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Action-control beliefs and behaviorsas predictors of change in adjustmentacross the transition to middle schoolMarie Vanlede a , Todd D. Little b & Noel A. Card ca Department of Psychology, Universite Catholique de Louvain,Belgiumb Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, KS, USAc Division of Family Studies and Human Development, NortonSchool of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Arizona,Tucson, AZ, AZ, USAPublished online: 25 Jan 2007.

To cite this article: Marie Vanlede , Todd D. Little & Noel A. Card (2006) Action-control beliefs andbehaviors as predictors of change in adjustment across the transition to middle school, Anxiety,Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 19:2, 111-127, DOI: 10.1080/10615800600632896

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Action-control beliefs and behaviors as predictors ofchange in adjustment across the transition tomiddle school

MARIE VANLEDE1, TODD D. LITTLE2, & NOEL A. CARD3

1Department of Psychology, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, 2Department of Psychology,

University of Kansas, KS, USA, 3Division of Family Studies and Human Development, Norton School

of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

AbstractWe examined longitudinal changes in young adolescents’ (N�/368) action-control beliefs, copingbehaviors, and adjustment (i.e., positive and negative affect, depression, aggression) across thetransition from elementary school to middle school. Results indicated greater inter-individualinstability in adjustment during this transition than during the previous school year. Using ordinaryleast-squares (OLS) growth models to extract intra-individual change scores for each variable (i.e.,slopes and intercepts), we conducted a series of stepwise regressions to determine which features ofcontrol beliefs and coping behaviors best predicted changes in adjustment across the transition tomiddle school. We found that negative coping behaviors (i.e., antisocial coping) consistently predictednegative changes in the adjustment variables (e.g., greater depression, more aggression), whereaspositive beliefs and behaviors did not consistently predict changes in the adjustment variables.

Keywords: Action-control behaviors, action-control beliefs, adjustment, coping, longitudinal growth

modeling, middle school transition

Young adolescents not only experience considerable physical, psychological, and social

developmental changes, but they also face ecological challenges, such as the transition from

elementary to middle school. Numerous factors contribute to the stressfulness of the

middle school transition and to its ‘‘developmental mismatch’’ (i.e., in that it fails to meet

adolescents’ developmental needs; see for example: Eccles et al., 1993; Feldlaufer, Midgley,

& Eccles, 1988; Midgley, Middleton, Gheen, & Kumar, 2002; Simmons & Blyth, 1987).

Many of these factors concern developmental changes, such as identity discovery and

consolidation, expanding peer relationships, and emerging (pre-)romantic involvements.

These factors also concern contextual changes such as exposure to unfamiliar peers, more

teacher-imposed control and discipline, less personal student�teacher relationships,

emphasis on social comparison, and dissolution of social networks. This transition period,

therefore, encompasses both developmental and contextual changes that, together, can be

stressful to many adolescents.

Given the presence of stressful factors during middle school transition, adolescents utilize

various self-regulatory processes, such as coping strategies, to go through this critical life

Correspondence: Todd D. Little, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, 1415 Jayhawk Blvd, Lawrence,

KS 66045, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

ISSN 1061-5806 print/ISSN 1477-2205 online # 2006 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/10615800600632896

Anxiety, Stress, and Coping,

June 2006; 19(2): 111�127

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time. Several studies have analyzed the contribution of coping strategies to middle school

transition adjustment (Causey & Dubow, 1993; Elben, Lohaus, Ball, & Klein-Hessbling,

2003). Elben et al. (2003) showed that the reported coping behavior was associated with

somatic and psychological symptoms during school transition. Causey and Dubow (1993)

have evidenced that approach coping strategies were associated with higher levels of general

adaptation, while the use of avoidance coping strategies was associated with lower levels of

general adaptation.

Despite the agreement concerning the presence of stressful factors, researchers have not

reported consistent findings regarding the effects of school transitions on adolescents’

adjustment. Some research shows negative effects on adjustment (Barber & Olsen, 2004;

Crockett, Peterson, Graber, Schulenberg, & Ebata, 1989; Eccles et al., 1989; Simmons &

Blyth, 1987; Wigfield, Eccles, MacIver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991), other research shows

no differences (Fenzel & Blyth, 1986; Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987), while some shows small

positive effects (Berndt & Mikos, 1995; McDougall & Hymel, 1998; Nottelmann, 1987).

Clearly, differences in the samples and school organizations across these various studies

may have played a role in this lack of consistency in the literature. Another factor, however,

may be the level of analysis employed to examine adjustment outcomes. The extant

longitudinal studies to date have employed standard inter-individual differences ap-

proaches. Several researchers (Lord & Eccles, 1994; McDougall & Hymel, 1998; Simmons

& Blyth, 1987) have suggested that examining these relations at the level of intra-individual

differences (i.e., within-person change) may be better in identifying predictors and

correlates of adjustment patterns.

In this study, we followed youths as they made the transition from elementary to middle

school. Our primary goal was to identify which features of these young adolescents’ action-

control system (i.e., personal agency beliefs and coping behaviors) best predict adjustment

(i.e., emotional well-being and aggressive behaviors). We do so by examining not only

patterns of inter-individual change during this transition, but also the dynamic relations

among the estimates of intra-individual changes in these variables.

Action-control theory and action-control beliefs and behaviors

School transition, because it represents a threatening and challenging situation that requires

action and adaptation, is an excellent context to examine action-control beliefs and

behaviors and their relationship to well-being and adjustment (Little, 2002; Little, Lopez,

Oettingen, & Baltes, 2001). One’s action-control system includes perceptions of control

(i.e., agency beliefs) and the styles of behavior control (i.e., coping) that one calls upon to

face challenges, such as those associated with school transitions. Generally speaking,

specific action-control dimensions can be thought of as adaptive (e.g., prosocial coping) or

maladaptive (e.g., antisocial coping).

Adaptive action-control dimensions can be considered protective factors in that they

reflect a set of relatively stable personality, attitudinal, and cognitive dispositions that

promote effective adaptation, thereby reducing the potentially harmful effects of stress

(Moos & Schaefer, 1993). For example, positive self-beliefs, such as a strong self-concept

(akin to a strong sense of personal agency; see below), facilitate positive adjustment and

feelings of self-worth across the transition to middle school (Fenzel, 2000; Lord & Eccles,

1994; McDougall & Hymel, 1998; Zanobini & Usai, 2002). On the other hand,

psychological risk factors such as maladaptive action-control dimensions (e.g., antisocial

112 M. Vanlede et al.

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coping strategies) are associated with negative adjustment (Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Elkind

& Bowen, 1979; Feldlaufer, Midgley, & Eccles, 1988; Lopez & Little, 1996).

Action-control theory is a useful perspective to understand the various self-regulatory

dimensions (beliefs and behaviors) that children utilize in negotiating their complex and

often challenging worlds (Little, Lopez, & Wanner, 2001; Little, 2002; Little, Snyder, &

Wehmeyer, 2006). Action-control theory addresses specific self-beliefs as predictors of

desired outcomes in a number of domains of functioning. Action-control beliefs are defined

as self-perceptions about the means and competencies one has to reach one’s goals (Hawley

& Little, 2002; Little, 1998, 2002; Little, Hawley, Henrich, & Marsland, 2002). Action-

control beliefs comprise three sets of beliefs: (1) means-ends beliefs, which refer to the

individual’s judgment about which specific means produce a desired outcome; (2) agency

beliefs, which are defined as personal perceptions about the extent to which one actually

possesses and can utilize these potential means; and (3) control-expectancy beliefs, which refer

to the personal perception that one can attain a goal, without reference to specific means

(Skinner, Chapman, & Baltes, 1988).

The action-theory framework is explicitly a domain-specific conceptualization because

different domains of functioning have different goals and require different competencies

and means to attain those goals (Benenson & Dweck, 1986; Connell, 1985; Skinner, 1995).

In the academic domain, the influence of action-control beliefs has been well documented.

Findings consistently indicate that personal agency beliefs are relatively strong and unique

predictors of academic performance, whereas means-ends and control-expectancy beliefs

generally lack unique predictive power above and beyond the agency belief dimensions

(Little & Lopez, 1997; Little, Oettingen, Stetsenko, & Baltes, 1995; Oettingen, Little,

Lindenberger, & Baltes, 1994; Skinner et al., 1988; Stetsenko, Little, Oettingen, & Baltes,

1995; Walls & Little, 2005). In the social domain, Lopez and Little (1996) also found this

predictive pattern for agency beliefs. Conceptually, agency beliefs are similar to other

perceived control constructs such as competency beliefs, capacity beliefs, self-efficacy, and

the like (see Skinner, 1995, 1996).

As a complement to the action-control model of beliefs about one’s actions, Little, Lopez,

& Wanner (2001) integrated multi-axial models with an action-theory perspective and

proposed an action-theory model of coping operationalized in the Behavioral Index of

Strategic Control (BISC). This model considers children’s coping styles, or action-control

behaviors, as specific and stable behavioral instantiations of the volitional control processes

of action. Such behaviors vary along the dimensions of sociability (prosocial action or

antisocial action) and directness (direct action or indirect action). The 2�/2 intersection

among these dimensions (i.e., prosocial action with direct action, prosocial action with

indirect action, antisocial action with direct action, and antisocial action with indirect

action) are reflected by aggregate behaviors that capture commonly measured coping

strategies (e.g., social cooperation, emotional support seeking, aggressive individualism,

avoidance; see Little, Lopez, & Wanner, 2001).

As noted by Little, Lopez, and Wanner (2001), direct actions (similar to approach

strategies or problem-focused coping) focus on eliminating or remediating the stressor,

such as through being assertive, problem solving, and seeking information (Band & Weisz,

1988; Causey & Dubow, 1993; Elias, Gara, Rothbaum, Reese, & Ubriaco, 1987; Moos,

1997). Indirect actions (similar to avoidance strategies or emotion-focused coping) focus on

remediating the consequences of the stressor or circumventing the need to address it, such

as through avoidance, distraction, and emotion regulation (Altshuler & Ruble, 1989;

Causey & Dubow, 1993; Compas, Banez, Malcarne, & Worsham, 1991; Curry & Russ,

Action-control beliefs and behaviors 113

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1985; Moos, 1997; Wertlieb, Weigel, & Feldstein, 1987). Similarly, prosocial actions reflect

the degree to which others are engaged in either direct actions, such as through social

cooperation, or indirect actions, such as seeking emotional support (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-

Gillis, & Cowen, 1992; Sandler & Barrera, 1984). Antisocial actions reflect the degree to

which others are viewed as ineffectual or as hindrances in either direct action, such as

obstinately relying on oneself, or indirect action, such as avoidance (Barnett, Matthews, &

Howard, 1979; Krohne & Rogner, 1982; Matthews, 1982).

Little, Lopez, and Wanner’s (2001) empirical validation of the model supported the idea

that a limited yet encompassing set of purely defined coping dimensions would be sufficient

to capture a person’s profile of coping behavior. Specifically, they showed that the direct or

indirect and prosocial or antisocial dimensions of action-control behaviors mediate the

relations between commonly measured coping behaviors and various adjustment outcomes.

Their results support the contention that specific coping behaviors can be summarized as

different constellations of four fundamental strategic-control dimensions (direct, indirect,

prosocial, and antisocial).

This study aims to replicate and extend prior research on action-control theory in the

social domain (Lopez & Little, 1996). While we also explore whether coping styles mediate

the relationship between action-control beliefs and emotional outcomes, this study differs

from Lopez and Little (1996) in four major ways. First, the analyzed emotional outcomes

are broadened and include negative and positive affect (compared with only anxiety), as

well as externalizing behaviors such as aggression. Second, the measured coping strategies

represent the four primary axis dimensions (compared with a selection of specific

strategies). Third, the current sample is quite different: it concerns a different age group

(transition from 6th to 7th grades vs 2nd to 6th grades), consists of children in the USA

(compared with children of military families stationed in Germany), and is generally more

normative since most children have to face school transitions (compared with children from

military families faced with moving and schools closing due to closures of military bases).

Fourth, we assessed the students three times over one year (fall 6th grade, spring 6th grade,

fall 7th grade), which allows us to explore longitudinal changes in early adolescent’s self-

beliefs, coping behaviors, and emotional adjustment across an entire school transition

(compared with only a 3-month window; see Lopez & Little, 1996).

General expectations

For this study, we examined the relations of action-control beliefs and behaviors with a

broad range of adjustment outcomes within a sample of early adolescents whose social

network was threatened by the transition from elementary school to middle school. As

mentioned, many factors contribute to the stressfulness of school transition for early

adolescents, especially in the social domain. School transition represents a challenging

situation that most children face, and thus provides a unique opportunity to examine the

relations between action-control beliefs, coping strategies, and adjustment outcomes within

a normative context. It is important to note that we are limiting this study to two aspects of

the individual (i.e., beliefs and behaviors) that are at play during this transition and thus we

are focused on only a small piece of the larger picture.

The organization of the studied school district suggests a challenging transition from

elementary school to middle school in that nine elementary schools feed into a single

middle school. To examine the impact of this transition, we hypothesized patterns of both

inter-individual and intra-individual stability and change in action-control beliefs, coping


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strategies, and adjustment from the fall to spring of 6th grade and to the fall of 7th grade

(after the transition).

At the level of inter-individual changes, we expect students’ action-control beliefs and

coping styles to remain relatively stable at each wave of the study because these beliefs and

coping styles reflect consistent ways of approaching adjustment demands. On the other

hand, we expected the indices of adjustment to remain relatively stable between wave 1 (fall

6th grade) and wave 2 (spring 6th grade), but to exhibit inter-individual instability after the

transition to middle school at wave 3 (fall 7th grade). We expected this instability to be due

to individual differences in students’ abilities to adjust to the difficulties of school transition.

Consistent with the findings of Lopez and Little (1996), we expected that the action-control

behaviors would function as mediators of the action-control beliefs in predicting the

adjustment outcomes.

At the level of intra-individual changes, we expect early adolescents whose adaptive

action-control beliefs and behaviors increased over this transition period to also have

positive changes in adjustment. Relatedly, we expected that students with high levels of

adaptive action-control beliefs and behaviors in the 6th grade (and presumably emotionally

well-adjusted) would be less negatively affected by the transition from elementary to middle

school (Lord & Eccles, 1994; McDougall & Hymel, 1998). We expected the converse

pattern for maladaptive action-control dimensions (e.g., antisocial coping, indirect coping);

that increases in these action-control beliefs and behaviors would coincide with decreasing

adjustment, and that initially high levels of these maladaptive action-control dimensions

would predict decreasing adjustment over time.

Finally, although we did not have any specific hypotheses regarding gender differences,

we conducted these analyses separately by gender in order to identify any potential

differences, given that gender effects are not uncommon in the action-control literature

(e.g., Stetsenko, Little, Gordeeva, Grasshof, & Oettingen, 2000).

Method

Participants

Data were collected as part of a large-scale project examining self-regulatory aspects of

adolescents’ academic and social development. The study was conducted in an ethnically

and socioeconomically diverse district. The district comprises nine elementary schools that

feed into one middle school and is located in an urban, residential, and commercial

community adjacent to a medium-sized postindustrial city on the East Coast. All students

who did not have significant special needs were recruited to participate. School records

indicated about 12% received services for mild to moderate special needs � mild needs

students were allowed to participate if they so desired. Informed written consent was

obtained from all participants (N�/368) and their parents (participation rate�/81% of the

total school population). Schools were compensated for their participation (US$100 per

elementary school and US$1,000 for the middle school per wave), and students were given

small gifts (e.g., pens and similar trinkets). The study was approved by the Yale University

Human Subjects Committee.

The participants were assessed three times: fall of 6th grade, spring of 6th grade, and fall

of 7th grade. Missing data (B/5%) were estimated using a saturated regression imputation

process whereby each variable’s missing values were estimated based on the entire set of

variables used available on the larger dataset. The sample consisted of approximately 68%

European American, 22% African American, 5% Hispanic American, and 5% of mixed


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ethnic origin. Although the socioeconomic status in the studied community was variable, it

was predominantly lower-middle class.

Students participated in this study with active informed parental consent. Permission to

conduct this investigation was provided by the institutional review board, the school

district, the principals, and the individual teachers in the classrooms. Students completed a

battery of questionnaires during three 1-h sessions spanning a 2-week period at each wave

of data collection. We tested the students in their classrooms with the teacher present, but

not observing the students’ answers. One proctor read each item aloud while the students

followed silently along. A second proctor assisted the students with any questions or

problems. Order effects were addressed by randomly assigning classrooms to surveys that

differed in the ordering of items.

Measures

Table I provides the reliability information (rxx�/Cronbach’s alpha) and basic descriptive

statistics of each variable and each wave of data collection. As can be seen, the internal

consistency estimates were generally sound at each time of measurement.1

Action-control beliefs. We assessed children’s action-control beliefs with the social domain

version of the Multidimensional Control, Agency, and Means-Ends Inventory (Multi-

CAM; Little & Wanner, 1997). Because means-ends and control-expectancy beliefs

generally lack unique predictive power, we used only the agency dimensions in the current

study. The Multi-CAM assesses three potential social outcomes: making friends (frame:

‘‘When it comes to making new friends . . .’’), having friends (‘‘When it comes to getting a

friend to do something together with you . . .’’), and keeping friends (‘‘When it comes to

keeping a good friend . . .’’). These outcomes can be achieved through a variety of means,

which in this study were aggregated into intra-self and extra-self agency. Intra-self agency

included effort (e.g. stem ‘‘. . . can you keep trying enough to do it?), ability (e.g., ‘‘. . . are

you smart enough to do it?), and luck (e.g., ‘‘Do you luck out?’’), whereas extra-self agency

included using teachers (e.g., ‘‘. . . can you get your teachers to help you?’’), friends (e.g.,

‘‘. . . can you have another friend help you?’’), and parents (e.g., ‘‘. . . can you ask your

parents to help you?’’). Participants responded on a four-point Likert-type scale (ranging

from 1 to 4), and scores on each item were averaged to form composite scores for intra-self

Table I. Descriptive statistics for each construct at each occasion.

Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3

Construct No. of items M SD rxx M SD rxx M SD rxx

Intra-self Agency Beliefs 12 2.57 .47 .91 2.76 .56 .89 2.74 .59 .91

Extra-self Agency Beliefs 12 2.05 .62 .96 2.16 .73 .95 2.25 .59 .91

Direct Coping 3 2.77 .68 .63 2.84 .74 .80 2.79 .72 .80

Indirect Coping 3 2.32 .67 .66 2.19 .68 .80 2.25 .69 .77

Prosocial Coping 3 2.05 .70 .55 1.85 .66 .75 1.79 .55 .77

Antisocial Coping 3 1.52 .55 .59 1.48 .55 .77 1.43 .46 .74

Positive Affect 6 3.19 .39 .93 3.22 .64 .93 3.23 .56 .91

Negative Affect 6 1.44 .56 .91 1.35 .39 .90 1.34 .38 .87

Depressive Symptoms 26 6.83 6.51 .88 5.70 5.78 .89 5.64 5.50 .92

Overt Aggression 6 1.27 .41 .82 1.28 .42 .90 1.20 .26 .80

Relational Aggression 6 1.31 .39 .79 1.29 .38 .77 1.19 .25 .82

Note: rxx�/Cronbach’s alpha.


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and extra-self agency at each time point (see Table I for number of items, reliabilities and

descriptive statistics). These constructs have demonstrated content, criterion, and

construct validity across the social (e.g., Lopez & Little, 1996) and academic (e.g., Walls

& Little, 2005) domains.

Action-control behaviors. Early adolescents’ coping strategies were measured by BISC

(Little, Lopez, & Wanner, 2001; Lopez & Little, 1994, 1996). Students indicate how often

they engage in each of four types of coping behaviors when confronted with different

challenging situations with a friend (e.g., ‘‘When I have problems getting a friend to do

something together with me . . .’’, ‘‘When I have problems keeping a good friend . . .’’). The

four dimensions of coping behaviors were direct (e.g., ‘‘. . . I try to work it out’’), indirect

(e.g., ‘‘. . . I do something else instead’’), prosocial (e.g., ‘‘. . . I seek out others), and

antisocial (e.g., ‘‘. . . I think others just get in my way’’). Participants indicated their

engagement in each control behavior on a four-point Likert-type scale, and scores were

averaged to form composite scores for each coping behavior at each time point (range 1�4;

see Table I for number of items, reliabilities, and descriptive statistics; see Little, Lopez, &

Wanner, 2001, for details of the validity investigation of the constructs).

Adjustment outcomes. We assessed both internalizing and externalizing behaviors as

indices of adjustment. We used the Inventory of Felt Emotion and Energy in Life (IFEEL;

range 1�4; Little, Ryan & Wanner, 1997; and see E. Dill & T. D. Little (unpublished

results), for validity information), which measures positive affect and negative affect during

the preceding 2-week period. We also assessed depressive symptoms using the well-validated

Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; range 0�26; Kovacs, 1985). Because the distribu-

tion of scores on the CDI was positively skewed, a square-root transformation was

performed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). We also used two constructs from a larger self-

report instrument to assess overt aggression and relational aggression (range 1�4; for validity

information see Little, Brauner, Jones, Nock, & Hawley, 2003; Little, Jones, Henrich &

Hawley, 2003).

Analytic procedures

To address our first set of hypotheses regarding inter-individual changes, we conducted a

longitudinal Confirmatory Factor Analysis model of the 11 constructs across the three

Table II. Latent stability coefficients from the longitudinal CFA.

Stability wave 1 to wave 2 Stability wave 2 to wave 3

Variable Overall Males Females Overall Males Females

Intra-self Agency Beliefs .53 .51 .55 .47 .43 .52

Extra-self Agency Beliefs .57 .52 .61 .57 .51 .52

Direct Coping .57 .52 .55 .56 .56 .55

Indirect Coping .44 .33 .57a .39 .31 .49a

Prosocial Coping .44 .36 .50 .58 .65 .51

Antisocial Coping .45 .33 .57a .41 .26 .54a

Positive Affect .47 .49 .46 .45 .42 .48

Negative Affect .53 .58 .46 .43b .28 .62

Depressive Symptoms .70 .71 .71 .50b .50 .51

Overt Aggression .61 .59 .62 .43b .38 .47

Relational Aggression .49 .48 .47 .42 .38 .57

aFemales’ stability coefficients were significantly (p B/.01) greater than the males.bThe stability coefficients were significantly (p B/.01) lower between waves 2 and 3 than between waves 1 and 2.


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waves of measurement. For this model, we specified measurement equivalence across time

and we allowed the unique components of the indicators to correlate across each wave. To

set the scale of measurement, we fixed the variances of the constructs at Time 1 to 1.0, but

freed the variances thereafter (see Little, 1997). For the overall sample, we included four

dummy-coded covariate effects in the model: Gender (1�/females) and three variables to

represent ethnicity (i.e., Hispanic American, African American, and Other). We also

conducted the CFA as a two-group model (males vs females) to examine possible

differences in stability as a function of gender. For all CFA models, we evaluated model

fit using standard fit indices; specifically, we examined the Root Mean Squared Error of

Approximation (RMSEA), for which valuesB/.08 are generally deemed acceptable, the

Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI). For these latter

two indexes, values�/.90 are generally deemed acceptable.

Our second goal was to compare numerous potential relationships among the estimates

on intra-individual growth. To estimate parameters of intra-individual growth, we chose to

use ordinary least-squares (OLS) growth modeling (instead of the more common

maximum-likelihood estimates). OLS estimates were obtained by regressing each individual

child’s scores on to time of measurement (coded 0, 1, and 2 so that the intercept would be

interpreted as the scores at time 1). Each regression had seven degrees of freedom because

we used multiple observations at each time point. Specifically, we used either all three items

(e.g., for the coping variables) or three parcels (see Kishton & Widaman, 1994; Little,

Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002) at each time of measurement to ensure sufficient

variability for the regressions. As Little (2003) has shown, OLS estimates of the growth

parameters (using multiple observations at each time point) yields essentially identical

estimates as those obtained using various maximum-likelihood estimates (e.g., LISREL,

Proc MIXED), indicating that this approach provides unbiased and robust estimates of the

individual-level growth parameters. The intercept and slope estimates of each child were

then saved as the data to be analyzed in the stepwise regressions.

To determine the most important predictors of adjustment, we conducted a series of

step-wise regressions, separately for males and females. For the stepwise regressions, we

included three dummy coded variables representing ethnicity. These three variables were

forced into each equation. The p value for entry of the potential predictors was set at .05

but the p value for staying in the equation was set at .01 in order to reduce Type I error.

Because the intercept and slope are correlated we incorporated two additional procedural

steps. First, the intercept of the dependent variable was also forced into the equation.

Second, on the predictor side, we orthogonalized the intercept with respect to the slope of

each variable. Orthogonalizing simply involves regressing the intercept scores onto the slope

scores and saving the residual (Lance, 1988; Little, Bovaird & Widaman, in press). The

residual then reflects the variance in the intercept that is unique to itself and independent of

the variance of the slope. These orthogonalized intercepts were used in the stepwise

regressions.

Results

We report the findings in three primary sections. We first examine gender, time, and

ethnicity effects on the constructs. We then turn to the results that addressed our inter-

individual differences hypotheses, followed by the results that examined the intra-individual

differences hypotheses.


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Demographic effects

We conducted a series of analyses of variance to test for potential effects of gender and

ethnicity. Because of the sample size and the overall number of comparisons, we adopted a

criterion of p B/.005 for the overall F in order to conduct follow-up examinations of the

individual effects. For the follow-up examinations of individual effects, only those that

reached p B/.01 are described. For the most part, very few of the constructs revealed a

significant overall effect. Only overt aggression revealed a consistent effect at each wave

(F(7,367)�/3.35, 3.51, and 6.56, respectively), whereby boys reported more overtly

aggressive behavior than did girls at each time of measurement (F(1,367)�/13.20, 11.95,

and 34.34, respectively). At the third wave, boys also reported more relationally aggressive

behavior than did girls (overall F(7,367)�/3.67; gender F(1,367)�/13.20). At wave 2 (spring of

6th grade), African American youths reported lower levels of direct coping (overall

F(7,367)�/3.71; ethnicity F(1,367)�/17.41) and higher levels of indirect coping (overall

F(7,367)�/3.77; ethnicity F(1,367)�/10.28) than other youths. No ethnic differences were

observed at time 1 or time 3.

Longitudinal inter-individual changes

Concerning inter-individual changes (i.e., stability and instability in students’ relative

positions on measures), longitudinal CFA analyses of the constructs exhibited excellent

overall fit, with RMSEA valuesB/.03 and NNFI and CFI values�/.96. Table II shows the

stability coefficients (free of measurement error) of each construct between waves 1 and 2

(within 6th grade) and between waves 2 and 3 (across school transition). As seen in Table

II, inter-individual stability was not significantly lower (tested by nested model comparison

of a model in which the stabilities were freely estimated versus a model in which stability

coefficients were constrained to be equal) among the agency beliefs or coping strategies, but

there was significantly lower inter-individual stability across the school transition than

within the 6th grade for three of the five adjustment indices: negative affect, depressive

symptoms, and overt aggression. In other words, there was greater inter-individual

instability, or change, in these indices of adjustment across the school transition than

within the prior school year.

Two gender differences in stability also emerged (also tested using nested model

comparison of a model in which parameters were freely estimated across gender versus a

model in which equality constraints across gender were imposed; see Table II). Specifically,

both indirect coping and antisocial coping exhibited greater stability in females than in

males between each successive wave of data collection.

Longitudinal intra-individual changes

Table III presents the results of the OLS growth models for each construct for both males

and females. The intercept reflects the information (mean and standard deviation) of each

construct at time 1 while the slope reflects the average change at each subsequent time

point. The standard deviations of these estimates indicates the degree of individual

differences variability in the intra-individual estimates of change. Table IV presents the

results of the stepwise regressions using these growth parameters as predictors of the

changes (slopes) in adjustment variables across the transition to middle school. The tabled

values are standardized unique effects of each predictor controlling for ethnicity and initial

status (i.e., the intercept of the growth curve). In each model, we forced the entry of the


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ethnicity variables and the intercept estimate of the respective outcome variable first into

the regressions.

At least four general observations can be offered regarding the pattern of results.

Referring first to Table III, the average change in adjustment was near zero, indicating that

the typical pattern of growth during this period is not for either better or worse adjustment;

however, there was notable variability around this average change estimate. This finding is

consistent with the mixed results evident in prior research on the impact of school transition

reviewed above. That is, the variability around the average change suggests that some

children are going up while others are going down and some are not changing much at all.

Referring next to Table IV, the second notable observation is that changes in the

adjustment outcomes can be reliably predicted by various aspects of action-control beliefs

and behaviors. Third, contrary to our expectations that positive action-control dimensions

would lead to adaptive adjustments, nearly all the adjustment outcomes were predicted by

negative action-control dimensions. The most notable exceptions in this pattern were the

findings for Positive Affect; here, the change in Positive Affect was predicted by Direct

Coping behavior and Intra-self Agency. Direct Coping behavior was also a predictor of

changes in Depressive Symptoms. Finally, with one exception (the slope of intra-self agency

predicted change in boys’ positive affect), only coping-related variables predicted adjust-

ment outcomes across the transition to middle school. This latter pattern is consistent with

the idea that coping behaviors mediate the effects of personal action-control beliefs (see

Baron & Kenny, 1986).

To more formally examine mediation, we followed the recent guidelines described by

Shrout and Bolger (2002). Specifically, we performed a series of follow-up path analyses

testing both the direct and indirect effects of the action-control beliefs on the adjustment

outcomes. These analyses were done on the whole sample, with gender and ethnicity as

covariates. In these analyses, we tested the direct effects of the agency beliefs on the

outcomes allowing the indirect pathway through the coping behaviors and the direct paths

from the coping behaviors to also be estimated. Mediation is supported when: (1) the direct

paths of the agency beliefs are non-significant: and (2) the indirect path way is significant.

In these analyses, only the slope of intra-self agency revealed a significant direct effect on

the slope of positive affect (b�/.16, p B/.01). Although we found a number of mediated

pathways, the predominant mediator was anti-social coping. Specifically, antisocial coping

Table III. Estimated growth curve parameters by gender.

Males Females

Intercept Slope Intercept Slope

Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD

Intra-self Agency Beliefs 2.64 .44 .05 .30 2.57 .51 .13 .31

Extra-self Agency Beliefs 1.99 .61 .11 .34 2.12 .63 .10 .37

Direct Coping 2.75 .64 �/.01 .39 2.83 .69 .03 .43

Indirect Coping 2.09 .66 �/.15 .39 1.96 .67 �/.11 .38

Prosocial Coping 2.26 .62 �/.05 .39 2.33 .62 �/.03 .38

Antisocial Coping 1.57 .52 �/.04 .31 1.45 .52 �/.05 .30

Positive Affect 3.15 .65 .02 .34 3.24 .68 .02 .37

Negative Affect 1.45 .52 �/.06 .27 1.40 .53 �/.04 .29

Depressive Symptoms 1.11 .09 �/.01 .05 1.12 .11 �/.01 .05

Overt Aggression 1.35 .47 �/.03 .24 1.20 .33 �/.03 .16

Relational Aggression 1.35 .38 �/.05 .21 1.29 .35 �/.06 .18


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Table IV. Final stepwise results predicting changes in adjustment across the middle school transition.

Ethnicity

Gender Outcome Slope HA AA OE Intercepta 1st Predictor 2nd Predictor 3rd Predictor R2

M Positive Affect �/.04 .02 �/.10 �/.77 .21 Slp. I.S. Agency .16 Slp. Prosocial .57

F Positive Affect .06 .05 .08 �/.82 .22 Int. Direct �/.18 Int. Antisocial .15 Slp. Direct .56

M Negative Affect �/.03 �/.05 .10 �/.84 .12 Int. Antisocial .13 Slp. Antisocial .70

F Negative Affect .08 .02 .02 �/.84 .13 Int. Antisocial .62

M Depressive Symptoms .03 .03 .12 �/.69 �/.16 Slp. Direct .51

F Depressive Symptoms .05 �/.01 �/.06 �/.78 �/.18 Int. Direct .14 Int. Antisocial .56

M Overt Aggression �/.12+ .00 �/.02 �/.82 .22 Int. Antisocial .18 Slp. Antisocial .70

F Overt Aggression .05 .04 �/.08 �/.83 .13Int. Indirect .16 Slp. Antisocial .72

M Relational Aggression �/.10+ �/.01 .04 �/.80 .20 Int. Antisocial .20 Slp. Antisocial .67

F Relational Aggression .03 .01 �/.03 �/.84 .10 Int. Antisocial .15 Slp Antisocial .75

Note : M�/male; F�/female; HA�/Hispanic American; AA�/African American; OE�/other ethnicity; Int.�/intercept of the OLS intra-individual growth models; Slp.�/

the slope; I.S. Agency�/Intra-Self Agency.

The intercepts on the predictor side of the equation were orthogonalized with regard to their slopes to eliminate potential colinearity problems.aIntercept of the OLS growth model of the target adjustment outcome.

Action

-control

beliefsand

behaviors

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mediated the effect of the intercept for intra-self agency to all of the outcome variables.

That is, none of the direct effects of the intercept of intra-self agency beliefs on any of the

outcomes was significant and all of the indirect pathways were significant (p B/.05; the

standardized regression weights ranged from �/.02 to �/.05). The slope of intra-self agency

had a significant indirect effect on the slope of overt aggression (b�/�/.05, p B/.01). The

intercept of extra-self agency had a significant indirect effect on the slope of positive affect

(b�/�/.03, p B/.05) and the slope of extra-self agency beliefs had an indirect effect on the

slope of relational aggression (b�/.02, p B/.05). These results indicate that antisocial coping

behavior primarily drives the changes in adjustment (i.e., mediating the effects of the

beliefs).

Discussion

This study is characterized by a set of unique features that revealed a number of interesting

relationships. First, we examined a sample of young adolescents who experienced a

significant socio-contextual change; namely, the transition from a small and familiar

elementary school context to a large and unfamiliar middle school context. As mentioned,

the youth in the study were selected from each of the nine elementary schools that fed the

district’s single middle school. The socio-educational structure of the middle school was

quite typical of the transitions commonly experienced by students in the USA at about this

age. Incoming students are assigned to home rooms and they move throughout the day

from classroom to classroom, each varying in student composition and academic content.

These changes from elementary school in both educational and social structures clearly

represent a set of developmentally graded challenges that each child must face. As indicated

by the greater inter-individual instability in adjustment across this transition, this period

allows for considerable individual differences in adaptation: many young adolescents were

quite successful in negotiating the challenges of such a transition, whereas many showed

clearly maladaptive patterns of change.

Our findings that average changes in adjustment were neither positive or negative during

this period is consistent with the mixed findings evident in prior literature (e.g., Barber &

Olsen, 2004; Berndt & Mikos, 1995; Crockett et al., 1989; Eccles et al., 1989; Fenzel &

Blyth, 1986; Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987; McDougall & Hymel, 1998; Nottelmann, 1987;

Simmons & Blyth, 1987; Wigfield et al., 1991). However, examining the inter-individual

differences in intra-individual change shed light on predictors of healthy versus maladaptive

patterns of change during this transition. Specifically, our findings suggested a number of

telling patterns among the various dimensions of action-control beliefs and behavior and

the adjustment outcomes. Perhaps the most intriguing finding was that the adjustment

outcomes reflecting externalizing behaviors and negative affect were predicted predomi-

nantly by negative action-control behaviors (i.e., antisocial coping). In fact, for eight of the

ten stepwise regressions predicting intra-individual change in adjustment, some aspect of

antisocial coping emerged as a predictor of the adjustment outcome. Rather than finding

that positive action-control beliefs and behaviors function as a beneficial factor that reduces

aggressive behavior, we found that the presence of negative action-control behaviors (e.g.,

initially high levels of antisocial coping, increases in antisocial coping) appear to function as

a risk factor that exacerbates aggressive behavior across the middle school transition.

Depressive symptoms and positive affect, on the other hand, were generally predicted by

positive action-control dimensions. Both the intercept and slope of direct coping, for

example, was associated with decreases in depressive symptoms for both males and females


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and increases in positive affect for females. For males, increases in positive affect were

predicted by increases in personal agency as well as increases in the use of prosocial coping

strategies.

Another outcome of this study that warrants discussion was the finding that changes in

the various dimensions of coping behavior were the most proximal predictors of changes in

the adjustment outcomes. The implications, which were supported by supplemental

analyses, are that the influence of action-control beliefs is mediated through the coping

behaviors. This finding is somewhat contrary to prior work by Lopez and Little (1996), in

which they found only partial support for the mediating role of coping behaviors. The

difference in results is likely a function of the type of longitudinal modeling that was

employed. Lopez and Little used a traditional longitudinal modeling approach that

examined the relations among the constructs as patterns of individual differences. In this

study, we examined the longitudinal patterns as intra-individual change relationships (i.e.,

intercepts and slopes for each individual). Between the two studies, however, one consistent

pattern did emerge. In particular, the use of an antisocial coping strategy had direct effects

on the internalizing outcome in the Lopez and Little study, and in this study, the antisocial

coping strategy had direct relations with the externalizing outcomes. In both cases, the

patterns indicate that antisocial coping is a maladaptive strategy that can lead to increases in

both internalizing and externalizing behaviors. This observation is in line with current

literature on adult coping looking at the relationship between coping behaviors and well-

being (Monnier, Cameron, Hobfoll & Gribble, 2000; Roussi & Vassilaki, 2001). Monnier et

al. (2000) showed that fire-emergency workers’ antisocial coping was related to higher levels

of depressive symptoms, while their prosocial coping was related to decreased anger

expression and increased relationship adjustment. Roussi and Vassilaki (2001) also pointed

the deleterious effect of antisocial coping on psychological well-being for students and

adults.

In terms of limitations to our study, the reliance on self-report measures engenders clear

restrictions. Shared-reporter biases (e.g., self-presentation bias, social desirability) would

typically have a uniform effect on the variables such that the overall patterns in the intercept

parameters would be somewhat inflated. On the other hand, analyses involving intra-

individual growth trajectories, especially of the slope parameters, would likely be less

inflated because each individual would be expected to have a rather stable baseline of social

desirability or self-presentation bias. From this perspective, the intercept parameters would

contain the primary source of potential bias. Given that our outcome measures in the intra-

individual change analyses were slope parameters, the times in which an intercept emerged

as a predictor is not likely due to these potential sources of self-report bias.

Another limitation of this study is the ambiguity in terms of causality. Although our

regression analyses of intra-individual differences placed changes in the adjustment

variables as the outcomes, the predictive associations are not necessarily causal. It could

be, for example, that changes in the outcome variables lead to changes in the predictor

variables. For those times when initial status (e.g., the intercept of antisocial coping) was

predictive of changes in the outcome variables, a more causal interpretation is warranted. In

these situations it is logically feasible to assume that one’s standing on the predictor variable

at the beginning of the study is a more probable influence on changes in adjustment.

A third limitation of our study is that we only examined two aspects of the individual as

predictors of adjustment during this transition period. As such, this study represents a small

piece of a larger picture. Future work should include a broader array of individual level

variables (e.g., social and academic motivation), objective measures of stress and life-events,


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as well as contextual variables that may moderate the effects overtime. Because this

transition period encompasses both developmental and contextual changes it will be

important for future research to include a broader battery of developmental assessments to

help disentangle the confound between age-related changes and transition-related changes.

In our view, this study provides an important next step in examining the dynamic

interplay among general beliefs about one’s personal agency, specific action-control

behaviors involved in coping, and various indices of internalizing and externalizing

behavior, across the transition from elementary to middle school. Using an inter-individual

difference approach, we were able to identify greater between-person instability in

adjustment across this transition than within the previous school year. By also utilizing

an intra-individual differences perspective we were able to identify consistent predictors of

these changes in adjustment and maladjustment. Decreases in depressive symptoms and

increases in positive affect were associated with adaptive action-control dimensions (e.g.,

direct coping, personal agency, and prosocial coping). Aggressive behavior and negative

affect, on the other hand, were consistently predicted by maladaptive coping strategies

primarily reflective of antisocial actions. Thus, the intra-individual differences approach

offers intriguing insights into the dynamics of the factors involved in adjusting to

challenging life events such as middle school transitions.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude for the feedback and comments of our former

colleagues in the Agency in Development Lab (Todd D. Little, Director) in the Department

of Psychology at Yale University. We extend our thanks to the students of the Hamden

School District in Connecticut, as well as their parents, their teachers, and the principals of

the different schools for their cooperation in this project. This research was supported in

part by grants from the NIH to the University of Kansas through the Mental Retardation

and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (5 P30 HD002528) and the Center for

Biobehavioral Neurosciences in Communication Disorders (5 P30 DC005803), and by a

National Institute of Mental Health Individual National Research Service Award (F32

MH072005) to the third author.

Note

1 Exceptions to this pattern of generally high internal consistency are the four coping styles at wave 1, which

exhibited modest internal consistency. It should be noted that these lower internal consistency values were

unlikely to impact results presented later because we used latent-variables when examining inter-individual

stability and growth trajectories estimated using all three waves when examining intra-individual growth.

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