flights across the Taiwan Strait,

the first scheduled service since 1949. The number of flights and city pairs has

grown remarkably with liberalized air services agreements. Continued

liberalization of air services will further stimulate demand for air travel.

China's ambitious economic growth warrants investment in as many

infrastructure projects as possible. This includes a modern and integrated ground

and air transportation system. Any air traffic diverted to upgraded ground

transportation, including high-speed rails and highways, will likely be more than

offset by the resulting boost in personal income associated with these

infrastructure improvements.

Regional Aircraft: High Worldwide Demand

• Regional market is changing:

– airlines are becoming less dependent from Majors (more efficient aircraft required, economically driven choice)

– low cost airlines are entering regional market (37% of 2005 regional sales)

• More than 40% of new connections opened in the last 5 years are operated only by regional aircraft.

Delivery Forecast by

geographical area

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

N. America

L. America

Europe

M.East&Africa

Asia&Pacific

Russia&CIS

China

26 %

Number of Aircraft

Regional traffic is forecast to triple in 20 years.

The potential demand for the next 20 years foresees 7800 new aircraft for a corresponding value of 200 billion dollars ($ 10 billion per year).

Next 20 years


Regional

Narrow Body

Wide Body

46%

46%

8%

Departures

Regional

Narrow Body

Wide Body

41%

45%

14%

Fleet

Regional

Narrow Body

Wide Body

29%

48%

23%

Flown Hours

8800 Units

correlated with

community noise

correlated with

gaseous

emissions

European regional fleet represents 20% of current worldwide regional fleet

Fully 60% of airports with scheduled service are served only by regional aircraft.

Regional Aircraft: Important Role in ATS

Sources: Alenia data processed from Lundkvist, Avsoft and Back-OAG databases

Total World - Year

2005


Market Analysis

118

Maiores possibilidades de compras:

Low Cost Airlines

Quem compra Ex. 150-200 lugares


Market Analysis

CRJ953 A/C ERJ

900 A/C

Do328 jet44 A/C

Hawker16 A/C

YAK-40222 A/C

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Deliveri

es [

A/C

]

1993 1998 2003 2008 2013 2018 2023

Frota Atual

30 – 60 seater airliner


120

• Problemas de Certificação – Atrasos no Lançamento

• Falta de Financiamento • Custo mais alto do que o Planejado

•Tamanho da Empresa

•Problemas Externos- Estabilidade Política/Financeira do País

• Riscos Identificados

• Plano de Ação para cada Risco

• Riscos Classificados

Resultados

Impacto

Pro

ba

bili

da

de

Riscos

Análise Típica

O Board da Empresa

tem que conhecer seus

pontos vulneráveis e se

preparar para superá-los

Feasibility Study: Risks Feasibility Study

Terms concerning Financial Analysis

121

•VPL-Valor Presente Liquido: é o valor onde é recuperado o investimento considerando as taxas de juros do mercado financeiro.

•Pay Back Time: é o tempo para recuperar o seu investimento sem juros de capital.

•Break Even Point: é a quantidade de vendas de aeronaves necessária à recuperação do investimento.

•TIR: é a taxa de desconto que iguala o valor presente das receitas com o valor do investimento inicial do projeto.

Feasibility Study

Investment Analysis

• Demand prediction: 10 years starting in 2013.

• Internal rate of return: 18%.


Market Analysis

(Range x Cruise Speed x Cabin Diameter)/ 106

Selli

ng

Pri

ce (

US$

mill

ion

)

Conceptual Phase (Estudo de Conceitos)

Detailed budget

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Scope

Master Phase Plan

Quality

Rules, standards, and norms

Conceptual Phase

Scope (cont.)

126

Requirements shall be checked and improved

Aircraft sizing

Performance calculation (aerodynamic database).

Structual layout

Engine selection (supplier)

Wind-tunnel testing (wing planform and section geometry)

Aircraft Configuration

Preliminary safety assessment.

System layout and preliminary system integration

Conceptual Phase

Technical drawings

Phase 1 Major Deliverables

127

• Conceptual design of the related aircraft Desenhos preliminares- 3D Reports

• EBD-Engineering Basic Data Performance Structural layout

• TD-Technical Description: Aircraft systems

Feasibility Study


Master Phase Plan

128

2005 2002

787-8 First

Flight

787-8 Enters Service

Airplane Announcement

Firm Configuration

Program Launch

Authority to Offer

2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

787-3 Enters

Service

787-9 Enters Service

Start of Major

Assembly

High Level Requirements

129

• Ao final da extensa e crítica Fase 0 chega-se a um dos mais importantes Deliverables: o doc com a Missão da Aeronave e os HLR (High Level Requirements). São oriundos da Inteligência de Mercado e da área de Planejamento Estratégico da Empresa, profundamente trabalhados com o Anteprojeto.

• Nessa altura as grandes decisões estratégicas da caracterização do produto foram tomadas e elas influenciarão de maneira marcante o que vem pela frente, por exemplo:

Fly by wire

Materiais

Motorização

Nível Tecnológico

Conceito Família

Modernidade/Desafios

Conceptual Phase

Most important objectives from a conceptual design perspective are :

• Cabin/Baggage size: cross-section, length, volume & access

• Field performance: Balanced Field Length (BFL), Weight-Alt.-Temp.

(WAT), approach speed (VREF)

• En route performance: Initial Cruise Altitude (ICA), cruise speed(s),

buffet limits, range

• Keep BOW as low as possible to be competitive

• DOC goal must be achieved

• Others include block fuel, aft-body strike, derate schedule

Conceptual Phase

133

Passenger Comfort

+

Field Performance

+

Range

+

Remained requirements

DOC

Best valued

product for the

market

Objectives vs. Aircraft Parameters

Conceptual Phase

Conceptual Phase

135

Morphology Selection

Conceptual Phase

• Morphology of an aircraft is the combination of wings, fuselage, landing gear,

empennage and power plant integrated to fulfill (as much as possible) the MR&O

• A myriad of configurations are available

•Selection of the configuration layout depends upon numerous factors:

-Mission role

-Economics

-Operational and functional requirements

-Safety and reliability

-Type of propulsion system

-Commonality with other variants/derivatives

136

Carrier-based AEW Platform Selection

Conceptual Phase

Fighter concepts developed by NASA for the F-15 mission requirements

Conceptual Phase

The wing planform of the variable-

sweep Grumman F-14 Tomcat. The

retractable vane reduces excessive

longitudinal stability with teh wings

fully swept back (from Loftin, NASA

SP 468, 1985)

Entire movable wing is not suited

Impact of Flight Dynamics on Configuration

138

Fighter concepts developed by NASA for the F-15 mission requirements

Conceptual Phase

LFAX-4—a variable-sweep configuration

LFAX-8— a fixed-sweep version of LFAX-4

LFAX-9—wing-mounted twin-engine

configuration

LFAX-10—similar in external shape to

Soviet MiG-25 Foxbat

139

Kelly Johnson Sketch for the P-38 Fighter

Conceptual Phase


Commonality

• Much of focus in product family design is to improve commonality and standardization within the family

• What is commonality? – Possession of common features or attributes in either the product or

the manufacturing process for a set of products

• A product platform is defined “as the common elements, especially the underlying core technology, implemented across a range of products” (McGrath, 1995)

• Main advantage of commonality within a product family: – maintain economies of scale (and scope) in manufacturing and

production processes 140

Advantages of Commonality

• Decrease lead times (and risk) in product development

• Reduce product line complexity

• Reduce set-up and retooling time

• Fewer components in inventory

• Fewer parts need to be tested and qualified

Other advantages? 141

Conceptual Phase

142

Disadvantages of Commonality

• Lack of

distinctiveness

• Hinder innovation

and creativity

• Compromise

product

performance

Degree of Commonality

Best Designs

Poor Designs

Individually Optimized Designs

Perf

orm

ance

Designs Based on Common Platform

Despite disadvantages of commonality, it does provide a useful metric for assessing families of products.

Conceptual Phase

The 787 Family of Aircraft

143

787-8 210-250 passengers (three-class)

7,650 – 8,200 nm

787-9 250-290 passengers (three-class)

8,000 – 8,500 nm

787-3 290-330 passengers (two-class)

2,500 – 3,050 nm

Conceptual Phase


144

Embraer Aircraft Family

EMBRAER 190

EMBRAER 195

EMBRAER 170

EMBRAER 175

95% Commonality

85% Commonality

95% Commonality

Common pilot type rating

100% commonality in the cockpit

High level of commonality in system components

100% flying commonality due to fly-by-wire system

Conceptual Phase


145

Performance of the E-Jets

Conceptual Phase


Boeing 777 Passenger Doors

• Each passenger door (8 total) has different sets of parts with subtly different shapes and sizes for its position on the fuselage

• Challenge: make the hinge common for all of the doors

• Result: not only a common hinge but also a common door mechanism

777 Passenger Door (Sabbagh, 1996)

98% of all door mechanisms are common

Conceptual Phase

147

Wing-Mounted or Fuselage-Mounted Engines?

Conceptual Phase


148


Wing Mounted

• More critical for flutter problems

• Prone to water spray ingestion

• Larger landing gear

• Enable eventually additional rear doors

• Engines alleviate bending moment

• Disturb the airflow over the wing

• Can easily be struck and damaged in a misjudged crosswind landing

• The length of fuel lines minimized

• May limit the flap span

• Less available fuel volume for wing mounted engines because dry bays in the wing fuel tanks

to cater for disc bursts are required

Conceptual Phase


149


Rear Mounted

• May suffer from boundary layer ingestion

• Bleed air supply more complicated

• Difficult to inspect by the crew and maintenance team

• Thrust line above the cg

• Critical for stretched versions

• Larger tailplane

• Lower cabin noise level

• Rear mounted engines often require soft (rubber/fluid) engine mounts to absorb vibration and blade

off loads. For wing mounted engines the flexible wings act as effective dampers thus

allowing engines to use cheaper hard mount arrangements

• Heavier aft fuselage structure

• Ice shed from the wing and aircraft nose can be ingested by the engine

• There is the possibility of high drag from the convergent/divergent channel formed between the

nacelle and the fuselage wall on rear mounted engine installations

• Aft fuselage mounted engines reduce the rolling moment of inertia. This can be a disadvantage if

there is significant rolling moment created by asymmetric stalling. The result can be an

excessive roll rate at the stall

Conceptual Phase


150

Case Study: Lockheed Galaxy Conceptual Phase


151

Case Study: Lockheed Galaxy

1

2 3

4

Conceptual Phase

Four concepts proposed by Lockheed



Competing C-5 configurations during tests in

the Langley 8-Foot Transonic

Pressure Tunnel.

Lockheed concept Douglas concept

Boeing concept



Lockheed concept Douglas concept

Boeing concept

The C-5 design submitted by Boeing was found to have superior aerodynamic cruise

performance in the transonic wind-tunnel tests performed at Langley. Boeing’s experience with

the C-5 competition coupled with Boeing management’s vision of the marketability of jumbo

civil transports (and interest from Pan American Airlines) led to the development of the Boeing

747, which enabled Boeing to dominate the world market with a new product line. Although the

747 was a completely new aircraft design (low wing, passenger-carrying civil aircraft), the

general configuration influence of the earlier C-5 candidate is in evidence.

Conceptual Phase


154

Initial Configuration

Conceptual Phase

Need to evaluate the “first shot”(initial configuration; Does satisfies MR&O?

• Dimensions

• Comfort

• Amenities Should be met, since it was designed for

• Economics

• Performance

Do not know, need to compute aircraft

technical characteristics (weights, aero, etc.)

155

Initial Configuration

Conceptual Phase

• Need to evaluate the technical characteristics (how they are evaluated or

predicted)

• weights

• aerodynamics

• performance

• propulsion

• economics

• Initially done within Advanced Design with empirical and/or

statistical and/or analytical methods

• Implication of specialists in some areas

156

Pressure Distribution on Fuselages

Conceptual Phase

Mach number distribution on fuselage nose,

McDonnell-Douglas DC-10, Mach = 0.85.

Comparisons of crown line pressure distributions for a low

wing transport configuration at M∞ = 0.84 and α = 2.8o ,

Boeing 747. Source: AIAA Paper No 72-188

Forward Fuselage of Some Airliners

Conceptual Phase

EMB-110 Bandeirante

Boeing 777

McDonnell Douglas DC-10

Embraer E-170

Forward Fuselage of Some Airliners

Conceptual Phase

Airbus A-320

Boeing 767

Boeing 737

Embraer ERJ-145

159

Cabin Design

Conceptual Phase

Most aircrafts are designed from the “inside –out”

Geometric definitions dictated by cabin and cockpit comfort and

ergonomics as defined in the MR&O

Cabin Layout Definition

• Cross-section (seats abreast, personal comfort, ergonomics)

• Windows

• Doors and stairs

• Lavatories, galleys, wardrobes

• Emergency egress and emergency equipment

• Environmental climate control, air conditioning

Configuração Básica Aeronave

160

ERJ 145 CRJ 200 DHC 8 Dornier 328

ATR 42 / 72 Saab 340 / 2000

Definição da “Cross Section”

EMBRAER 170/190

Benchm

ark

Conceptual Phase

161

Cabin Design

Conceptual Phase

162

Cabin Design

Conceptual Phase

163

Cabin Design

Conceptual Phase

Volume above cabin floor

• Housing the passengers and seats (sometimes systems, e.g. avionics racks, PATS or

Branson tanks)

• Aisle(s)

• Overhead bins, galleys, and, lavatories and wardrobes (or freight)

Volume below the floor

• Cargo and freight

• Landing gear

• Center wingbox(or above)

• Fuel tank(s)

• Various systems

Key considerations when choosing the geometry

• Functionality (living volume) : maximize

• Weight (stress and loads) : minimize

• Drag (performance) : minimize

• Manufacturing (cost) : minimize

164

American Airliners Operating in the 30s

Conceptual Phase Technology Assessment


165

Early Jet Airliners

January 1962 January 1961 Convair 990 Coronado

Vickers VC-10

Douglas DC-8

Boeing 707

Aircraft

October 1958 July 1958

April 1964 June 1962

September 1959 May 1958

Service Entry First Flight



166

Early Jet Age

Late Jet Age

Boeing 707 / Douglas DC-8 / Boeing 747 / Sud-Aviation Caravelle

Bombardier CRJ-200/ Bombardier CRJ-700/Embraer ERJ-145 / Embraer E-Jets



167

Regional jets

September 1993

November 1992

December 1996

Service Entry

70 - 85 July 1994 Fokker 70

Avro RJ 70

Bombardier CRJ-100

Embraer ERJ-145

Aircraft

50 August 1995

70 - 82 July 1992

44 - 50 May 1991

Capacity (Pax) First Flight

No Props

October 1994



Some Airliners Operating in 2008

Early 80’s technology

Airbus A320

Boeing 767 Late 70’s technology

Boeing 737-200 Late 60’s technology



Technology Assessment


Concorde was an ogival (also "ogee") delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those originally developed for the Avro

Vulcan strategic bomber. The engines were jointly built by Rolls-Royce and SNECMA. Concorde was the first civil airliner to have an (in

this case analogue) fly-by-wire flight control system. It also employed a distinctive droop snoot lowering nose section for visibility on

approach.

The principal designer who worked on the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy.

Concorde had an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (about 2,140 km/h or 1,330 mph) with a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 meters

(60,000 feet), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. The average landing speed was 298 km/h (185 mph, 160 knots).

The flight deck

Concorde pioneered the following technologies:

For high speed and optimization of flight:

• Double-delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings

• Variable inlet ramps controlled by digital computers

• Supercruise capability

• Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today’s FADEC-controlled engines

• Droop-nose section for improved visibility in landing

For weight-saving and enhanced performance:

• Mach 2.04 (~2,200 kilometers per hour (1,400 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, although turbojet engines

are more efficient at high speed))

• Mainly aluminum construction for low weight and conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminum)

• Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb out to landing

• Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems

• Multifunction flight control surfaces

• High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 psi) for lighter hydraulic systems components

• Data Highways for the transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip) from the Air Intake Sensor

Units at the front of the aircraft to the Air Intake Control Units mounted near the rear of the aircraft.

• Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system

• Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control

• Parts made using "sculpture milling" from single alloy billet reducing the part-number count, while saving weight and adding strength

• Lack of Auxiliary power unit relying on the fact that Concorde will be used for services to big airports, where a ground air start cart would be available


Airbus Technology 1/2

A300

A300

A300FF

A310

Twin-engine, twin-aisle configuration

Triplex power and control systems

Advanced supercritical aerofoil

Full flight regime auto-throttle

Automatic wind-shear protection

Just in Time manufacturing

Cat. IIIA autoland

Digital auto-flight system

Two-person cockpit

Increased wing aspect ratio and thickness Advanced CRT cockpit displays with unique electronic centralised aircraft monitor

Composite materials (secondary structure)

Electrical signaling of secondary controls

1974

1977

1982

1983

A300-600 Half-generation advance” turbofan

powerplant (CF6-80C2)

1985



A310-300

A320

A330

A340

Advanced aluminium alloys Composite materials in primary structure Trim tank/centre-of-gravity control Carbon brakes, radial tyres

Sidestick controller Fly-by-wire Second generation digital auto flight system Extensive use of composites and advanced

aluminium alloys Active controls

Extension of A310/A300 and A320

advanced technology

All new advanced technology wing

CCQ & MFF

1985

1988

1993

A380 1999 Carbon Fiber Reinforced plastic (CFRP) for

primary structures

GLARE on upper fuselage panels

Laser welded lower fuselage

New Ethernet architecture for flight controls

Decentralized & high pressure hydraulics

system

Airbus Technology 2/2 Conceptual Phase

Technology Assessment Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

172

R&T delivery to A380 Some examples of successful research

Centre wing box in CFRP

New four post main landing gear (4-6-6-4 wheels configuration)

Full double deck fuselage

Horizontal tail plane designed for relaxed stability

New front Fuselage concept Upper fuselage

skin in GLARE

Dual air conditioning pack concept

Variable frequency

power generation

2 hydraulic (5000 psi ) + 2 electrical channel architecture for flight controls and landing gear

Electro-hydraulic actuators

Integrated and modular avionics architecture (IMA)

On board maintenance system

Skin to Stringer Welding (first on A318)

Automated

wing assembly

Bonded metallic

outwing box

Flap vortex

generators

Extensive use

of Knowledge Based

Engineering

High Re (Reynolds

Number) Wing

Design

Carbon Composite Section 19

Technologies have to be developed generally and then

applied on products


173

Composite Solutions Applied

Throughout the 787

Carbon laminate

Carbon sandwich

Fiberglass

Aluminum

Aluminum/steel/titanium pylons

Composites

50%

Aluminum

20%

Titanium

15%

Fiberglass

10%

Other

5%

Conceptual Phase



Boeing 787: Quiet for Communities San Diego Intl Airport RWY 27

85 dBA NADP 2 (ICAO-B) Takeoff noise contours - 3000 nm mission

767-300

787-8

777-200

Conceptual Phase


Boeing 787: Quiet for Communities San Diego Intl Airport RWY 09

85 dBA NADP 2 (ICAO-B) Takeoff noise contours - 3000 nm mission

767-300 787-8 777-200

Conceptual Phase


Airframe Technology What is being done?

Ram Air Turbine

(aux elec)

AntennaElectrical/ Hydraulics

(Nose steering)

Ox bottles

Avionics

(inside Pressure cabin)

- Alt & Airspeed

- Navigational

- Multifunctional Disply (MFD)

- Primary Flight Display (PFD)

Avionics

(inside Pressure cabin)

- Flight Data Recorder

System runs

-ECS

-Electrical

-Hydraulics

Fuel pumps

Electrically driven Hydraulic pump

Electrical “J” Box

Batteries

Air pre-coolers

Hydraulic reservoirs

Hydraulic accumulators

Fuel heat exchanger

Air cycle machines

Fuel pumps

Hydraulic Pumps

Electrical generators

APU

Supersonic Business Jet

Conceptual Phase



More Ideas...

The objective here is to reduce the installed

power and systems on the aircraft as a

means to reduce weight and fuel

consumption. For take-off, electrical, steam

or magnetic devices using oil based,

nuclear or solar energy sources could be

used. Aircraft ramps, MAGLEV or catapults

could be used, using supplementary rocket

power. For landing aircraft weight could be

reduced by eliminating the undercarriage

with landings on water or on small cars

using electro-magnetic fields to position the

aircraft, para-foil landings etc.

Ground-based power sources for take-off and

landing

Conceptual Phase



More Ideas...

The concept envisages very large - possibly

nuclear-powered - aircraft flying on stable

circuitous routes that connect major centers of

population. These large cruisers remain airborne

for very long periods so that they could be

considered to be permanently cycling around

their designated route. They would fly at an

economical altitude and speed which would not

vary substantially. Linking these cruisers to fixed

bases near the population centers would be

short range shuttle aircraft designed only to

travel from the ground to the an interception with

the cruiser and back again. The feeder airliners

would be able to land on or dock with the cruiser

for the transfer of passengers and freight,

possibly via a kind of pallet system. New

methods of air refueling would need to be safer

and easer to handle than the current system and

automation would be required. The design of the

feeder aircraft would also need attention –

possibly an advanced super quiet VSTOL

aircraft with pre-loaded passenger containers.

The Cruiser/Feeder concept including mid-air refueling

Conceptual Phase


Need to Develop capabilities for multiple challenges

Past : one single

concept

to best meet all

requirements

Past : one single

concept

to best meet all

requirements

Past : one single concept

to best meet all requirements

The idea is to

identify the

concepts to explore

the more relevant

capabilities and

meet the widest

range of challenges

1 - The Low Cost A/C

2 - The Green A/C

3 - The Passenger Friendly

4 - The Value of Speed

5 - The Flying Truck

Today : concepts

tailored to fit specific

sets of requirements


180

CG Location

The precise location of

the aircraft cg is

essential in the

positioning of the landing

gear, as well as for other

applications, e.g., flight

mechanics, stability and

control, and

performance. Primarily,

the aircraft cg location is

needed to position the

landing gear such that

ground stability,

maneuverability, and

clearance requirements

are met.

Conceptual Phase


Preliminary Weight Estimation

• Aircraft weight, and its accurate prediction, is critical as it affects all aspects of performance.

• Designer must keep weight to a minimum as far as practically possible.

• Preliminary estimates possible for take-off weight, empty weight and fuel weight using basic requirement, specification (assumed mission profile) and initial configuration selection.

Conceptual Phase


Preliminary Weight Estimation Process – Flow Diagram


Preliminary Weight Estimation Class I Approach

• Most aircraft of reasonably conventional design can be assumed to fit into one of the 12 categories.

• New correlations may be made for new categories (e.g. UAVs).

• Account may also be made for effects of modern technology (e.g. new materials) – method presented in Roskam Vol.1, p.18.

• Raymer method uses Table 3.1 & Fig 3.1 (p.13).

Conceptual Phase


0 0

e

and C wetE D fe

r f

SW f W C

S

Class I Drag Estimation Conceptual Phase Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

A good approximation to a clean configuration (high lift systems retracted) low speed drag

polar is that represented by the classical parabolic polar

Where CDO is the drag at zero lift, and CL

2 /πAe is the lift dependent drag. In the strict sense, the drag polars are not parabolic; in

practical sense, however, this representation is a reasonable one.

The zero-lift parasite drag with the high lift system retracted is estimated by empirical methods which rely heavily on wind tunnel

and flight test data gathered during previous transport development programs. The basic equivalent parasite drag for the

individual airplane components is defined as

Where Cf is the flat plate skin friction coefficient, including the effects of roughness, and K is a form factor which accounts for the

effects of thickness, supervelocities, and pressure drag. Swet/Sref is the ratio of wetted area to the reference area.

The flat plate skin friction coefficient can be obtained from various sources for fully turbulent flow and are based on the

characteristic length of each component. The characteristic length for a body (fuselage, nacelle) is the overall length and for

aerodynamic surfaces (wing, tail, and pylon) it is the exposed mean aerodynamic chord. Roughness effects are due to

excrescences such as protruding rivets, steps, gaps and bulges in the skin, etc, which result from typical manufacturing

procedures. This is accounted for by an equivalent roughness. This equivalent roughness has been determine by equating the

flight test zero lift parasite drag for the DC-8, DC-9 and DC-10 to a detailed estimate of the parasite drag and solving for

roughness. This value has been determined to be 0.00095 inch and is, within the accuracy of the flight data, a constant value.

The form factor for aerodynamic surfaces is a function of average thickness ratio and of the sweep of the surface, and may be

determined from a data base or appropriate two- or three-dimensional wind tunnel data. The form factor for aerodynamic bodies is

a function of overall body fineness ratio and may also be determined from a data base or appropriate wind tunnel data.

An additional miscellaneous excrescence drag is due to the protuberances such as light and antenna fairings, drain masts,

probes, unavoidable mismatches, holes, air-conditioning system, etc, which all aircraft are required to have.

Ae

CCC L

DD

2

0

ref

wetfcompD

S

SKCC 0

Source: AGARD LS-67, 1974, lecture 2

Roskam’s Weight Estimation Method

Category 7 Category 8

Conceptual Phase


0 EW f W

Weight Estimation Engine

Conceptual Phase

Dry engine weight. Source: NASA CR 2320

En

gin

e w

eig

ht

– 1

00

0 l

b

Net sea level static thrust – 1000 lb


Weight Breakdown Conceptual Phase Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Drag Estimation

Conceptual Phase

Drag

•Empirical

•semi-empirical

•CFD

•wind tunnel

189

Lift-to-Drag Ratio Estimation

max

0

1( / )

2 D

e ARL D

C

Source: Loftin, LK, Jr.. Quest for performance, The evolution of modern aircraft. NASA SP-468


190

Effective Lift-Curve Slope

Helmbolt equation:

Comparison of a NACA 65-210 airfoil lift curve with that of a wing

using the same airfoil (McCormick).

22)/()/( ARCC

ARCC

ll

lL


191

Low-speed Aerodynamics


Low-speed Aerodynamics Evaluation

Conceptual Phase

Source: Bombardier Aerospace


Estimation of CL,max

• Wing CL,max is always less than the section maximum value.

• An initial approximation of CL,max for a swept wing is:

cos)(9.0)( 2max,3max, DLDL CC

Conceptual Phase


194

Effect of High-Lift Devices

Effect of leading edge devices on lift curve (Jenkinson).

Conceptual Phase


195

Estimation of CL,max

Definition of flapped wing area (Roskam).

HLrefflapped2max,3max, cos)/()()( SSCC DLDL

Conceptual Phase


196

Refined Method for Computing CL,max

Spanwise lift distribution (Jenkinson).

Conceptual Phase


197

CFD Calculation


Performance

• Now that the characteristics of the aircraft are known

performances can be computed • Performances have direct impact on configuration

and vice-versa • Most important performance items:

– takeoff – ICA (Initial Cruise Altitude) – cruise – landing – operating costs

198


Performance - Takeoff

Conceptual Phase


BFL (Balanced Field Length):

• BFL is the takeoff distance

• BFL is essentially a OEI (one engine inoperative) takeoff distance - AEO (all

engine operative) takeoff distances will be much shorter

•“Balanced ”refers to the fact that the distance is linked to a speed called the

decision speed around which the whole takeoff procedure evolves OEI

Performance - Takeoff

Conceptual Phase

BFL (Balanced Field Length):

A good simple formula to approximate BFL is as follows

LtoC

WT

SWk

BFL


Performance - Climb

Conceptual Phase

• Important thrust sizing parameter

• Wing should be sized for achieving ~ best L/D at top of climb

• and Max. Climb Thrust sized at that point

Climb (ICA, Initial Cruise Altitude)


Performance - Range

Conceptual Phase

• Important parameter as it sizes the takeoff weight of the aircraft

• This is the classical Breguet Range Equation:

• Although not accurate for a whole mission, it gives a good understanding

of the driving parameters


Performance Evaluation

203

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Conceptual Phase

Performance Evaluation Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Conceptual Phase

Performance – Rate of Climb


Performance – Time to Climb


Calculating R/C

dt

dhVCR sin/

CR

dhdt

/

Integrating

i

n

i

h

h

t

t CR

h

CR

dhdt

1 //

2

1

2

1

Calculating time to climb graphically

• Plot (R/C)-1 versus h

• Approximate the area under the curve

• Subtract time to climb from the starting altitude

bhaC

R max

abhabbha

dhdtt

ht

lnln1

2

00

min

2min

Performance – Climb Profile


The speed schedules for climb to the

cruise altitude are customarily shown as a

combination of calibrated airspeed at the

lower altitudes, changing to Mach number

at the higher altitudes. Calibrated airspeed

(or, on the older airplanes not equipped

with air data computers, indicated

airspeed) and Mach number are the

speeds available to pilots on the flight

deck, hence we always state the climb

speed schedules in those units.

An example would be a climb speed

schedule shown as 290/.78, meaning 290

knots CAS at the lower altitudes, then

Mach 0.78 at the higher altitudes. That’s

one of the published climb speed

schedules for the 757-200 airplane.

At altitudes below 30,875 feet (you’ll see why it’s that

value in just a minute) you see a sloping line of a

constant 290 knots CAS as it varies with altitude

following the equation:

Conceptual Phase

Payload vs. Range

An aircraft does not have a single number that represents its range. Even the

maximum range is subject to interpretation, since the maximum range is

generally not very useful as it is achieved with no payload. To represent the

available trade-off between payload and range, a range-payload diagram may

be constructed as shown in the figure below

Conceptual Phase Payload vs. Range Graphs Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Boeing 737-700 Boeing 737-200 Source: http://www.boeing.com

Conceptual Phase

Range Payload Profile Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Cessna Citation CJ4


Conceptual Phase

Specific Range Graphs Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Cessna Citation CJ4

Dassault Falcon 7X


Aircraft Systems - Engine

213

Engine : most important (and expensive) system on aircraft

• The primary goal is to determine the minimum thrust and fuel burn to satisfy aircraft performance

Other requirements include cost, noise/vibration, installation effects, weight, reliability and availability; involves analysis of 2-3 off-the-shelf power plants

May involve studying paper engines assuming a trade-off between BPR, OPR, mass flow, temperatures, etc.

May also involve the investigation of alternative technologies

• Sizing calculations conducted in order to determine the scale, i.e. dimensions and weight Critical conditions for the engine are takeoff, climb, cruise, OEI; one critical scenario is generally the

determining case • During conceptual design sizing and optimization analysis Engine performance usually calculated from mathematical model provided by the engine

manufacturer (“deck”) A deck may not always be available, in such cases use similar engine but linearly scaled to desired

engine size Alternatively, a first-order rubber engine model is utilized, i.e. fractional change from a reference

engine table

Conceptual Phase

Conceptual Phase

Turbofan thrust specific fuel consumption variations (High BPR)

Turbofan Performance Variation

Turbofan thrust specific fuel consumption variations (High BPR)

216

Conceptual Phase

Turbofan Engine Characteristics Estimation

• Non-afterburning engines

Conceptual Phase

• Afterburning engines

0.0451.1

0.4 0.2

0.5 0.04

0.12

max

0.9 0.02

0.05

0.084

2.22

0.393

0.67

0.60

0.88

BPR

BPR

BPR

T

BPR

cruise

BPR

cruise

W T e

L T M

D T e

SFC e

T T e

SFC e

Source: Raymer, Aircraft Design

0.811.1 0.25

0.4 0.2

0.5 0.04

0.12

max

0.74 0.023

0.186

0.063

3.06

0.288

2.1

1.6

1.04

BPR

BPR

BPR

T

BPR

cruise

BPR

cruise

W T M e

L T M

D T e

SFC e

T T e

SFC e

W = weight T = takeoff thrust BPR = by-pass ratio (0<BPR<6) M = max. Mach number Cruise is at 36,000 ft and 0.90M

Where

Vertical Tail Design Considerations Critical Engine

Conceptual Phase

When one engine becomes inoperative, a torque will be developed which depends on the lateral distance from the center of

gravity (C.G.) to the thrust vector of the operating engine multiplied by the thrust of the operating engine. The torque effect

attempts to yaw the aircraft's nose towards the inoperative engine, a yaw tendency which must be counteracted by the pilot's use

of the flight controls. Due to P-factor, the right-hand engine typically develops its resultant thrust vector at a greater lateral

distance from the aircraft's C.G. than the left-hand engine. The failure of the left-hand engine will result in a larger yaw effect via

the operating right-hand engine, rather than vice-versa. Since the operating right-hand engine produces a stronger yaw moment,

the pilot will need to use larger control deflections in order to maintain aircraft control. Thus, the failure of the left-hand engine is

less desirable than failure of the right-hand engine, and the left-hand engine is critical.

It is important to note, however, that this example depends upon both propellers turning clockwise as viewed from the rear. On

aircraft with counterclockwise-turning engines (such as the de Havilland Dove), the right engine would be critical.

Aircraft which have counter-rotating propellers do not have a critical engine defined by above mechanism.

Aircraft with center-line thrust propeller configurations (e.g. the Cessna 337) may still have a critical engine, if failure of one engine

(either the front or rear) has more of a negative effect on aircraft control or climb performance than failure of the other engine.

Source: Wikipedia

Vertical Tail Design Considerations P-factor

Conceptual Phase

Causes - When an aircraft is in straight and level flight at cruise speed, the propeller disc will be normal (i. e. perpendicular) to

the airflow vector. As airspeed decreases and wing angle of attack increases, the engines will begin to point up and airflow will

meet the propeller disc at an increasing angle, such that horizontal propeller blades moving down will have a greater angle of

attack and relative wind velocity and therefore increased thrust, while horizontal blades moving up will have a reduced angle of

attack and relative wind velocity and therefore decreased thrust. (Vertical blades are not affected). This asymmetry in thrust

displaces the center of thrust of the propeller disc towards the blade with increased thrust, as if the engine had moved in or out

along the wing. The engine with the down-moving blades towards the wingtip produces more yaw and roll than the other engine,

because the moment (arm) of that engine's thrust about the aircraft center of gravity is greater. Thus, the engine with down-

moving blades towards the fuselage will be "critical", because its failure will require a larger rudder deflection by the pilot to

maintain straight flight than if the other engine had failed.

Effects on single engine propeller aircraft

(As viewed by the pilot), the aircraft has a tendency to yaw to the left if using a clockwise turning propeller (right hand), and to

the right with a counter-clockwise turning propeller (left hand). The right-hand propeller is by far the most common. The effect

is noticeable during take off[ and in straight and level flight with high power and high angle of attack.

Effects on multi engine propeller aircraft (clockwise rotation)

With engines rotating in the same direction the p-factor will affect VMC (minimum control speed) in asymmetric flight.

Considering right-hand tractor engines (lines projecting from propeller discs represent the p-factor induced thrust lines):

Source: Wikipedia

At low speed flight with the left engine failed, the off-centre thrust produced by the right engine creates a larger yaw-couple to left than the opposite case. The left engine in this scenario is the critical engine, namely the engine whose failure brings about the more adverse result. In the case of using counter-rotating engines (i.e. not rotating in the same direction) the p-factor is not considered in determining the critical engine.

Aircraft Systems – Fuel System (F-18) Conceptual Phase

An artist’s cut-away drawing shows the location of the internal fuel tanks in the FA-18E. Most of

the interior of the center fuselage and the inboard wing sections are taken up by fuel tanks. Also

note that are fuel tanks inside the vertical tails just ahead the rudders.

Aircraft Systems – Fuel System Conceptual Phase

Aircraft Systems – Fuel System (F-16C) Conceptual Phase

Aircraft Systems – Hydraulic System (F-16C)


Structural Layout

• Distribuição cavernas e reforçadores.

• Segmentação para produção, parceiros e logística.

• Requisitos de certificação.

•Para instalar os sistemas temos que apóia-los, fixá-los em algum lugar, assim é comum a estrutura ser o ponto de partida.

•Trata-se da parte de maior longevidade do Projeto.

Conceptual Phase

Arquitetura Estrutural

•Distribuição longarinas na Asa.

•Fixação Trem de Pouso.

•Fixação/Distribuição superfícies de controle.

•Sistema degelo.

•Fixação Pilone.

• Janelas de Inspeção.

•Fixação Asa/Stub.

•Combustível.

• Instal. Superf. hipersustent.

Wing

Conceptual Phase

Access Doors

Conceptual Phase

F-16

F-15

Integração Preliminar

Reserva de Espaços e Soluções

Conceptual Phase

Logística/Segmentação Industrial

229

Este tipo de questão, dependendo dos parceiros e da dimensão do avião, pode ter um forte impacto nesta fase do projeto da Estrutura.

Às vezes tem-se uniões adicionais em função da logística (containeres, carretas, estradas, redes elétricas, viadutos, etc).

Conceptual Phase

Cost Structure

230

Non-recurring Recurring

Infra-structure

Engineering

Prototypes

Flight tests

Certification

Manufacturing

System integration

Materials

Processes

Overhead & Management

Taxes, fees

Conceptual Phase

Recurring Cost

Non-recurring Cost

Cost Diagram

231


Cost Estimation

232

Conceptual Phase

Airplane

Learning Curve

233

2log

log

1

iR

n NTT • R1 = 0.93 (until 10th aircraft)

• R2 = 0.96 (after 10th aircraft)

• T598 = 56119mh (estimated)

• T10 = 71407mh (equation)

• T1 = 90874mh (equation)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 5

6

7

8

9

10 x104

To

tal m

an

-ho

ur

req

uir

ed

Aircraft number

Maior quantidade aviões => menor custo => mais lucros.

Conceitos Gerais: Composição de Custos

Conceptual Phase

Manufacturing Cost Model

Representative recurring cost breakdown by parts for a large commercial jet (from Markish)


Lifecycle Cost

235

Conceptual Phase


236

Operating Cost


237

AROC

NECESSIDADES DO COMPRADOR DO PRODUTO

238

CUSTO OPERACIONAL DA AERONAVE

QUAL É O NEGÓCIO DAS EMPRESAS AÉREAS COMERCIAIS ?

PRODUZIR E VENDER ASSENTOS-MILHAS - ASM - ( OU ASSENTOS-QUILÔMETROS )

CADA ASM TEM UM DETERMINADO CUSTO PARA O OPERADOR, COMO SEGUE :

TOC = DOC + IOC

TOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL TOTAL

DOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL DIRETO

IOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL INDIRETO

Direct Operating Cost- DOC

Are considered in DOC

Ownership costs (leasing, depreciation, taxes)

Crew salary and other related costs

Maintenance ( Engines, airframe, and

systems)

Fuel costs

Landing fees

Typical DOC breakdown for a 50-seater airliner 400 nm stage length

Conceptual Phase

Tests with Scaled Models

C-5 ditching model with simulated structural skin on bottom of model.


Conceptual Phase

Testing


Conceptual Phase

Testing

Active load alleviation test of the C-5 in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Dynamics Tunnel.


242


Clipped wing model of the C-5 in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel for flutter tests.


Conceptual Phase

Testing

243


F-14 model in spin recovery tests in the Langley Spin Tunnel.


Conceptual Phase

Testing

244

Catapult facility experiments

A380 free-flight model in catapult facility,

ONERA Lille, and F1 wind tunnel, ONERA

Catapult

Recovery system

Gust

generators

• Characterization of Near and

Mid field (up to x/b=60)

• Test of 3 different A380

configurations

• Applied methods:

PIV / smoke visualization

2D and 3D simulations

5 hole probe (near field at

FI wind tunnel)


Testing

245

Acoustics: Out-Of-Flow-Array with 2x2m2 Cross Section

Far-Field Microphone Traverse Traversable Array

Conceptual Phase

Testing

Acoustics: Out-Of-Flow-Array with 4x4m2 Cross Section

Set-ups with Full-scale Models

Full-scale wing Full-scale landing gear

Conceptual Phase

247

Ground Effect Testing

Conceptual Phase


Flight Test with Scaled Model

Conceptual Phase


Langley technician Ronald White with one of two F-15 drop models

used for research on spin-entry characteristics.

Source: http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/PAIS/Partners/F_15.html

Early Wind-Tunnel Testing

249

At left

Túnel: NLR

Modelo: CMT1 (1/21)

Suporte da Balança Tras.

Total de Corridas: 105

Período: Abril/2001

A despeito dos grandes avanços das análises com CFD, os ensaios aerodinâmicos ainda são indispensáveis.

Conceptual Phase


Case Study : EMBRAER 170

250

CADA CASO É UM CASO.

A MELHOR CONFIGURAÇÃO PARA JATOS REGIONAIS DE PEQUENO PORTE ( FUSELAGEM

PARA TRÊS FILAS DE ASSENTOS ), POR UMA SÉRIE DE MOTIVOS, É A CONFIGURAÇÃO

ADOTADA PARA O ERJ 145 ( MOTORES NA FUSELAGEM ).

O CASO DO EMBRAER 170 É DIFERENTE; VÁRIAS CONFIGURAÇÕES FORAM FORMULADAS,

ANALISADAS E SUBMETIDAS À APRECIAÇÃO DOS CLIENTES POTENCIAIS, COMO SEGUE :

Conceptual Phase

251

Final choice for EMB 170 configuration: 4-abreast seating arrangement; double-bulbe fuselage cross section; underwing engines.

• Higher efficiency: shorter turnaround time (rear doors, easier engine inspection by crew

when airplane is on ground)

• Higher passenger comfort

• Stretched aircraft with lower balancing problems

• Lower MTOW


Conceptual Phase

252


A ) DERIVAÇÃO DO ERJ 145, ALARGANDO-SE AS PARTES CILÍNDRICAS DA FUSELAGEM :

Conceptual Phase

253

B ) FUSELAGEM ‘4-ABREAST’ CIRCULAR, MOTORES NA FUSELAGEM, ASA DERIVADA DO ERJ 145 :


Conceptual Phase

254

FUSELAGEM ‘4-ABREAST’ DUPLO BULBO, MOTORES SOB A ASA ( CONCEITO TOTALMENTE NOVO ) :


Conceptual Phase

255

D ) FUSELAGEM ‘5-ABREAST’ CIRCULAR, MOTORES SOB A ASA :


Conceptual Phase

256

• Quatro portas na cabine

• Menor tempo de serviço

no solo

• Posicionamento adequado

de pontos de serviço

• Compartimentos de

bagagem dianteiro e

traseiro

• Baixo risco de colisão de

equipamentos de apoio

• Fluxo simultâneo de

passageiros e serviço de

cabine

EMBRAER 170 : CONFIGURAÇÃO ESCOLHIDA


Customer Needs: Air Canada Fleet Renewal 2007

257

“The Boeing 777 is 26 percent cheaper to operate than the Airbus

A340s, now used on many international routes. “

“The Brazilian-made Embraer 190 is 18 percent cheaper to run than Air

Canada's Airbus A319s, the airline's mainstay for shorter haul flights.”

Montie Brewer, Airline’s chief executive.

• Aqui é tomada a primeira importante decisão de congelamento da configuração da aeronave

Basic Configuration Frozen

• Nesta etapa é definida a concepção estrutural e o sistema propulsivo, e não se muda mais. Pode até mudar, mas o preço é extremamente alto.

• Os demais itens, por exemplo, os aviônicos embarcados no Cockpit vêm num grau de prioridade menor, junto com outros elementos críticos.

Conceptual Phase

Basic Configuration is Frozen

259

Preliminary Design Phase

Arquitetura e definição funcional dos sistemas a serem aplicados no avião- diagramas funcionais, esquemas, layouts, DMU, etc..

Desenvolvimento dos estudos de engenharia e projeto. Projeto aerodinâmico final da fuselagem; da asa;das empenagens; dos hipersustentadores; ailerons do leme; e do profundor. Ensaios em túnel vento 2a etapa (cargas, deflexão flaps, influência do motor, avaliar efeitos).

Projeto estrutural preliminar dos segmentos da fuselagem, asa e empenagens horizontal/vertical.

Definição das cargas - estáticas e dinâmicas.

Avaliação da estabilidade e controle.

Consolidação do desempenho (QV).

Análise estrutural.

Definição detalhada das interfaces funcionais e físicas.

Elaboração das especificações técnicas dos subsistemas e componentes para compra.

Preparação de desenhos (3D) e layouts necessários à definição.

Escopo Fase 2-Projeto Preliminar

Analise de Riscos detalhada – FMEAs (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis).

• Identificação dos itens típicos/críticos e solução de todas as questões que possam impactar o projeto.

• Celebração de contratos com terceiros.

• Pesquisa de normas, padrões e leis aplicáveis.

• Definição do suporte à operação do avião.

• Plano de Produção e projeto preliminar do ferramental.

• Seleção final de fornecedores.

Scope of the Preliminary Design (Phase 2)

• Realização de ensaios de componentes e partes de soluções estruturais.

Integração de Sistemas: Mock-up de Madeira

Reserva de Espaços e Soluções

EMB-145

Desenvolvimento dos Estudos de Engenharia e Projeto

264

V P M

CATIA DMU Nav

•A vantagem do uso do CATIA é a migração (aproveitamento) de dados da Concepção, desde dos primeiros estudos na Fase 0.

•Nesta fase temos a maior influência desse aplicativo na eficiência do projeto.

Desenvolvimento dos Estudos de Engenharia e Projeto (2)

265

•A Gestão da Configuração é um item extremamente crítico entre os parceiros, principalmente quando se trata de um desenvolvimento globalizado.

•Caso 170

Gestão da Configuração

Desenvolvimento dos Estudos de Engenharia e Projeto (3)

266

Parceiro 1

Parceiro 2

Parceiro 3

Parceiro N

• Durante esta Fase é importante que os parceiros estejam o mais próximo possível. • Foi o que a Embraer fez com o 170. Parceiros na Empresa com acesso simultâneo.

Desenvolvimento Centralizado

VPM

Integradora

Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada

267

• A evolução dos DMU- Intensa nesta fase.

• Não é exagero afirmar que, hoje, só é possível esse tipo de parceria em função da existência desses aplicativos e redes.

DMUs

Projeto Ferramental/Instalações

270

Montagem final - Doca ou Linha ?

Projeto Ferramental/Instalações (2)

271

• Conhecimento Tecnológico

• Conhecimento das ferramentas.

• Alto envolvimento das áreas nas decisões de projeto.

• O envolvimento da Produção – processos- também vai sendo direcionado aos detalhes do projeto.

• Conhecimento do mercado de materiais.

Processos e Infra-estrutura

Access to Repair Work/ Maintenance Plan

Ensaios Qualificação/Certificação

273

• Ensaios em Solo de Sistemas e componentes

• Ensaios em Vôo-Fase 3

Estruturais estáticos-fases 2/3

Funcionais-fases 2/3

Ambientais-fases 2/3

• Ensaios são uma questão de compromisso, entre tempo e configuração. Quanto mais cedo melhor, mas não adianta estar muito fora da configuração final.

Tipos de Ensaios x Fase

Engineering Solutions

A 32nd Tactical Fighter Squadron F-15C climbs out shortly after takeoff . The bird-strike resistant windshield

consists of a center polycarbonate layer surrounded by a inner and outer layers of fusion bounded cast

acrylic. The polycarbonate canopy is made in two sections, separated by a thin red frame. The canopy

material is 0.74 cm thick and is covered by a abrasion resistant finishing. The F-15 engine intakes are fully

lowered to maximize airflow into the engines during takeoff.

275


A mass balance tops

the vertical stabilizer of

the F-15 fighter. This

reduces flutter caused

by aerodynamic

forces. A Loral

AN/ALR-56 Radar

Warning Receiver

(RWR) is immediately

below the mass

balance. A red anti-

collision light is placed

below the RWR.

276


A heat exchanger is placed closed to the

centerline of F-15 fighter fuselage, between

the engines nacelles. Air heated by mid-

fuselage electrical equipment vents from the

exchanger’s aft end. Grated openings allow

heated air to escape from the engine bays,

reducing temperature inside these areas. The

small Doppler antenna aft the heat

exchanger constantly measures the aircraft

altitude and feeds this information to the

navigation system.

277


Boarding steps in use on a A-7D Corsair.

Note that the gun gas vent door is open.

Engineering solutions: Ultra Long-range Business Jet

Bombardier Global Express XRS

Bombardier developed a slat out/flaps up high-lift configuration that is intended to give operators more flexibility when operating at hot and high airports. The goal was to boost maximum allowable takeoff weight as limited by one engine inoperative, second segment climb requirements.

The alternate high-lift configuration produces mixed results. Less lift accompanied reduced drag with the slats out/flaps up configuration, resulting in higher V speeds and longer takeoff field lengths. In the case of the XRS, brake energy limits are also a factor, at times resulting in a substantial reducing in maximum allowable takeoff weight.

For instance, when departing from a 5000-foot elevation, ISA+20oC airport and assuming a slats out/flaps six-degree configuration, the XRS has a maximum allowable takeoff weight of 94,543 pounds and a 7,851-foot takeoff field length. The second segment climb requirements is a limiting factor.

Configuring with a slats out/flaps up at the same airport as above, takeoff weight is limited to 88,311 pounds because of the brake energy limits (1000 nm range penalty). Takeoff field length also increases to 8,359 ft because of higher V speeds.


Interfaces e Integração de Sistemas

• Questões de projeto e integração rigorosamente resolvidas

• Descrição Técnica e EBD editados.

• DMU e desenhos 3D elaborados.

• Análises elaboradas.

The aircraft is fully defined!

Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada (4)

A asa é um bom exemplo de um sistema de integração complexa: leve, resistente, importância primária no desempenho, volumosa, selada e com uma variedade enorme de sistemas fixados nela.

Detailed Design Phase

• Execução dos desenhos de fabricação em 2D e montagem, com o detalhamento completo da estrutura e sistemas:materiais e tecnologias; tolerâncias de fabricação; tratamento térmico/superficial; montabilidade; normas aplicáveis; etc.

• Fabricação do ferramental de produção.

• Elaboração dos processos de fabricação e montagem do avião.

• Elaboração do plano de manutenção e projeto do GSE.

Escopo da Fase 3 - Projeto Detalhado

• Fabricação de protótipos.

• Fabricação de FTI (avionicos) para os protótipos e dispositivos de testes.

• Execução campanhas de ensaios em vôo de qualificação e de certificação do produto.

Escopo da Fase 3 - Projeto Detalhado

• Construção e montagem do RIG para ensaios funcionais.

• Realização dos ensaios funcionais completos.

Projeto Detalhado

EMBRAER

Partner 1

Partner 3

Partner N

Partner 2

Volta às origens. Parceiros com DMU parcial. Controle Geral da Embraer.

CC complexo.

•Continuação Caso Embraer 170

Projeto Detalhado (2)

285

• Depois que está tudo definido, gera-se os desenhos de fabricação em 2D.

•Embraer 170 ~ 60.000 Desenhos •Embraer 145 ~ 30.000 Desenhos

Desenhos 2D

Projeto Detalhado

286

• Grande esforço e alto custo na conversão.

• Em princípio, cada parceiro faz a sua parte.

Desenhos 2D

Construção dos Protótipos

287

•Automação x Manual

Construção dos Protótipos (4)

288

área do gabarito reservada

para aviões de maior

comprimento de fuselagem

(ERJ 190)

área do gabarito reservada

para aviões de maior

comprimento de fuselagem

Manufatura- Integração

Execução dos Ensaios

289

•Tipos de Ensaio: Solo e em Vôo

Estruturais

Ambientais (ruído e vibração)

Funcionais

Vôo (Desempenho/QDV)

Ensaios Funcionais

290

Iron Bird - Cockpit

Iron Bird - Instrumentation

Landing gear, wheels

and brakes

Hydraulic system

Ensaios Estruturais de Fadiga e Vibração

291

Limit and Ultimate Load Tests Completed

Residual Strenght Test

Ensaios Esrtuturais de Fadiga e Vibração (2)

292

Wing Up Bending Test

Bird Strike Testing

293

Windshield / Direct View Window

Flape

Other Testing

294

Estouro de Pneu

Outros Ensaios: Aeroacústica

Full-scale wing Full-scale landing gear

Flight Tests

296

• Ensaios configurados à certificação

• Tremendo investimento em protótipos e operações

• Programa de Ensaios-Plano e Instrumentação

• Esforço na elaboração dos relatórios de certificação

Performance – Flight Characteristics– Regular Operation as Airliner

Outros Ensaios

297

Baixas Temperaturas no solo

Alaska

Picture freely distributed in the Embraer’s Website

Flight Test Ice Contamination

Picture freely distributed in the Embraer’s Website

Flight Test - Flutter One of the most dangerous events that can occur in flight is a phenomena called "flutter". Flutter is an aerodynamically

induced vibration of a wing, tail, or control surface that can result in total structural failure in a matter of seconds. The

prediction of flutter is not a precise science and requires flight verification that flutter will not occur within the normal flight

envelope.

The aerodynamic surfaces of an airplane are constructed so that they can carry the loads that are produced in flight. For

example the wing must be capable of supporting the weight of the airplane as well as the additional lift produced during

turning flight. The resulting wing structure can be viewed as a blade or spring extending from the fuselage. If we "tap" the

spring with a hammer, it will vibrate at a frequency which relates to the stiffness of the spring. A stiff spring will vibrate at a

higher frequency than a more limber spring. This frequency is known as the "natural frequency" of the spring.

Flutter will usually occur at or near the natural frequency of the structure, that is, some small aerodynamic force will cause the

structure to vibrate at its natural frequency. If this small force persists at the same frequency as the natural frequency of the

structure, a condition called "resonance" occurs. Under a resonant condition, the amplitude of the vibration will increase

dramatically in a very short time and can cause catastrophic failure in the structure.

Flight Test - Flutter

Measures of Success

A successful flutter excitation test will meet the following test criteria:

• All instrumented parameters were recorded properly (see Table below).

• Airspeed and Mach number were stabilized at the desired condition.

• The structural mode of the surface was disturbed enough to identify frequency and damping.

• Damping of the structural mode was positive and not significantly different from previous tests at

lower airspeeds.

Parameter Used For

Elevator Position Excitation devices, or review for possible flight control interaction with the structure

Aileron Position

Rudder Position

Issuing Manuals

Source: Airbus Engine Exhaust Temperatures

Max Take-Off Power - GP 7200 Engines

Issuing Manuals

Source: Airbus Danger Areas of the Engines

Breakaway Power - GP 7200 Engines

Certification

303

Certification

304

Entrada em Serviço Dados obtidos em apresentações disponíveis na Internet

305

Embraer 170/175 – Frota em Operação

EI 19/JJan/06

Airline EIS A/C in Service Acc. FH

Lot Polish March 17, 2004 10 37,353

US Airways April 04, 2004 12 54,182

Alitalia April 26, 2004 6 19,263

Republic Holdings October 22, 2004 54 127,226

Cirrus Airlines January 15, 2005 1 1,824

AIR CANADA July 27, 2005 15 12,455

Hong Kong Express September 08, 2005 3 2,916

FINNAIR October 01, 2005 5 3,189

Paramount October 19, 2005 1 2,089

E 170/175 March 17, 2004 111 261,402

February 01, 2006 4 Saudi Arabian Airlines

Source: Airlines (as of Mar 17th 2006)

905

Operators 10

Aircraft in Service 111

Flight Hours 261,402

Flight Cycles 175,886as of Mar 17th 2006

E170/175

307

Embraer 170/175 - Estatística

Embraer 170/175 Dispatch Reliability

Aircraft in ServiceSchedule Reliability

(SR*)

Completion Rate

(CR*)

98.2% 99.6%

LOT

111

22

10

99.5%98.8%

98.2% 99.3%

308

(*) Monthly. Ref. date: Mar 15th, 2006

Europe

Worldwide

Reliability Diagnosis

309

Specific Operators

Environment

Product Technical

Issues

Spare Parts

Availability

E170/175 Dispatch Reliability Status

EMBRAER 170 - WW FLEET

Dispatch Reliability - 12 Months Running Average

99.6

97.8

96.0

96.5

97.0

97.5

98.0

98.5

99.0

99.5

100.0

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR

SR

/CR

(%

)

CR - 12M SR - 12M

310

2005 2006

(as of Mar 15th, 2006)

E170/175 Dispatch Reliability Status

EMBRAER 170 - European FLEET

Dispatch Reliability - 12 Months Running Average

99.7

98.6

96.0

96.5

97.0

97.5

98.0

98.5

99.0

99.5

100.0

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR

SR

/CR

(%

)

CR - 12M SR - 12M (as of Mar 15th, 2006)

2005 2006

Thank you folks!

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