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Achieving Excellence through

Strategic Management

- Module One -

Day 2:

Leadership

File Name: Leadership And Management - English.Doc

Module 1 Day Page Consolidated

Leadership

Introduction

John Adair (1934 - ), a British professor and distinguished expert on Leadership

and Management, argues that a good manager is a good leader; in addition, a good

leader is a good manager. The leader must address the key issues of achieving the

task, building the team and developing individuals. The leader who concentrates

only on the task/job such as the number of criminal convictions achieved in the

justice sector, but neglects training, encouraging and motivating the group/team will

always have problems of dissonance and dysfunction.

John Adair further argues that the leader, who concentrates only on creating a team

spirit while neglecting the task/job or individual needs, will not get maximum

involvement and commitment, which only come from an environment that is both

harmonious and genuinely productive. Staff members would therefore lack any true

achievement or feeling of success which is reflected in the diagram below.

Figure 2: John Adair’s ‘Three Circles’ Diagram (1975)

To achieve this harmonious and productive workplace John Adair highlights eight

essential leadership functions:

DIRECTION COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION DEVELOPMENT

PLANNING APPRAISAL CONTROL ASSESSMENT

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John Adair has undertaken extensive research and practice within the British Army

and The Industrial Society on the nature and practice of leadership, drawing on

(amongst others) Fayol's classic theories and later studies of motivation. He

introduced the concept of Action-Centred Leadership, arguing that:

There are clear differences between ‘managing’ and ‘leading’;

Fifty per-cent of performance within teams comes from the individuals

and that the other 50% comes from quality of leadership;

Leaders should be good at inspiring others. This depends on their own

ability to communicate and share their own enthusiasm and commitment

with the rest of the team.

Adair's Skill List of an Effective Leader

John Adair highlights the following skills that make an excellent leader.

Enthusiasm

Can you think of any leader that lacks enthusiasm? It is very hard to

do, isn’t it?

Integrity

This is the quality that helps people to trust you. Trust is essential in

all human relationships – both professional and private.

‘Integrity’ means both personal wholeness and adherence to values

outside yourself especially goodness and truth.

Toughness

Leaders are often demanding people; uncomfortable to have around

because their standards are high. They are resilient and tenacious.

Leaders aim to be respected, but not necessarily popular.

Fairness

Effective leaders treat individuals differently, in accordance to their

needs, but equally. They do not have favourites. They are impartial in

giving rewards and penalties for performance.

Warmth

Cold fish do not make good leaders. Leadership involves your heart

as well as your mind. Loving what you are doing and caring for people

are equally essential.

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Content / Job

Process / People

80%

20%

Humility

An odd quality but one that is characteristic of the very best leaders.

The opposite to humility is arrogance. Who wants to work for an

arrogant manager? The signs of a good leader are a willingness to

listen and a lack of ego.

Confidence

Confidence is essential. People will sense whether or not you have it,

so developing self-confidence is always a preliminary to becoming a

leader. But don’t let it become overconfidence as this can lead to

arrogance.

Action-Centred Leadership

John Adair's Action Centred Leadership Model provides a simple illustration of

effective management in action. He states that if you look closely at matters

involving leadership, there are always three elements or variables:

The leader - qualities of personality and character;

The situation - partly constant, partly varying;

The group - the followers: their needs and values.

Work groups are always different, just as individuals are. After coming together they

soon develop a group personality. So that which works in one group may not work in

another. All groups and organisations are unique. If a group is to work effectively

and efficiently, there are three areas of important overlapping need, as illustrated

below:

John Adair's Action Centred Leadership Model

Overlapping Needs

Figure 3: Iceberg Analogy & Action Centred Leadership Model

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Studies have shown that most managers spend 80% of their time in the content/job

area of their work (the part which is easy to see – as if it is the part of an iceberg that

rises above the surface of the sea) and only 20% of their work time on

process/people (the part which is hardest to see – as if it is the part of the iceberg

that remains below the surface).

Is this the most effective use of their time? The following sections explain Adair's

model and this should help you to answer this question.

Task Need

Work groups and organisations are formed because there is a task (job) to be done,

which is too big for one person. You can do smaller jobs by yourself, but you cannot

deal with major jobs on your own - you need a team for that.

Team Need

As with an iceberg, much of the life of any group lies below the surface.

Again, it is best to think of groups that are threatened from without by forces aimed

at their disintegration or from within by disruptive people or ideas. We can then see

how they give priority to maintaining themselves against these external or internal

pressures, sometimes showing great ingenuity in the process.

Many of the written or unwritten rules of the group are designed to promote this unity

and to maintain cohesiveness at all costs. Those who challenge or infringe group

standards and corporate balance may expect reactions varying from friendly

indulgence to downright anger.

Instinctively a common feeling exists that ‘united we stand, divided we fall’, that good

relationships, desirable in themselves, are also an essential means towards the

shared end. This need to create and promote group cohesiveness could be called

‘team maintenance need’.

Individual Needs

Individuals bring into the group their own needs. Not just their physical needs for

food and shelter (which are often catered for by the payment of wages) but also the

psychological needs: recognition, a sense of doing something worthwhile, status,

and the deeper need to give to and receive from other people in a working situation.

These individual needs are perhaps more profound than we sometimes realise.

Individual needs spring from the depths of our common life as human beings. They

may attract us to, or repel us from, any given group. Underlying them all is the fact

that people need one another – not just to survive – but to achieve and develop

personally. This growth occurs in a whole range of social activities such as

friendship, marriage, and social interaction with the community. Inevitably, work

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groups are extremely important because many people spend much of their waking

time in them.

How the three areas/circles interact

As illustrated previously, the three areas of need overlap and influence one another.

For example, if the common task/job is achieved this satisfies both the team needs

and many of the personal needs of the individuals. If there is a lack of cohesiveness

in the team circle - a failure of team maintenance - then performance in the task/job

area will be impaired and the satisfaction of individual members reduced.

Thus we can visualise those needs as three overlapping circles; a simple but not

superficial model. In whatever type of work you are, at whatever level of leadership -

team leader, operational leader, trainer, or strategic leader - there are three things

that you should always be thinking about: task, team, and individual.

Functional Approach to Leadership

What has all this got to do with management or leadership you might ask? Simply

this: in order to achieve the common task and to maintain individual performance

and teamwork, certain functions have to be performed. A function is what you do, as

opposed to a quality, which is an aspect of who you are. For example, someone has

to define the objectives, make a plan, or hold the team together if it is threatened by

disruptive forces. You can learn to provide the functions of leadership, which are

called for by task, team and individual needs. This is the key to effective leadership.

Moreover, you can - by practice, study, experience and reflection - learn to do the

functions with skill. They will become your leadership skills. However, this does not

mean that you will be performing all of them all of the time.

The Role of a Leader

You can now be crystal-clear about your role as a leader. In its wider social use, a

role can be roughly defined as the expectations that people have of you. However, if

different people have different expectations you may experience role confusion. For

example, if there is a difference between the expectations of your manager, your

colleague and your team – it can cause confusion in you, your team and some of the

individuals who make up your team.

We do not expect people to act outside their roles in the context of work. For

instance, if a Judge stopped court proceedings simply to tell a joke that he had heard

on the radio the previous night, most of us would be amazed. We do not expect

Judges to behave in that way – we have a clear picture of the role they should play.

The three-circle model helps to define the leader’s role in a visual way. People

expect their leaders to help them to achieve the common task/job, to build the

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The Role Functions

Defining the Task

Planning

Briefing

Controlling

Evaluating

Motivating

Organising

Providing an Example

synergy of teamwork and to respond to individuals and meet their needs. The

overlapping circles integrate these three facets of the role.

John Adair's Definition of Leadership Functions

Figure 4: John Adair's Definition of Leadership Functions

How to turn the Core Functions into Skills

It is important to note that because the three areas of task, team, and individual

overlap so much - any function will tend to affect all three circles. Take planning for

example. At first sight that appears to be solely a task function. Yet there is nothing

like a poor plan to break-up a team or frustrate an individual; it hits all three circles.

Another general factor to bear in mind is that leadership and management exist on

different levels:

Team leadership Leading a team of between five to 20 people.

Operational

leadership

Leading a significant unit in the business or

organisation, composed of a number of teams whose

leaders report to you.

Strategic leadership Leading a whole business or organisation, with overall

accountability for the two levels of leadership below you.

Not only the three circles but the eight functions also apply at all these levels, but in

different ways. The functional approach to leadership described here is sometimes

called 'action-centred leadership'. A function is one of a group of related actions

contributing to development or maintenance, just as each part of the body has its

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function in relation to the whole. Are you functional as a leader? In other words, are

you capable of performing the regular functions expected of a leader?

Defining the Task

‘Task’ is a very general word. It simply means ‘something that needs

to be done’ or ‘a job’ – usually something that you are required to do.

Generally speaking, people in teams or organisations have some idea

of what they are there to do. The task needing to be done should be

focused onto an objective that is:

Clear;

Concrete;

Time-limited;

Realistic;

Challenging;

Capable of evaluation.

Additionally, objectives should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable,

Realistic, and Time bound (SMART). If it is not possible to evaluate

an objective in that there is no ‘success criterion’ then it will not be

possible for team members to know that the objective has in fact been

achieved. If your target or goal is to reach the top of Mount

Kilimanjaro you will know when you reach it. In many other areas of

human endeavour, the success criteria are far less obvious but people

still enjoy a sense of achievement. Leadership is also about

answering the question ‘why’ as well as ‘what’. A boss may tell you

what to do, but a leader will explain or convey to you why you are

doing it, in order to generate your willing co-operation and enthusiasm.

The hallmark of all true leadership is one who inspires to act in

accordance with the intended goals. There is an overlap here with

motivation, or giving others a sufficient reason or grounds for action.

Referring to the task circle Adair suggests that all leaders should be

able to relate an objective to the wider aims and purpose of the

organisation. In other words, they need to be able to think - and often

to speak - in terms of a set of directions. Hence leaders at all levels

should stimulate a vision of where the team is heading. ‘Vision’

literally means to see where you are going – this can be a new

direction for a small team or everyone in the organisation. Change

always brings the necessity to think very hard about your purpose, as

well as your aims and objectives in the context of rapid changes in

markets, technology, economy and social lives. This is the prime

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responsibility of strategic leaders, but it is wise to involve operational

and team leaders in this process as well.

Planning the Task

Planning is the first of Adair's eight functional tasks. It means building

a mental bridge from where you are now to where you want to be

when you have achieved the objective. The function of planning

meets the group’s need to accomplish its task by answering many

open-ended questions such as

Who?

Where?

What?

When?

Why

How?

For example: Why are we doing this job? How shall we achieve this

task? Who should complete it? When should we complete it by?

Where shall we carry out each part of the task?

There is a useful way of looking at the planning function as a cake that

can be sliced in different proportions, as illustrated in John Adair’s

Planning Continuum. The advantages of moving towards the right-

hand side of the continuum are considerable. The more that people

share in decisions that affect their working life, the more they are

motivated to carry them out. This is one facet of empowerment.

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Figure 5: John Adair's Planning Continuum

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On the other hand, you will notice that when you work in the sixth position

you have lost control over the outcome. The team may make a plan that

meets all the objectives, but you would have done it differently. Can you

live with that?

Where you should be on the planning continuum depends on several key

factors, notably the time available to plan and the competence level of the

team members. There is no one right ‘style’. The best leaders are

consistent - you know where you stand with them and they are in many

respects predictable. But when it comes to decision-making they are

infinitely flexible. So a good leader, working with individuals or teams,

can operate at many different points on the scale during a day. A trainer

or facilitator who is responsible for a group of students on a course

should plan to be at the end of the continuum by the conclusion of the

course – because the students will return to their work and must be able

to integrate their learning into their job roles without the assistance of the

trainer.

Once work has started on the plan, it may be necessary to revise or

adapt it as circumstances or conditions dictate. You must steer a middle

course between the perennial need for flexibility as change unfolds and

tenacity in sticking to the agreed plan. Certainly, allowing too many

unnecessary changes in the plan can breed confusion. As the military

proverb says; ‘Order; counter-order; disorder.’

Briefing the Task

Briefing is the function of communicating objectives and plans to the

team. It usually involves standing or sitting in front of the team and

briefing them in a face-to-face way (a form of presentation).

Like all functions, briefing can be done with skill, for there is a right way to

brief a group and a wrong way. Briefing is part of a much larger

communication skill: effective speaking. Here are some guidelines:

Be prepared - rehearse and practise. Make sure that you have

some professional-looking visual aids - ‘A picture is worth a

thousand words’;

Be clear- double check that what you are saying is not vague,

ambiguous, or muddled;

Be simple - reduce complicated matter to its simplest form without

oversimplifying. Avoid technical language or jargon that your

audience will not understand;

Be vivid - colour your message with enthusiasm, confidence, and

humour. Make it live - make it exciting and challenging and fun;

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Be natural - you do not need to be a great orator. Just be yourself -

your best self.

Briefing is not something that you do only at the outset of a project and

then forget about. It is always a function waiting to be performed at

appropriate stages of a task/job.

Briefing is a small part of the skill of public speaking. Listening is just as

important – everyone has something to contribute to the plan and its

execution: ideas, suggestions, or information. If you want to be an

effective leader then listen.

Briefing sessions or conferences - work meetings - allow you to do some

valuable work in all three circles. In the task area you can make it the

occasion for taking charge by giving direction and focus. A certain

amount of assertiveness is often required of leaders, and the group will

accept it - even welcome it - if the situation calls for it. You can stress the

team approach to the task at hand, thus building up team spirit. You can

meet individual needs by listening to contributions, and acknowledging

the help you have received. It can also be an opportunity for

emphasising the significance of each individual’s contribution to the

success of the enterprise.

John Adair's Short Course on Leadership

The six most important words… ‘I admit I made a mistake.’

The five most important words… ‘I am proud of you.’

The four most important words… ‘What is your opinion?’

The three most important words… ‘If you please.’

The two most important words… ‘Thank you'.

The one most important word… ‘We.’

And the last, least important word… ‘I.’

Some of the supreme examples of leadership occur when a leader takes

over a demoralised group and returns it to success. The initial briefing

meeting can be especially important in this process, for first impressions

are as basic in working relationships as in love and friendship. The

impression that you make on people at that first meeting will stay with

them forever.

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But you can share your vision, your spirit of resolve, and your

determination to change the climate and standards of the group. That

may require some tough talking, and people will wait to see if it is going to

be backed up by equally firm deeds.

Controlling the Task

Controlling is the function of ensuring that all the energy of the team and

the resources at its disposal are focused on achieving the defined task.

Humans are not machines, and some of their energy during the day will

go into discussions or activities unrelated to the common task. Within

reason, this ‘time-wasting’ is acceptable, but it can become a problem in

a team that does not have a positive attitude to the common task.

It is the natural instinct of leaders (perhaps in contrast to managers) to

rely as much as possible on self-control or self-discipline in others. The

better the team and its constituent individual members, the more you can

do that.

The point about self-discipline is that it is the only way to be

disciplined/controlled and free. If control or discipline is imposed upon

us, as sometimes it must be, we always lose an element of freedom.

Leadership only exists among free and equal people; therefore a large

element of self-control within the group and the individuals is a necessary

element of leadership. If a group or team lacks self-discipline, they are

also inadvertently robbing themselves of the opportunity to experience

quality leadership.

Management implies the efficient use of resources as well as their

effective use. In these days of scarce resources - time, money, and

material in all its forms - the thrifty or economical use of resources is

imperative for anyone that occupies organisational or community

leadership roles. Good leaders will be managers in the sense that they

manage carefully and spend to good effect the resources at their

disposal. They get the maximum results with the minimum use of

resources. Remember however, it is possible to reduce overhead costs

so much that it has an adverse effect on an organisation's ability to

function effectively.

Evaluating the Task

As we have already seen, a key part of defining the task is establishing

the success criteria – to see if we are achieving the objective or at least

making progress in its general direction.

Evaluating is much wider than that; work performance has to be judged in

relation to organisational values, which are usually implicit in the

organisation’s purpose. Consequently, evaluating is not something that

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you, as a leader, leave to the end. Whenever you comment on the

progress of a task - or the lack of it - you are performing the function of

evaluating.

Because it is a major mental function, an integral part of thinking,

evaluating will play a crucial role in your decision-making. When you

assess the possible consequences of a decision, for example, you will be

evaluating.

You also evaluate in the other two circles: the team and the individual.

Why evaluate the team, or get the team to evaluate its ways of working

together? Because it is the principal way to build or develop the team –

here are some of the criteria or hallmarks of an excellent, high-

performance team:

Clear realistic objectives - everyone knows what the team’s

objectives are and their part in the plan;

Shared sense of purpose - by which I do not mean that every

member can recite the organisation’s mission statement, but that

they have a clear direction plus the energy to get there;

Best use of resources - all resources belong to the team and are put

to work according to priority;

Atmosphere of openness - excellent two-way communication

between leader and members and amongst the members

themselves. People should be able to speak openly, without fear of

being thought critical. All that matters is to ensure that the best

decisions are taken;

Handles failure - success is often to be found at the edge of failure.

A high-performance team picks itself up quickly after a failure,

learns the lessons and presses forward;

Rides out the storms - the test of a high-performance team is in the

storms that destroy other teams. The true evaluation of teamwork is

during the difficult, demanding change situation.

When it comes to teamwork, remember that success can breed failure.

Successful teams sometimes become overconfident and start making

mistakes, the ones that can sink your organisation. The price of

excellence in teamwork is eternal vigilance. As a leader, you should

have a relationship with each member of the team (each individual) - an

equal but different relationship - as well as a relationship with the team as

a whole.

Those relationships will involve you in talking and listening to each

individual. Your observations and conversations may require you to take

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the role of a coach or counsellor. Appraising or evaluating individual

performance is a natural expression of leadership. You should take steps

to avoid appraisal becoming a bureaucratic routine so that it does not

become formalised or systematised within your organisation.

Motivating Others

Motivation comes from the Latin verb ‘to move’. There is, of course, a

variety of ways to move people: you can threaten them with punishments

of one form or another, or induce them with financial rewards. Although

motivating others in this way can fall within the compass of leadership as

well as management, it is not characteristic of it.

John Adair’s Key Principles For Motivating Others

Be motivated

yourself

If you are not fully committed and enthusiastic,

how can you expect others to be?

Select people

who are highly

motivated

It is not easy to motivate the unwilling. Choose

those who have the seeds of high motivation

within them. However, remember to comply with

equal opportunities.

Set realistic and

challenging

targets

The better the team and its individual members,

the more they will respond to objectives that

stretch them, providing these are realistic.

Remember that

progress

motivates

If you never give people feedback on how they

are progressing, you will soon de-motivate them.

Provide fair

rewards

Not easy. Do you reward the whole team, or

each individual, or both? Either way, the

perception of unfair rewards certainly works

against motivation.

Give recognition They cost you nothing, but praise and recognition

based upon performance are the oxygen of the

human spirit.

One of the popular motivational theories is that leaders should motivate

people with a combination of rewards and threats - the ‘carrot and stick’

approach. However, modern thought suggests that people motivate

themselves by responding to inner needs. As a leader, you must

understand these needs in individuals and how they operate, so that you

can work with the grain of human nature and not against it. Maslow's

hierarchy of needs is valuable in our understanding of how humans are

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Basic and instinctive needs

Societal and needs of civilisation

The needs vary according to the state and nature of the individuals and the society in which they live

motivated to act.

Maslow makes two interesting points. Firstly, if one of our stronger needs

is threatened, we jump down the steps of the hierarchy to defend it. You

do not worry about status (see ‘esteem’), for example, if you are starving

(see ‘physiological’). Therefore, if you appear to threaten people’s

security by your proposed changes, you should expect defensive

response. Secondly, a satisfied need ceases to motivate. When one

area of need is met, the people concerned become aware of another set

of needs within them. These in turn now begin to motivate them. There

is obviously much in this theory – when the physiological and safety

needs in particular have been satisfied they do not move us so strongly.

Figure 6: Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

Being an Ethical Leader

We begin by considering ethical and value-based leadership.

The term ‘leadership’ has already been examined during your workshop and we will

now explore what is ethical leadership.

Our purpose is not to tell you what is ethical and what is not. It is to help you to

determine better for yourself what is ethical and what is unethical.

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So what is ethical?

The short answer is that there isn't an answer. There is no absolute rule of what is

ethical and what is not. Defining what ethical and unethical mean is only a little easier.

A simpler broad definition of the word ethical is 'fair'. And 'fair' to fair-minded people,

especially those affected by the situation. This is not a scientifically robust definition, but

as you will see, when we peel back the layers of what is ethical, it is very difficult to be

scientific and firm about what it all means.

The modern Oxford English Dictionary (OED) says:

"Ethical - Relating to moral principles or the branch of knowledge dealing with these..."

Interestingly the definition continues by way of example:

"...Morally correct: Can a profitable business ever be ethical?"

Morals and morality appear commonly in attempts to define what ethical means,

although given the difficulties of defining the word morality without using quite subjective

terms, this is not terribly helpful. Morality incidentally is defined in the OED as

'...principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad

behaviour’. (Adapted from an article posted on www.businessballs.com)

Organisational outcomes and benefits from ethical leadership

More and more leaders of businesses and other organisations are now waking up to the

reality of social responsibility and organisational ethics. Public opinion, unleashed by

the internet particularly, is re-shaping expectations and standards. Organisational

behaviour - good and bad - is more transparent than ever - globally.

Injustice anywhere in the world is becoming more and more visible, and less and less

acceptable.

Reaction to corporate recklessness, exploitation, dishonesty and negligence is

becoming more and more organised and potent. Employers, businesses and

organisations of all sorts - especially the big, high profile ones - are now recognising

that there are solid effects and outcomes driving organisational change. There are now

real incentives for doing the right things and real disincentives for doing the wrong

things.

As never before, there are huge organisational advantages from behaving ethically, with

humanity, compassion, and with proper consideration for the world beyond the

boardroom and the shareholders:

Competitive advantage

Customers are increasingly favouring providers and suppliers who demonstrate

responsibility and ethical practices. Failure to do so means lost market share and

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shrinking popularity, which reduce revenues, profits, or whatever other results the

organisation seeks to achieve.

Better staff attraction and retention

The best staff want to work for truly responsible and ethical employers. Failing to be a

good employer means good staff leave employment and reduces the likelihood of

attracting good new-starters. This pushes up costs and undermines performance and

efficiency. Aside from this, good organisations simply cannot function without good

people.

Investment

Fewer and fewer investors want to invest in organisations which lack integrity and

responsibility, because they don't want the association, and because they know that for

all the other reasons here, performance will eventually decline, and who wants to invest

in a lost cause?

Morale and culture

Staff who work in a high-integrity, socially responsible, globally considerate organisation

are far less prone to stress, attrition and dissatisfaction. Therefore they are happier and

more productive. Happy productive people are a common feature in highly successful

organisations. Stressed, unhappy staff are less productive, take more time off, need

more managing, and also take no interest in sorting out the organisation's failings when

the whole thing implodes.

Reputation

It takes years, decades, to build organisational reputation - but only one scandal to

destroy it. Ethical, responsible organisations are far less prone to scandals and

disasters. And if one does occur, an ethical, responsible organisation will automatically

know how to deal with it quickly, openly and honestly. People tend to forgive

organisations who are genuinely trying to do the right thing. People do not forgive, and

are actually deeply insulted by, organisations who fail and then fail again by not

addressing the problem and the root cause. Arrogant leaders share this weird delusion

that no-one can see what they're up to. Years ago maybe they could hide, but now

there is absolutely no hiding place.

Legal and regulatory reasons

Soon there'll be no choice anyway - all organisations will have to comply with proper

ethical and socially responsible standards. And these standards and compliance

mechanisms will be global. Welcome to the age of transparency and accountability. So

it makes sense to change before you are forced to.

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Legacy

Even the most deluded leaders will admit in the cold light of day that they would prefer

to be remembered for doing something good, rather than making a pile of money or

building a great big empire. It is human nature to be good. Humankind would not have

survived were this not so. The greedy and the deluded have traditionally been able to

persist with unethical, irresponsible behaviour because there has been nothing much

stopping them, or reminding them that maybe there is another way; but not anymore.

Part of the re-shaping of attitudes and expectations is that making a pile of money, and

building a great big empire, are becoming stigmatised. What is so great about leaving

behind a pile of money or a great big empire if it has been at the cost of others' well-

being, or the health of the planet? The ethics and responsibility Zeitgeist1. is

fundamentally changing the view of what a lifetime legacy should be and can be. And

this will change the deeper aspirations of leaders, present and future, who can now see

more clearly what a real legacy is.

1. Zeitgeist - mood or feeling of the moment - from the same German word, formed

from 'Zeit' (time, in the sense of an age or a period) and 'geist' (spirit - much like the

English word, relating to ghosts and the mind). Zeitgeist is pronounced 'zite-guyste': the

‘I’ sounds are as in 'eye' and the G is hard as in 'ghost'. The word Zeitgeist is

particularly used in England these days to refer to the increasing awareness of, and

demand for, humanity and ethics in organised systems of the modern 'developed' world,

notably in people's work, lives, business and government.

The UK Institute of Business Ethics suggests a simple 'test' for ethical decision-making

in business.

Adapted below, it is applicable to all decisions in all types of organisations and in life as

a whole. It is a remarkably easy test to apply.

Try it next time you have to make a decision:

Transparency - am I happy to make my decision public - especially to the people

affected by it?

Effect - have I fully considered the harmful effects of my decision and how to avoid

them?

Fairness - would my decision be considered fair by everyone affected by it (consider all

stakeholders - the effects of decisions can be far-reaching)

If you can honestly answer ‘Yes’ to each of the above questions then you are likely to

be making an ethical decision.

If you have any doubt about saying ‘Yes’ to any of the questions then you should think

about things more carefully. Maybe there is an entirely different and better solution -

there often is.

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If you can't decide how to answer these questions, seek input from someone who has

strong ethical principles, and who owes you nothing. Especially do not ask anyone to

advise you about difficult decisions if they owe you some sort of allegiance.

Leaders can sometimes be blinded by their own feelings of self-importance, and more

dangerously can believe that the leader's job requires them to shoulder the burden of

decisions which cause anguish and suffering, or worse. Believing that leadership carries

some sort of right to take risks with other people's well-being is nothing more than

arrogant delusion. A strong feature of good leadership is knowing when and having the

strength, to find another way - the ethical way.

Organising the Task

Organising is the function of arranging or forming into a coherent whole.

It can mean systematic planning as well, but that is a function we have

already covered. It encompasses the structuring - or restructuring - that

has to be done if people are to work as a team, with each element

performing its proper part in an effective whole. For example, you may

break a larger group down into smaller subgroups.

Much of the ground here has already been covered such as being clear

about the objectives, making a workable plan, and structuring the group

to facilitate two-way communication, teamwork, and the appropriate

measure of control. However, there are three other aspects to be

considered: systems, administration, and time management.

Systems

Organisers tend to organise things by introducing systems. A system is

almost a synonym for an organisation: a set of interrelated parts making

up a whole. However, ‘system’ can refer to processes - orderly or

structured ways of doing things - as well as social structures.

You cannot run anything without systems: production systems, selling

systems, financial systems, and so on. In large organisations, there is a

variety of other systems, such as appraisal systems or quality control

systems.

A good leader understands the importance and value of systems. Almost

by definition it is impossible to think of organisations that do not have

systems or definite ways of doing things, although they are not always

immediately apparent. A good leader respects and works through the

systems, changing them if need be. But they are not bound by them, like

prisoners shackled in chains. They know when a system is becoming

counterproductive.

Moreover, every system - if you think about it - requires teamwork to

make it effective. So we come back to that core function of leadership:

building and maintaining the team. To keep systems - the very essence

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of a corporate body - fit and healthy, good leadership at all levels is

needed.

Administration

Administration is usually linked to management skills rather than

leadership skills. You may be able to recall a leader you have met who

was full of entrepreneurial spirit, enthusiasm, and drive, a motivator of

others but completely useless as an organiser and administrator. Indeed,

‘industrial administration’ was once the name for what we now call

management, as highlighted by the term MBA - Master of Business

Administration.

Administration, as we all know, involves paperwork and is primarily

concerned with the day-to-day running of things. It usually includes

financial administration of various kinds and levels.

The key thing to remember is that administration is always secondary to

something else. It is a servant function. Minister is the Latin word for

‘servant’; it comes from the familiar minus, ‘less’ (as opposed to the

magister, ‘master’, derived from magis, ‘more’).

In the old days, when organisations were overstaffed, you as the leader

(alias magister) could delegate all the day-to-day paperwork to your staff.

To some extent you still can, not least if you have a secretary. But these

days, leaders - equipped with personal computers - will often have to do

a great deal more administration than in the past, especially at team

leader level. So being a good administrator is now a part of being a good

leader.

Taking on this administrative responsibility of leadership is a way of

becoming a good facilitator, for you are thereby freeing the team as a

whole and its individual members to be effective, creative, and innovative.

That does not mean to say that you should do all the administration - far

from it. You need to delegate so that you have time to think and time to

lead. But you should perform the administration that cannot be delegated

(either because of its nature or because you lack anyone to delegate it to)

in such a way that you are providing a good example. If you are late and

sloppy doing the paperwork in returns, how can you expect others to be

on time with their returns? Make sure that your team has a reputation for

excellence in all administrative matters.

Lastly, seeing part of your role as an administrator helps to create real

teamwork in the organisation. As an administrator, you will come to

appreciate more and more the contributions of those in the ‘backroom’ of

the enterprise, those who are primarily administrators. Their work may

be more mundane and more behind-the-scenes, but it is vital to the

success of the organisation as a whole and to your team in particular.

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Remember to share your success with these invisible members of your

team!

Time Management

Leaders need time to think, time for people - customers as well as team

members - and time to grow the organisation. Therefore, they should be

skilled managers of their own time. If you cannot organise yourself, how

can you organise anyone or anything else? Administering that scarce

resource, your own time, is the priority for any leader.

If you were to keep a diary of how you spend your time over a two-week

period, charting every half hour at work, then go through it putting a T for

Task, TM for Team Maintenance, and I for Individual Needs beside each

item, you might get an indication of where you spend most of your time.

You may of course put more than one of these code letters beside each

item.

This exercise, properly done, will give you an idea of how much of your

key resource - time - is not being spent in your core role as a leader.

Then ask yourself: ‘What am I being paid to do?’

Time management is made up of applying some underlying principles.

Know and understand your role remit, aims and objectives and be aware

of practical policies and time-saving tips. Learning to say no, which

sounds so simple, can save you a bundle of time.

Effective Delegation

One of the challenges of management is to know which tasks are

appropriate to delegate to other people, and how to delegate these tasks

effectively. Many of your outcomes as a manager will be achieved

through the tasks other people do, and it is clearly vital to your success

that you learn how to delegate.

Delegating may not be an option for you at present. However, there may

be possibilities for you to delegate later in your career, so the expertise

you acquire now will prove useful to you.

The benefits of delegating

Being in control doesn’t mean having to do everything yourself.

Delegating some of your tasks to others will leave you more time to plan,

organise and co-ordinate. It will enable you to spend more time on tasks,

which require your specialist attention. You may also be able to develop

your own skills by taking on more advanced work.

Managers are often so busy ‘doing’ they never have time for anything

else. Your creative skills may never be employed because you have no

time to sit down to think and plan tasks ahead of time. Delegation will

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help you create that time. Efficiency and productivity can be improved by

allowing decisions to be made at the lowest possible level. Greater staff

involvement in decision-making can increase motivation and improve

work performance. Delegation can also help to develop staff to their full

potential and, having staff trained to handle a variety of tasks, gives you

greater flexibility in organising your workload.

Those to whom work is delegated will be able to increase their

competence and skills as a result of what they do. This may help to

increase their commitment to the organisation and give greater job

satisfaction. People do not usually shine if their work presents few

challenges. If they are set new tasks, motivation and morale can

increase, particularly if the task is carefully matched to their skill. Their

personal development is enhanced alongside their career development.

Your attitude towards delegation

Some people at management level delegate willingly. Others do so

reluctantly — or not at all. There may be many reasons for this

reluctance. The following questions will help you focus on your own

attitude towards delegation. Tick the statements you relate to most

1 I can do it more quickly myself.

2 It’s too risky — The job can’t afford mistakes.

3 I am responsible, so I must keep control.

4 It would be time consuming initially, but would save time long term.

5 I’m not sure they’ll do it properly.

6 They may prove better at the job than I am.

7 If I delegate the easy tasks, I will be left with all the difficult ones.

8 I will get some of the credit for their success in the delegated task.

9 I do not like to do everything myself — I’m far too busy.

10 I feel powerful when I keep all the tasks for myself.

11 I’m not always the best one for the job.

If you ticked Numbers 4, 8, 9 and 11 you are already good at delegation.

You know that it is impossible to do everything yourself and recognise

that others may be equally qualified to take over some of your tasks. You

also know that their success will reflect on you and that it is worth the

time and effort involved in training them.

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If you ticked Numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10, you must seriously consider

to what extent your refusal to delegate is eating into your time and

preventing you from doing more important things.

If you ticked a mixture of responses, you are obviously able to delegate

some tasks, but may be too restrictive in your role. This, in turn, gives

you unnecessary work to do.

Once you recognise the benefits of delegation, the next steps are to

decide what and who to delegate to.

What to delegate

There are certain tasks, which can be delegated more easily than others.

Here are some suggestions:

Minor routine tasks

Particularly work which has to be covered whether you are present

or not some of these tasks may be time-consuming and not need

your level of competence.

Work, which will develop others

Look for a range of interesting and increasingly complex tasks to

provide new challenges which will increase their skills.

Duties others can do equally as well

Look at tasks where a particular person’s skill and experience could

be valuable.

Assignments others can do better

Recognise that you are not necessarily the best at everything.

New responsibilities

New responsibilities will come your way, but some may take too

much time for you to learn, relative to their importance.

What not to delegate

There are certain tasks, which are difficult or inadvisable to delegate.

These include:

Matters requiring your professional expertise;

Crises;

Specific personal or confidential matters;

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Disciplinary and grievance matters;

Policy making or planning.

But, make sure you do not just delegate boring, routine tasks and keep

the interesting ones for yourself.

Who to delegate to

Here are some guidelines. Delegate to:

People who are directly responsible to you;

Those who have potential; those who need more responsibility;

Those who need a challenge;

Those who feel frustrated by lack of promotional opportunity;

Individuals who have weaknesses in areas which could be helped

by your experience;

Staff whose development will contribute to the success of the

individual, the office, the service, or yourself;

Team members at the lowest level at which a job can be done.

Delegating a portion of your work to a member of your team, is not only

delegating the task; it is also delegating the authority to carry out that

task.

What you cannot delegate is accountability. You are the one who

delegated the task. You are ultimately accountable – both when things

go well and when things go badly. If you match the task and the

individual carefully, the fact that you are accountable should not be a

problem.

How to delegate

Before you delegate any task, you must have it clearly defined in your

own mind. The following ten steps are the ones you will have to take to

ensure you provide sufficient information for the job to be done properly.

1 Describe the assignment (the overall goal).

2 Set sub-objectives and specific tasks.

3 Indicate performance standards (how they will know the task has

been carried out to a satisfactory standard).

4 Allow for questions (throughout your instructions).

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5 Check understanding (regularly).

6 Indicate responsibility (who is in control).

7 Give some useful examples (to illustrate your points).

8 Indicate the follow-up procedure (to enable a performance check)

9 Provide the necessary resources (ensure everything is provided to

complete the task).

10 Provide the necessary authority (make it clear to all involved that

authority has been given).

Providing an Example

Leadership is example; certainly, it is impossible to think of leadership

without example. It may take many shapes and forms, but it has to be

there.

In the context of communication, you can think of examples of communicating a

message through ‘body language’ or non-verbal communication or, as the modern

management proverb puts it, you have to ‘walk the talk’.

John Adair's Key Questions for Good Leadership

Task The core action of going out in front on the journey in order

to show the way is a form of leading by example.

How can you ‘lead from the front’ in your field?

Team As a builder and maintainer of the team you need to

maintain or change group standards - the invisible rules

that hold groups together.

Individual Think of each team member as a leader in her or his own

right. Each should be a leader in their technical or

professional role, and a ‘three-circle’ contributor.

How can you develop your team's standards through the power of

example?

Remember that you cannot avoid being an example of some kind or

other, simply because the people that work with you will always observe

what you are and what you do as well as what you say. ‘Managers take

six months to get to know their staff,’ goes a Japanese maxim, ‘but staff

only take six days to get to know managers.’

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Example, in other words, is just you. Nevertheless, you do have some

discretion as to whether it will be a good or poor example.

You can see now the importance of this function, but can it be done with

skill? At first sight no, for skill implies a conscious learning of an art. To

set an example consciously in order to influence others seems to be

rather manipulative. That is why Adair advocates providing an example,

rather than setting one. For you can provide an example in an

unselfconscious way, as an expression of who you are as opposed to

something done for a carefully, calculated effect. If your example

becomes a habit, you will not have to think about it.

It follows that if you are going to lead effectively by example as much as

by other means you will need at least modesty if not humility - that rarest

of all qualities in leadership, found only in the best. The Chinese

philosopher Lao-Tzu summed it up in the sixth century before the

Christian era:

A leader is best when people barely know that he exists. Not so good when people

obey and acclaim him — worst when they despise him.

Support for John Adair’s research

Since John Adair’s original research, his findings have been supported and reinforced

on many occasions. The 2006 European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM)

Excellence Model identifies the following criteria to identify an excellent Leader

Leaders develop the mission, vision & values and are role models of a culture of

excellence;

Leaders are personally involved in ensuring the organisation’s management

system is developed, implemented & continuously improved;

Leaders are involved with customers, partners & representatives of society;

Leaders motivate, support & recognise the organisation’s people.

Prepared by Dr Debra Willoughby

The model has been adapted for use within the Police sector and is the base for the

Achieving Policing Excellence through Strategic Leadership Mod

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achieving excellence through strategic management - module oneksp.gov.sd/en/images/ebooks/2.pdf ·...

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