AIR POLLUTION: PROBLEMS, AIR POLLUTION: PROBLEMS, CONSEQUENCES AND CONSEQUENCES AND

MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Dr. Madhoolika AgrawalProfessorDepartment of BotanyBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi-221 005, India

Dr. Madhoolika AgrawalProfessorDepartment of BotanyBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi-221 005, India

Air Pollution is very broad term, which actually covers lots of different types of Problems

Acid rainDomestic / Industrial smoke Smog The green house effect Particulates Radionuclides Ozone layer depletion

Air pollutants and their origin

Air Pollutants Source

Ozone Atmospheric photochemical reactions; storm centers

Sulphur dioxide Fossil fuels; petroleum and natural gas industries; metal smelting and refining processes

Oxides of nitrogen Cars and trucks; combustion of natural gas, fuel, oil, coal; refining of petroleum

Hydrogen fluoride Aluminium industry; steel manufacturing; phosphate fertilizer plants; brick plants

Hydrocarbon Motor vehicles; refuse burning; combustion of coal and oil; natural occurrence

Ammonia Leaks and brakdown in industrial operations; feedlots and stockyards; spillage of anhydrous ammonia

Chlorine Petroleum refineries; glass industries; plastic incineration; scarp burning; accidental spills

Metals Fossil fuel combustion; waste incineration and assorted industries; metal smelting and refining processes

CAUSAL FACTORS• Increase in urban population (1991- 2001)

• Urban agglomerates 23 to 53 cities

• Urban population 218 to 285 m

• % share 25.7 to 27.8• Increase in vehicles

• Total vehicles 59 m

• Personal vehicles 83 %• Domestic and commercial sources

• Use of polluting fuels (coal, biomass, etc.)

• Use of diesel generator sets due to frequent power cuts • Increase in industrial activities

• Small scale industries poorly equipped to handle pollution

• Many small scale industries located in densely populated areas

URBAN AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS AND THE ROLE OF TRANSPORT

• Predominance of 2 stroke in use vehicles (70 % total)

• Poor inspection/ maintenance for in use vehicles

• Important contributors to air pollution

• Fine and ultra fine particles in vehicle exhaust – Main concern

• Ozone precursors (HC and NOx) in vehicle exhaust – Emerging problem

• Future challenge

• Rising motorization will increase pollution

80.7

12.218.11

1.13

17.7

1.1 1.42.452.2

10.27.8

25.7

0.10.1

0.820.36

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fir

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BIOMASS BASED FUELS KEEP RURAL BIOMASS BASED FUELS KEEP RURAL INDIA ALIVEINDIA ALIVE

Tropospheric Ozone

Ozone from NOx

NOx + radiations (>380 nm) NO + O

O + O2 O3

Ozone from carbon monoxide

CO + 2O2 + hv CO2 + O3

Ozone from methane

CH4 + 4O2 + 2hv HCHO + H2O + 2O3

HCHO + hv H + HCO (λ < 330nm)

HCO + hv H + CO (λ < 360nm)

CO + 2O2 + hv CO2 + O3

Ozone from non methane hydrocarbons

RH + 4O2 + 2hv RCHO + H2O + 2O3

MASS EMISSIONS (Million Tons) FROM ENERGY ACTIVITIES IN INDIA

Species Vehicular transport

Power generation

Biomass burning

SO2 0.9 2.3 0.32

NOx 4.83 5.3 -

CO2 42.88 333 -

CO 2.16 - -

PM 2.07 0.8 2.04

HC 1.49 - -

Background, typical ambient and peak concentrations of gaseous air pollutants

Pollutants Background (ppb)

Typical ambient (ppb)

Peak

(ppb)

SO2 < 0.1 1 – 10 10 - 100

NOx < 1 5 – 50 > 100

O3 < 2.5 25 – 60 > 100

HC < 1 1 – 20 50 – 100

PAHs < 1 1 - 10 > 10

TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS (µg m-3) IN INDIA

Northern Western Southern Eastern

SO2 10–60 (Delhi 60)

10–-50 (Industrial

70)

10–40 10–50 (Industrial

85)

NOx 30–90 30–80 20–70 30–70

SPM 200–400 200–400 100–200 200–350

O3 20–273 (Delhi)

54 (Pune)

30 (Nilgiri forest)

48 (Varanasi)

Pb 1.0–2.3 0.5–1.3 - 0.5–2.96

AIR POLLUTANTS

O3 SO2 OXIDANT NO2

LEAST IMPORTANT AG. CHEMICALS

TOXIC ELEMENTS

MOST IMPORTANT

Impact singly and in combinationsBIOTIC

FACTORSPHYSIOLOGICAL

FACTORS[Acute & Chronic exposures]

LEAVES

STEM

PLANT

ROOTSIn

terR

elation

Pathogens Insects

Insects Pathogens Mycorrhiza

Nematodes N2 fixation

Competition

INTERACTION OF ABOVE

INTERACTION OF ABOVE

Temperature Moisture Nutrition O2/CO2 tension

Soil Type

Climatic Factors

Light Temperature Humidity Wind CO2

AIR

SOIL

AIR POLLUTANTSAIR POLLUTANTS

DIRECT DAMAGE ON LEAVES

DEATH

Damage to crop crown

Early leaf fall

Growth disturbance

Reduced photosynthesis

Increased susceptibility to frost and pests

Water deficitNutrient deficiency

Disturbance in nutrient & water uptake

DISTURBANCE OF NUTRIENT RELEASE

EFFECT ON SOIL

ORGANISM SOIL ACIDIFICATION

LEACHING OF NUTRIENTS

AIR POLLUTANTS AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

DAMAGE TO FINE ROOTS

RELEASE OF TOXIC ELEMENTS

INCREASED OR DECREASED TRANSPIRATION

DISTURBANCE OF STOMATAL ACTIVITY

DAMAGE TO PROTECTIVE SURFACE

MEASURE OF EFFECTS HOW THEY INTERRELATE?

BIOMASS GROWTH

Height Weight Area Number Volume

INJURY SYMPTOMS

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

ACCUMULATION OF TOXIC

COMPOUNDS

CHANGES IN METABOLIC CONSTITUENTS

GERMINATION

YIELD

Fruit set Weight Number Quality

EXUDATES

Stem Leaf Root

AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS ON PLANTS INTERRELATIONSHIP

INDIRECT APPROACH

INDIRECT APPROACH

DEFINEOBJECTIVE

GROWTH MODEL APPROACH

POLLUTION LOSS ESTIMATE

CHEMICAL PROTECTANTS

AMBIENT EXPOSURE

AIR EXCLUSION

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

EXPOSURE FACILITY

ARTIFICIAL EXPOSURE

SIMULATED AMBIENT

EXPOSURES

CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

CHAMBER

OPEN TOP CHAMBER

DIRECT APPROACH

RESEARCH APPROACHES TO POLLUTION LOSS ASSESSMENT

Crop Range of reduction Sensitivity range

Minimum Maximum

Triticum aestivum (Wheat) 30 50 S

Horedum vulgare (Barley) 25 40 S

Cicer arietinum (Gram) 10 15 R

Brassica campestris (Mustard) 10 15 R

Pisum sativum (Pea) 40 50 S

Zea mays (Maize) 20 30 I

Phaseolus mungo (Urd) 30 50 S

Oryza sativa (Rice) 30 40 S

Cajanus cajan (Arhar) 20 30 I

Sorghum vulgare (Jowar) 15 20 R

Sesamum indicum (Til) 10 15 R

YIELD REDUCTIONS(%) IN DIFFERENT CROP PLANTS GROWING IN OBRA- RENUKOOT -SINGRAULI AREA

S: Sensitive (<30); I: Intermediate (15-30); R: Resistant (<15)

EFFECT OF THERMAL POWER PLANT EMISSION ON BIOMASS AND YIELD OF WHEAT (T. aestivum L.) PLANTS

Parameters Distance (km) and direction from source

1.5 SE 3.0 SE 5.0SE 8.0SE 22.0 N (Reference site)

SO2 g m-3 ppb 139 52.8

100 38

76 28.8

56 21.8

20 7.6

NO2 g m-3 ppb 11.0 58.3

76 40.3

69 36.6

42 22.3

12 6.4

TSP g m3 764 385 275 152 42

Biomass g plant-1 1.45 (72%)

2.3 (55.1%)

3.1 (40%)

3.6 (31%)

5.2

Yield g m-2 205 (47%)

220 (43%)

259 (33%)

274 (29%)

386

Values in parenthesis are reduction as compared to reference site

Effect of ambient sulfur dioxide on yield of representative vegetables

Site

1 2 3 4 5 6

Sulfur dioxide

Average concentrations (ppb) during monitoring time

141 83 51 20 10 0 (Control)

Average concentrations (ppb) during exposure time

59 44 34 26 22 0 (Control)

Vegetable Yield as percentage of control

Potato (tubers) 44.4 68.0 83.1 90.4 98.3 100

Tomato 90.2 94.4 104.8 104.6 102.0 100

Spinach 94.7 92.8 101.4 93.3 103.5 100

MAP OF VARANASIMAP OF VARANASI

SO2 concentrations in different areas in and around Varanasi city

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Referencearea

Industrialand

periurbanarea

Periurbanarea

Urban area Rural area

Sites

SO

2 c

on

ce

ntr

ati

on

(p

pb

)

summer winter rainy annual mean

NO2 concentrations in different areas in and around Varanasi city

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80

Referencearea

Industrialand urban

area

Periurbanarea

Urban area Rural area

Sites

NO

2 co

nce

ntr

atio

n (p

pb

)summer winterrainy annual mean

O3 concentrations in different areas in and around Varanasi city

0102030405060

Re

fere

nce

are

a

Ind

ust

ria

l an

du

rba

n a

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Pe

riu

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Urb

an

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a

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ral a

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Sites

O3

co

nc

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tra

tio

n (

pp

b)

summer winterrainy annual mean

0

1

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3

4

5

6

7

8

20.1

2.02

27.1

2.02

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.03

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1.03

18.0

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1.02

.03

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15.0

2.03

21.0

2.03

28.0

2.03

7.03

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14.0

3.03

21.0

3.03

28.0

3.03

4.04

.03

40 ppb

50 ppb

60 ppb

O3 Concentration In Varanasi Exceeding 40, 50 And 60 Ppb During The Month Of December 2002 - April 2003

Ho

urs

exc

eed

ing

Date of observation

PRODUCTION, ECONOMIC VALUE AND % LOSS IN ECONOMIC VALUE OF YIELD AT DIFFERENT SITES AROUND VARANASI CITY

Sites/Plants Production (q ha-1)

Economic value (Rs.)

%loss

Wheat Reference area 29.50 17995.0 Rural area 24.25 14792.5 17.80 Periurban area 22.15 13511.5 24.91 Urban area 20.60 12566.0 30.17 Industrial and Urban area

20.50 12505.0 30.50

Mung Reference area 10.11 13244.0 Rural area 7.20 9432.0 28.78 Periurban area 6.66 8724.6 34.12 Urban area 5.85 7663.0 42.14 Industrial and Urban area

6.00 7860.0 40.65

Pea Reference area 23.50 30550.0 Rural area 17.75 23075.0 24.47 Periurban area 16.57 21541.0 29.49 Urban area 15.92 20702.5 32.23 Industrial and Urban area

14.62 19012.5 37.76

CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND REGRESSION EQUATIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL POLLUTANTS AND YIELD OF MUNG PLANTS

Yie

ld (

g p

lan

t-1)

Mean pollutant concentration (ppb)

Single view of open top chamber

1.5 m

1.8 m

Experimental set of open top chambers

Parameters Open plots Non filtered Filtered

Plant height (cm plant-1) 15.58a (47) 16.52a (38) 22.88b

Leaf area (cm2 plant-1) 123.68a (36) 127.57a (32) 167.77b

Number of leaf (plant-1) 18.00b (22) 19.00a (16) 22.00b

Biomass (g plant-1) 3.59a (35) 4.24a (27) 5.40b

N (mg g-1 dw) 9.45a (33) 8.94a (40) 12.55b

Ca (mg g-1 dw) 7.08a (18) 7.58a (10) 8.35b

Fe (mg g-1 dw) 2.15a (22) 2.39a (17) 2.79b

SO2 (ppb) 35.09a 34.79a 4.46b

NO2 (ppb) 38.60a 38.90a 8.39b

O3 (ppb) 36.95a 38.15a 4.01b

Pollutant Concentrations and Changes in Selected Parameters of Palak Grown under Filtered and Non-filtered Conditions

Within each grouping, values not followed by the same letter are significant different at p < 0.05Values in parenthesis represent percent increment due to filtration

Mean concentrations (ppb) of different pollutants at the experimental site during winter

Diurnal variations in hourly O3 concentrations during March 1, 2007

Selected yield parameters of wheat cultivars grown in filtered and non-filtered chambers at a rural site

  HUW -234 PBW- 343

  FCs NFCs FCs NFCs

No. of ears (plant-1) 14.5± 0.42 11.66± 0.66

16.9± 0.525 12.8± 0.48

Wt of ears ( g plant-

1)29.66± 0.88 23.16±

1.0134.8± 0.72 25.6± 0.37

No. of grains (plant-

1)568± 14.26 485.8±

18.89674.5± 4.23 568.2± 4.02

Wt of grains (g plant-1)

27.16± 1.02 21.55± 0.85

31.81± 0.27 27.65± 0.22

Yield (g m-2) 977.88± 36.76

775.8± 30.92(21%)

1145.16± 10.04

995.4± 8.07(13%)

HI (g g-1) 0.39± 0.01 0.36± 0.01 0.41± 0.006 0.38± 0.002

Seed weight (yield), test weight, pod weight and harvest index of mustard plants grown in FCs, NFCs and OPs at different levels of NPK

MANAGEMENT OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF AIR QUALITY THROUGH VEGETATIONTHROUGH VEGETATION

Restrict the spread of pollutants Reduce the concentration of pollutants Provide shelter belt for wild life Provide shade Improvement of microlevel hydrologic nature Check contamination of soil and water Recharge the environment with O2

Reduce hazards of noise Provide green therapy

Plants the ‘living filters’ for air pollutants

ADDITIONAL BENEFITS OF VEGETATION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Decrease in GHG emissions as transport sector accounts for the largest increases in emissions in developing countries

Strong climate benefits due to air quality improvements

Nitrate (mg m-2 d-1)

2 km 8 km 18 km 29 km0

1

2

3

4

Winter

Distance from source

2 km 8 km 18 km 29 km0

1

2

3

4

Sulphate (mg m-2 d-1)

2 km 8 km 18 km 29 km0

1

2

3

4

Winter

2 km 8 km 18 km 29 km0

1

2

3

4

Clearfall Throughfall

Summer Summer

Seasonal variations in deposition of nitrate and sulphate ions (mg mSeasonal variations in deposition of nitrate and sulphate ions (mg m--

22 d d-1-1) in clearfall and throughfall samples in the down wind of ) in clearfall and throughfall samples in the down wind of

thermal power plantsthermal power plants

Total litterfall

high biomass Low biomass

kg h

a-1

yr-1

0

20

40

60

806 km 15 km 25 km

Annual return of N (kg haAnnual return of N (kg ha-1-1 yr yr-1-1) through total litterfall in Sal ) through total litterfall in Sal forests in the down wind of thermal power plantsforests in the down wind of thermal power plants

Sulphate sulphur, organic sulphur and total sulphur Sulphate sulphur, organic sulphur and total sulphur concentrations (mg gconcentrations (mg g-1-1 dry wt) in herbaceous vegetation in the dry wt) in herbaceous vegetation in the

down wind of thermal power plantsdown wind of thermal power plants Distance from TPP(km)

Month Sulphate-S

Organic S

Sulphate S / Organic

S

Total S

1.5 JulyOctober

0.92.1

1.20.8

0.752.6

2.12.9

3 October 1.7 0.8 2.1 2.5

5 October 1.2 0.7 1.7 1.9

10 JulyOctober

0.40.5

1.00.7

0.40.7

1.41.2

Characteristics of plant species for efficient mitigation of air pollutants

Evergreen Large leaved Rough bark Indigenous Ecologically compatible Low water requirement Minimum care High absorption of pollutants Resistant to pollutants

AIR POLLUTION TOLERENCE INDEX (APTI)

APTI = A(T+P)+R

10

T = Total chlorophyll (mg g-1dry weight)

A = Ascorbic acid content (mg g-1fresh weight)

P = Leaf extract pH

R = Relative water content (%)

Plant species (deciduous) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

Plant species T P A R APTI

Albizzia lebbek Benth. 8.00 6.3 18.00 53 32

Cassia fistula L. 6.89 6.2 16.00 72 28

Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. 10.26 6.0 10.50 80 25

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 7.50 6.3 10.21 77 22

Ficus religiosa L. 14.86 8.0 4.78 87 20

Psidium guajava L. 7.13 6.3 7.78 73 18

Phyllanthus emblica L. 10.00 6.0 4.27 75 14

Tamarindus indica L. 4.89 4.0 6.00 85 14

Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. 8.34 5.2 3.40 85 13

Moringa oleifera Lam. 6.60 6.2 2.50 87 12

Morus alba L. 3.45 5.4 6.42 60 12

Madhuca indica J.F. Gmet. 5.21 5.8 2.74 64 9

Aegel marmelos Correa. 3.28 6.0 1.92 74 9

Delonix regia Rafin. 6.27 6.4 2.00 45 7

Tectona grandis L. 4.50 7.3 .35 54 6

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 6.00 6.7 1.00 40 5

Plant species (evergreen) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

Plant species T P A R APTI

Pithecolobium dule Benth 16.41 6.0 7.05 87 24

Ficus bengalensis L. 6.94 8.0 7.49 79 19

Polyalthia longifolia Benth. 5.78 6.2 8.68 80 18

Ficus glomerata Roxb. 14.89 8.4 4.79 71 18

Terminalia arjuna Bedd. 4.86 6.1 7.98 75 16

Ficus infactoria Roxb. 8.60 7.0 5.00 81 16

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. 12.50 5.8 5.80 86 19

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.ra 4.25 5.0 4.49 80 12

Acacia arabica Willd. 4.54 6.5 5.98 79 15

Mangifera indica L. 4.28 5.4 3.78 87 12

Annona squamosa L. 4.00 5.6 3.75 71 10

Alstonia scholaris R. Br. 4.00 6.3 2.49 79 10

Eugenia jambolana Lamk. 6.07 4.6 2.91 72 10

Artocarpus heterophylla Lam. 6.60 6.3 3.56 48 9

Casuarina equisetifolia L. 0.75 5.4 2.59 58 5

Plant species (shrubs) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

Plant species T P A R APTI

Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. 11.70 6.1 12.79 74 30

Calotropis gigantes Ait. Hort. 13.00 6.4 9.00 94 27

Poinsettia pulcherrima R. Grah. 17.10 6.0 7.00 80 24

Ricinus communis L. 17.20 6.2 5.00 93 21

Citrus lemon (L.) Burn.f. 6.68 6.0 6.25 74 15

Lantana indica Roxb. 7.51 7.6 4.63 65 14

Duranta pulmieri Jacq. 7.50 5.8 6.50 70 16

Murraya exotica L. 6.00 6.2 4.67 78 14

Laserstroemia parviflora Roxb. 6.98 6.4 5.39 50 12

Rosa indica L. 4.50 5.5 4.75 74 12

Pollutant tolerant trees and shrubs Pollutant tolerant trees and shrubs

Acacia arabica (Kateri Babul) Aegal marmelos (Bel)Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kathal) Azadirachta indica (Neem)Bougainvillea spectabilis (Baganvilas) Butea monosperma (Palas)

Cassia sophera (Kasunda) Citrus medica (Lemon)Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham) Eucalyptus citriodora (Safeda)Ficus bengalensis (Bargad) Ficus religiosa (Peepal)Lantana indica (Chaueri) Madhuca indica (Mahua)Murraya exotica (Kamini) Nerium odorum (Kaner)

Peltophorum ferrugineum (Copper pod) Phyllanthus emblica (Amla)

Pithocolobium dulce (Jangal Jalebi) Psidium guyava (Guava)Syzigium jambolana (Jamun) Tamrindus indica (Imli)

Zizyphus jujuba (Ber)

Vegetables tolerant to different pollutants

Pollutants Vegetables

Sulphur dioxide Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum)

Onion (Allium cepa)

Cauli flower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)

Brinjal (Solanum melangena)

Hydrogen fluoride Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum)

Squash (Cucurbita maxima)

Pumpkin (Curcurbita pepo)

PAN Cabbage (B. oleracea capitata)

Cauli flower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)

Carrot (Daucus carota)

Onion (Allium cepa)

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)

Ozone Beet (Beta vulgaris)

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

Mint (Mentha pepracea)

Turnip (Brassica rapa)

Carrot (Daucus carota)

Cabbage (B. oleracea capitata)

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis)

Pollutants which irritate and inflame

Nitrogen Oxides (Nox)

Absorbed into the mucosa of respiratory tract. NO and N2O detected in blood and urine, mild inflammation, bronchities.

Ozone (O3) Cellular and structural changes in lung; primary target ciliated cells which clear the airways of inhaled foreign material.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

& Particulate matter

Particulate <5 m respirable

SO2 80 g m-3 annual average

SPM 75 g m-3 annual average

Pollutants producing toxic systemic effects

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Lead (Pb)

Absorbed by lung & carried in blood, form carboxyhaemoglobin (CoHb), impair O2 carrying capacity of blood

Risks: Heart, Central Nervous System & the foetus, Neurobehavioural effect, Cardiovascular effect (above 30%),

Symptoms: Headache & dizziness (10-30%), above 40% coma & death.

Normal CoHb, 0.5%

One pack cigarette 4-7%

80-90% inorganic

1% tetra alkyl lead (organic)

Gastrointenstinal problem, Acute colic

Damage kidney

95% bone

Converted into tri alkyl lead in liver

Neurological development in infants

0.5-1 g m-2 long time

Pollutants with potential carcinogenic effects

Benzene

PAH (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon)

Aldehydes

Formaldehyde

Constituents of crude oil

Enhance anti knocking

Highly liposoluble

Lung cancer; leukamia

Incomplete combustion of fuel

Mutagenic

Absorb in lungs

Eye irritation

Coughing; nausea; asthma

Dermal allergy

Possible carcinogenic

Estimates of annual health incidences in Indian cities due to ambient air pollution levels exceeding WHO guidelines

Cities Premature deaths Hospital admissions and sickness requiring medical treatment

Incidence of minor sickness

Ahmedabad 2,979 1,183,033 72,177,644

Bangalore 254 135,887 8,326,282

Calcutta 5,726 3,022,786 179,479,908

Delhi 7,491 3,990,012 241,958,219

Hyderabad 768 420,958 25,177,173

Jaipur 1,145 520,947 31,708,958

Kanpur 1,894 812,381 49,247,224

Madras 863 461,966 27,859,487

Mumbai 4,477 2,579,210 156,452,916

Patna 725 319,242 19,561,109

Note: WHO: World Health Organization

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CPCB), 1997)

Pollutant Time weighted Average

Concentration in Ambient

air (g m-3)

Industrial Rural and Residential

Sensitive

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Annual Average * 80 60 15

24 hr ** 120 80 30

Oxide of nitrogen (NO2)

Annual average * 80 60 15

24 hr ** 120 80 30

Suspended Particulate matter (SPM)

Annual average * 360 140 70

24 hr ** 500 200 100

Respirable suspended particulate matter (<10 micron) (RSPM)

Annual average * 120 60 50

24 hr ** 150 100 75

Lead

Annual average * 1.0 0.75 0.50

24 hr ** 1.5 1.00 0.75

Carbon monoxide (mg m-3)

8hr 5.0 2.0 1.0

1 hr 10.0 4.0 2.0

•Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurement in a year taken for a week, 24 hourly at uniform interval.•** 24 hour/ 8 hourly values should meet 98% of the time in a year

SO2 and NO2 concentrations (µg/m3) at various sites

during 1989, 1990, 1994 and 2002

SiteSite SOSO2 2 (µg/m(µg/m33)) NONO

2 2 (µg/m(µg/m33))

1989*1989* 1990*1990* 19941994 20022002 1989*1989* 1990*1990* 19941994 20022002

BHUBHU 1414 1616 2626 1414 1616 1717 2929 2020

GodowliaGodowlia 3131 3232 4242 3333 3030 3030 4848 7676

GolgaddaGolgadda 4444 5050 5050 4444 3434 3535 5757 8282

Cantt Cantt Railway Railway StationStation

4343 5151 4444 5252 3232 3737 4747 116116

* Pandey et al. (1992)

IMPROVEMENT OF AIR QUALITY IN VARANASI

Pollutants % Reduction

SO2 71

NO2 59

O3 48

SPM 61

RSPM 54

Exceedance Factor = Observed annual mean concentration of a pollutant

Annual standard for the respective pollutant and area class

Air Quality Categories:

Critical pollution (C) EF> 1.5High pollution (H) EF between 1.0 – 1.5Moderate pollution (M) EF between 1.0 – 0.5Low pollution (L) EF < 0.5

CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES AS PER AQI- 2002

Critical pollution: Jodhpur, Agra, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Dehradoon, Pune, Delhi, Raipur, Solapur, Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Jamnagar

Heavy pollution: Ahmedabad, Baroda, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Kota, Patna, Surat, Vapi, Udaipur

Moderate pollution: Nagpur, Nasik, Panaji, Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Mysore, Hyderabad, Coimbatore, Madurai

Low pollution: Cochin, Shillong, Pondicherry, Salem

Impact of interventions on Air Quality of Delhi (2000 vs. 2007)

SPM - 8 %

RSPM - 30%

CO - 48 %

NOx + 18 %

SO2 - 38 %

Pb - 60 %

- Decrease + Increase

ConclusionConclusion

Air pollution negatively affects the yield and quality of crops Sensitivity of crops differs among species and cultivars Meteorological conditions during crop growing season affect the

degree of negative effects on growth and yield of crops Ozone poses the greatest threat to agriculture Plants also differ in their response to different air pollutant

combinations

Vegetation can intercept, absorb, assimilate and significantly reduce the concentrations of SO2 and NO2.

Trees are more efficient in reducing pollutant concentrations than other vegetation.Sulphur and nitrogen being major nutrients may be beneficial to plant growth in nutrient poor soil.Plants vary in their capacity of absorbing pollutants.Plants also vary widely in their susceptibility to S and N pollutants.