acculturation among latino bilingual education teacher candidates: implications for teacher...

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Acculturation Among LatinoBilingual Education TeacherCandidates: Implicationsfor Teacher PreparationInstitutionsBelinda Bustos Flores PhD a , Ellen Riojas Clark b ,Norma S. Guerra c & Serafin V. Sánchez da Department of Interdisciplinary Learning &Teaching , University of Texas , San Antoniob Division of Bicultural Bilingual Studies , Universityof Texas , San Antonioc Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology& Adult Higher Education , University of Texas , SanAntoniod Marriage and Family Institute of San AntonioPublished online: 15 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Belinda Bustos Flores PhD , Ellen Riojas Clark , Norma S. Guerra& Serafin V. Sánchez (2008) Acculturation Among Latino Bilingual Education TeacherCandidates: Implications for Teacher Preparation Institutions, Journal of Latinos andEducation, 7:4, 288-304, DOI: 10.1080/15348430802143550

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Acculturation Among Latino BilingualEducation Teacher Candidates:

Implications for TeacherPreparation Institutions

Belinda Bustos FloresDepartment of Interdisciplinary Learning & Teaching

University of Texas at San Antonio

Ellen Riojas ClarkDivision of Bicultural Bilingual Studies

University of Texas at San Antonio

Norma S. GuerraDepartment of Counseling, Educational Psychology

& Adult Higher EducationUniversity of Texas at San Antonio

Serafin V. SánchezMarriage and Family Institute of San Antonio

This study examined acculturation among Latino bilingual education teacher candidatesto identify psychosocial distinctions among 3 identified groups: 1st-generation collegestudents, 2nd-generation paraprofessionals, and immigrant normalistas (normal schoolforeign-trained teachers). Using acculturation scales, we observed overall group and be-tween-group differences. Post hoc group differences showed variations for groups to-ward affiliation, individual and collective agency, and family values. Explored are impli-cations for teacher preparation programs as well as important considerations for therecruitment and preparation of diverse Spanish- and non-Spanish-speaking Latinos.

JOURNAL OF LATINOS AND EDUCATION, 7(4), 288–304Copyright © 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1534-8431 print / 1532-771X onlineDOI: 10.1080/15348430802143550

Correspondence should be addressed to Belinda Bustos Flores, PhD, Department of Interdisciplin-ary Learning & Teaching, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX78249. E-mail: [email protected]

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Key words: bilingual education teacher candidates, acculturation and bilingual edu-cation teacher, acculturation and bilingual teacher preparation, acculturation andteacher identity, acculturation and ethnic teacher identity, acculturation and bilingualteacher identity

More than 40 years of academic research on what constitutes the unique characterof Latinos in the United States was reviewed by the Association of Hispanic Ad-vertising Agencies (Kravetz, 2006) to propose a new model of Latino culturalidentity. They identified four “chambers” of Latino identity—interpersonal orien-tation, time and space perception, spirituality, and gender perception—each withits own qualities and characteristics. Their analysis indicated that it is the “inter-connectedness of all four chambers and the influence of contextual factors such asimmigration stress, education, discrimination, ethnic pride and socioeconomiclevel on those chambers that is really shaping Latino identity today and influencestheir actions” (p. 7). So how we, as teachers, situate ourselves within the reality ofour social cultural context determines our own unique ways of being.

Clearly, ethnic differences occur as a result of ethnic identity development, theacculturation process, and generational differences (Phinney, 2005; Phinney &Haas, 2003; Phinney, Ong, & Madden, 2000). The implications of acculturationfor ethnic minority groups continues to be explored with college students (e.g.,Phinney & Haas, 2003) and, more specifically, with Mexican American femalecollege students (Castillo, Conoley, & Brossart, 2004). However, no study to datehas examined the acculturation of prospective ethnic minority teachers. Given thatpursuing a career is a life adjustment, Lucero-Miller and Newman (1999) sug-gested that exploring the relationship between career choice and acculturation isgreatly needed.

The examination of acculturation as it influences teacher aspirations is an im-portant yet complex task (Flores & Clark, 1997). In the case of university studentsstudying to be teachers, acculturation issues related to self-conceptualization andethnic identity influence the development of teacher instructional efficacy (Clark& Flores, 2001; Flores & Clark, 2004). The acculturative stress experienced byethnic minority teacher candidates as they move from traditional teacher prepara-tion programs into schools with very diverse student populations can be of magni-tude (Flores & Clark, 2004). A teacher’s acculturation level (e.g., ethnic and socialclass differences) may result in pedagogical and curricular mismatches that will ul-timately have a detrimental impact on ethnic minority students’ achievement.

The purpose of this is study was to examine bilingual education teacher candi-dates’acculturation experience and background, focusing on three distinct groups:first-generation college students, second-generation paraprofessionals, and immi-grant normalistas (normal school foreign-trained teachers). To better conceptual-ize the issues involved in acculturation, we present an examination of the relevant

ACCULTURATION AMONG BILINGUAL TEACHER CANDIDATES 289

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literature addressing teacher identity in regard to ethnic identity, acculturative con-flict, and self-efficacy/agency.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The development of teacher identity is an intersection of different experiencesand social interactions within self, the family unit, the cultural community, andthe schooling process (Clark & Flores, 2007). In the case of teachers, the devel-opment of self begins many years prior to their arrival in a university’s teacherpreparation program. The socialization processes greatly influences the develop-ment of self.

It is important to examine how recognition theory in relation to personal iden-tity formation forms the development of the self prior to someone entering a uni-versity program. According to recognition theory, in order for an individual to de-velop a sense of identity, he or she requires psychological affiliation, equality andequity, and social esteem gained through experiences providing solidarity, dignity,and respect (Heidegren, 2002; Honneth, 2004). Essentially, affiliation, or the senseof belonging, provides the individual with emotional support. When an individualhas a sense of equality based on equity rights, cognitive self-respect results. Per-sonal identity is considered to be a “precondition for human self-realization”(Heidegren, 2002, p. 436). Moreover, Heidegren asserted that without this sense ofrecognition, it would be impossible to answer the esoteric question “Who am I?”.

As human beings, we have a natural tendency to seek patterns. The manner inwhich we come to understand and interpret the world is through the schematic pat-terns afforded to us by our family and cultural group. Thus, the formation of sche-matic patterns results in a process of classification, identification, and character-ization of all our socialization experiences. These experiences are also evident inthe dynamic interaction between the environment, person, and behavior that is vis-ible in the personal roles assumed (Bandura, 1997). This interaction is more thanjust personal management of impacting events; Bandura (1997) explained it asforms of agency. Three identifiable agency forms are (a) personal—which focuseson an individualistic perspective, (b) proxy—in which well-being involves invest-ing in others on their behalf, and (c) collective—which is tied to group investment.Phinney (2005) explained self-identity changes as being influenced by develop-mental and contextual factors. Bandura (2002) suggested that cultural distinctionsoccur as the merging and blending of personal agencies as transposed into socialstructure. Social cognitive actions are thus dynamic exchanges framed by the indi-vidual’s personal agency of developmental and contextual factors and cultural dis-tinctions.

Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more willing to be self-reflective, per-sistent on task, and take greater risks; thus they experience greater gains (Bandura,

290 FLORES, CLARK, GUERRA, SÁNCHEZ

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1997; Pajares, 2003). Individuals with low self-efficacy are more inclined to giveup and not persist. It is in this regard that Bandura offered additional informationabout agency efficacy. Proxy efficacy relies on others to meet and secure perceivedneeds; the individual uses skills, knowledge, and investment in supporting andinfluencing others to seek direction. Individuals may also pursue proxy efficacybecause they do not wish to invest in the work, stress, and responsibility neededto exercise control (Bandura, 2000). Collective efficacy involves social inter-dependence without autonomy (Bandura, 2002). Groups differ in identity (e.g.,those who value a collective identity vs. those who do not). For ethnic minorities,the commitment to and affiliation with ethnic group identity and group under-standing provide positive psychological wellness (Phinney, 2005). Bandura (2002)suggested that cultural and cross-cultural differences in efficacy and knowledgeoccur because of individual agency.

In sum, these socialization processes—identity and agency—are pertinent to un-derstanding teacher candidates’ self-conceptualization. Several researchers havesurmised the importance of all teachers exploring and developing a sense of an eth-nic/cultural self (Clark & Flores, 2001; Flores & Clark, 2004; Gallavan, 2002;Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Ethnic identity, as a complex and multidimensional con-struct, is generally considered an individual’s ideas and attitudes pertaining to hisor her own ethnic group membership (Bernal, Knight, Ocampo, Garza, & Costa,1993; Phinney, 2005). As a developmental, dynamic social process impacted bycontext, the multidimensional construct process includes ethnic identity forma-tion, ethnic identification, language, self-esteem, ethnic consciousness, and un-conscious beliefs (Devereux, 1980; Phinney, 1991, 2005). Flores (2001) positedthat teacher candidates must have an ethnic consciousness whereby they connectwith ethnic membership issues. Villegas and Lucas (2002) contended that teachercandidates must expand their sociocultural consciousness and understand othergroups’ ways of knowing and being. Galindo and Olguín (1996) purported, “Themanner in which minority teachers sort out and interpret their cultural identityplays a critical role in their role identity as educators” (p. 51). In the case of ethnicminority educators, their minority experiences act as a “bridging identity” towardtheir teacher identity formation. Their lived experiences within a sociocultural andpolitical context become central to how they define and comport themselves withstudents, parents, and colleagues (Galindo, 1996; Galindo, Aragón, & Underhill,1996; Galindo & Olguín, 1996). We contend that all teachers have an ethnic/cul-tural identity that should be acknowledged and developed as an essential compo-nent of his or her teacher identity.

Absent from the teacher identity literature is the role of acculturation (i.e., theacquisition and/or adaptation process that occurs when two cultural groups comeinto contact as in the context of the college and majority society experience; Flores& Clark, 2004; Phinney & Haas, 2003). Several researchers have reported highlevels of stress among first-generation Hispanic college students (Berry, Phinney,


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Sam, & Vedder, 2006; Phinney & Haas, 2003). Furthermore, intergenerationalcommunication challenges arise as ethnic minority college students change withregard to values, traditions, gender roles, experiences, and learning during theirhigher education experience (Phinney, 2005; Phinney & Haas, 2003). Consistentlydemonstrated in the literature is that when college stress is explored in regard togenerational acculturation stress, it is evident that there are significant influencesupon academic achievement, social interaction stress levels, knowledge about thesocial structure, and responses to the majority society (Berry et al., 2006; Hurtado& García, 1994; Sam & Berry, 2006). Likewise, Saldaña (1994) found that socialclass and ethnicity contributed to college student stress. In contrast, Castillo et al.(2004) observed a lower degree of stress experienced by bicultural Mexican Amer-ican college women. However, noteworthy is that these participants were second-and third-generation ethnic minorities. Phinney, Dennis, and Gutierrez (2005)grouped Latino freshmen based on their college orientation. They found that thegroups differed on college self-efficacy and degree confidence, but grade point av-erages did not differ. All of the aforementioned findings have implications for La-tino prospective teachers, who tend to be mostly female, first-generation collegestudents.

Identity formation, which includes acculturation, modulates teachers’cognitiveinterpretations, psychosocial integration, and behavioral accommodation (Flores& Clark, 2004). We posit that to view the acculturation process from the lens of hu-man agency, where an individual is and what is perceived as important then be-come issues of identity. The social construction of identity is at the core of howteachers will come to understand the role of culture in shaping racial and ethnic re-lations within their classrooms. As Franzak (2002) aptly indicated,

We live in a world of negotiated identity, one where we continually construct and re-vise our vision of us. Those of us who create “teacher” as part of our identity must ne-gotiate the particular implications of our professional identity in relation to students,peers, the general public, our intimates, and ourselves. (p. 258)

Novice ethnic minority teachers are met with a diverse study body, some mem-bers of which may share similar acculturation experiences, others not. The revolv-ing-door pattern found among entering teachers seems to indicate disparities (TheUrban Teacher Challenge, 2000) in preparation and coping strategies. Trouble-some are the long-standing pedagogical incompatibilities that result in minoritiesoften being forced to deny their cultural heritage (Peña, 1997). These pedagogicalincompatibilities cannot go unaddressed as contributors to the failure of schoolsystems to provide equitable education (Valencia, 2000; Valenzuela, 1999).

Often Latino teacher candidates are regarded as if they were a homogeneousgroup. Thus, it is important to examine acculturation among Latino bilingual edu-


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cation teacher candidates to discern if psychosocial distinctions exist among thethree identified groups. The research questions we addressed are the following:

1. Do differences exist in multicultural experiences as measured by the Multi-cultural Experience Inventory (MEI) among three groups of bilingual edu-cation teacher candidates?

2. Do differences exist in agency (collective vs. individual orientation) asmeasured by the Traditionalism Modernism Inventory (TMI) among threegroups of bilingual education teacher candidates?

3. Do group differences exist in family values as measured by the Family At-titudes Scale (FAS) among three groups of bilingual education teacher can-didates?

METHODOLOGY

Design

A static group design was employed for this study. Descriptive and inferential sta-tistics were used to explore the research questions. The a priori alpha level was de-termined to be p < .05, and the null hypotheses were assumed. SPSS Version 14.0assisted with the data analyses. Each group’s data were kept in separate files andmerged after all computations were completed.

Sample

A total of 134 completed surveys out of 142 collected surveys were used for theanalysis in this study. All prospective bilingual education teachers were attending aHispanic Serving Institution in the southwestern part of the United States and wereidentified in the following manner. Group 1 (n = 50) was labeled as first-generationcollege students seeking an initial degree with bilingual education certification.Group 2 (n = 29) consisted of school paraprofessionals—part-time college stu-dents—seeking an initial degree with bilingual education teaching certification.Group 3 (n = 55) was composed of normalistas (foreign-trained teachers with cer-tification from Mexico) seeking bilingual education teaching certification.

A graduate assistant administered the measures in group settings and assuredparticipants of confidentiality and anonymity. Because Groups 1 and 2 were bilin-gual (English/Spanish), the English versions of Ramirez’s acculturation scaleswere administered. Group 3 was Spanish dominant, and, thus, the Spanish versionsof the scales were administered. Table 1 provides an overview of the majority ofthe participants who provided demographic data (n = 132).


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294

TABLE 1Generational Status, Group, and Age Range Cross-Tabulation

AgeRange

GenerationalStatus

n or %Within Group

Group

1st GenerationCollege Student Paraprofessional Normalista Total

20–25 Immigrant n 5 0 3 8% 19.2 0.0 100.0 26.7

1st generation n 11 1 0 12% 42.3 100.0 0.0 40.0

2nd generation n 10 0 0 10% 38.5 0.0 0.0 33.3

Total n 126 1 3 3026–30 Immigrant n 2 1 4 7

% 25.0 11.1 100.0 33.31st generation n 4 2 0 6

% 50.0 22.2 0.0 28.62nd generation n 2 6 0 8

% 25.0 66.7 0.0 38.1Total n 8 9 4 21

31–35 Immigrant n 2 2 8 12% 28.6 50.0 100.0 63.2

1st generation n 0 1 0 1% 0.0 25.0 0.0 5.3

2nd generation n 5 1 0 6% 71.4 25.0 0.0 31.6

Total n 7 4 8 1936–40 Immigrant n 0 0 18 18

% 0.0 0.0 100.0 60.01st generation n 2 1 0 3

% 28.6 20.0 0.0 10.02nd generation n 5 4 0 9

% 71.4 80.0 0.0 30.0Total n 7 5 18 30

41+ Immigrant n 2 1 21 24% 100.0 11.1 100.0 75.0

1st generation n 0 4 0 4% 0.0 44.4 0.0 12.5

2nd generation n 0 4 0 4% 0.0 44.4 0.0 12.5

Total n 2 9 21 32n 50 28 54 132

Total % 38.0% 22.0% 41.0% 100

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Group membership was defined as follows. First-generation ethnic minoritycollege students have specific variables impacting their adjustment to college.Some of the major variables that impact this population are (a) parents’ educationusually at a high school level or less, (b) greater financial stressors than mid-dle-class students, (c) stressors based on perceived cultural differences, (d) limitedfamily understanding of college requirements, (e) social obligations to family andcollege, and (f) coping strategies based on family and community values (Phinney& Haas, 2003). Other variables that impact first-generation minority college fresh-man are (a) uncertainties around establishing relationships with peers and faculty,(b) limited college-preparatory experience, (c) limited understanding of the func-tioning organizational structure of a university, and (d) arrival at the college experi-ence with a heightened psychological perception of academic failure and socialembarrassment (Chemers, Hu, & García, 2001).

Normalistas are foreign born, usually from Spanish-speaking countries, andtrained in their countries of origin as teachers. These professionals have enrolled inU.S. university teacher preparatory programs in order be certified as bilingual edu-cation teachers. Some of the strengths of these persons are that they (a) were wellprepared as instructors in their country, (b) have a great deal of experience in theeducation of children, (c) exhibit pedagogical instruction compatibility with La-tino children, and (d) have a healthy self-concept and teaching efficacy. Some ofthe noted stressors for the normalistas include (a) academic English proficiency;(b) difficulty navigating U.S. sociopolitical school structures; (c) examination oftheir ethnic immigrant minority status within a cross-cultural classroom; and (e)U.S. institutions’ simplistic, monolithic views of them as foreign-trained instruc-tors (Flores & Clark, 2004).

Paraprofessionals are school employees who offer instructional or other directservices to students in the schools. The paraprofessional is usually under the super-vision of teachers or other professionals in the school system. The parapro-fessional population has been considered a viable source for increasing the bilin-gual teacher population because (a) they often are from similar ethnic minoritygroups as the students represented in the classroom, (b) the majority have similarpersonal experiences learning in a language other than English, and (c) they haveexpressed an interest or desire to become certified bilingual education teachers.Some of the obstacles for paraprofessionals include (a) financial hardships; (b) alower-than-average pass rate on entry standardized testing; (c) first-generation col-lege attendees, conflicting social and familial obligations; (d) adjustments to col-lege; and (e) quality mentor–paraprofessional relationships (Flores, Strecker, &Pérez, 2002; Genzuk & Baca, 1998).

The largest age group and generational status represented in the sample was thenormalista (n = 54 of 132), which included individuals 36 to 41 years of age. Thenext largest (n = 50 of 132) group included the 20-year-old to 30-year-oldfirst-generation college students. The last group was the paraprofessionals (n = 28


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of 132) with a bimodal distribution—second generation ranging from 25 to 30years of age, and first and second generation being 41+ years of age.

Measures

Ramirez’s acculturation scales were selected for this study because of (a) the con-structs measured, (b) their established reliability, and (c) the fact that they had Eng-lish and Spanish versions. Ramirez provided permission for the use of the scalesfor this exploratory study. Specifically, the following scales were employed tomeasure acculturation: MEI, TMI, and FAS.

Cronbach’s alpha reliability was determined for each of the scales with the cur-rent sample. When comparing the English items with the Spanish items, we deter-mined reliability by examining similar items and eliminating items that differed.Findings showed significant reliability coefficients ranging from high to very high(p < .001). The highest reliability was for the MEI (α = .84), F(20, 119) = 41.74;followed by the TMI (α = .79), F(24, 119) = 86.82; and the FAS (α = .77), F(28,101) = 28.921.

Data Analysis

Using Ramirez’s (1994) guidelines, we computed scale scores for each inventory.For the determination of scale subscores and total scores, Ramirez has designatedspecific items within each inventory as measuring a particular construct. Eachscale has choice responses that are assigned a numerical value. Ramirez providedan overview of the procedures in which sum total scores are computed. However,in lieu of total sum scores, means were computed to facilitate the interpretation ofthe results. Three separate multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) wererun to determine group differences for each of the scales.

MEI. The MEI has a total of 57 items. The first part (Items 1–32) asks respon-dents for a variety of demographic information, such as gender, age, ethnic back-ground, schooling history, language dominance, parental history, and marital sta-tus. MEI produces three scores: Type A subscore, Type B subscore, and MEI Totalscore. The Type A subscale score indicates a propensity toward multiculturalism.Items 33–49 are designated to measure Type A, with responses on a 5-point scale(1 = all Hispanic, 2 = mostly Hispanic, 3 = Hispanic and White about equal, 4 =mostly White, 5 = all White). Type B items are Items 50–57; the subscale scoremeasures multicultural orientation. Items are paired, and a mean is computed onpair response, which is coded based on a 3-point scale measuring the degree ofmulticulturalism (3 = high, 2 = moderate, 1 = low). For the purposes of this analy-sis, only Type A and Type B mean scale scores were computed for each case.


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TMI. The original TMI consists of 40 Likert-type items and employs aforced-choice scale (1 = agree strongly, 4 = disagree strongly). The TMI producesthree scores: Traditional Orientation subscore, Modern Orientation subscore, andTraditional–Modern Balance score. Traditional Orientation indicates a propensitytoward an agency expressed as collective efficacy, which encompasses sacred,community, and hierarchical values. Modern Orientation reflects a tendency to-ward an individual agency and efficacy, including rational, individual, egalitarianvalues (Ramirez, 1994). For the purposes of this analysis, mean scores were com-puted for the Traditional Orientation and the Modern Orientation subscales.

FAS. The FAS measures 27 Likert-type items on a 4-point scale (1 = stronglyagree, 4 = strongly disagree). Reverse coding is required on Items 2, 6, 9, 11, 12,20, 25, 27, and 28. The researcher may choose to simply produce a total FAS Bal-ance Orientation score. In addition, FAS produces two additional subscale scoresfor Traditionalism and Modernism. A balance score demonstrates the respondent’sability to employ values from both cultural groups; that is, a bicultural perspective.Traditionalism and Modernism mean scores were computed for the purposes of thisanalysis. The Traditionalism score measures one’s propensity toward identifyingwith Mexican family values and authoritarianism. The Modernism score indicates apropensity to identify with Euro-American family values and individualism.

RESULTS

MEI Descriptive and MANOVA Results

MEI descriptive statistics. A total of 129 (98%) completed inventories wereused in this analysis. Table 2 shows the mean scores and standard deviations for


TABLE 2Multicultural Experience Inventory Descriptive Statistics

Type Group M SD n

A 1st-generation college student 2.05 .38 44Paraprofessional 2.17 .35 29Normalista 1.72 .42 56Total 1.93 .43 129

B 1st-generation college student 1.58 .43 44Paraprofessional 1.64 .55 29Normalista 1.55 .45 56Total 1.58 .47 129

Note. Type A codes: 1 = All Hispanic, 2 = Mostly Hispanic, 3 = Hispanic and White, about equal,4 = Mostly White, 5 = All White. Type B codes: 1 = low, 2 = moderate, 3 = high.

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each scale. Group results indicated “Hispanic” Type A code with a moderatemulticultural orientation Type B code. This was strongly influenced by the largernumber of normalistas and first-generation college status grouping. Findings re-flected that the normalistas were of Mexican origin, had a great deal of educationalexperience, and exhibited compatible pedagogical instruction. However, it is inter-esting that the means for first-generation college students and normalistas weresomewhat similar. In the case of the paraprofessionals, the difference may havebeen reflection of their experience within the school system, where their interac-tions are more likely to have been ethnically diverse.

MEI MANOVA. Using group membership as the independent variable, weexamined differences in the MEI mean scale scores. Box M was not significant, in-dicating the appropriateness of multivariate testing. All multivariate tests indicatedthat group membership appeared to modulate the Type A (propensity towardmulticulturalism) and Type B (multicultural orientation) constructs (p < .000).Specifically, Wilks’s lambda showed the following: F(4, 128) = 7.363, partial η2 =.10, p <. 000; the observed power was very high at .996 (see Table 3). Descriptivestatistics (see Table 2) showed that the first-generation college student group had agreater affiliation with mostly Hispanics (M = 2.05, SD = 0.38) and had a propen-sity toward being moderately multicultural (M = 1.58, SD = 0.43). Noteworthy isthat the paraprofessionals appeared to have a greater degree of affiliation with bothHispanics and Whites (M = 2.17, SD = 0.35) yet reflected a moderate tendency to-ward multiculturalism (M = 1.64, SD = 0.55). The normalistas’means indicated apreference in affiliation toward Hispanics (M = 1.72, SD = 0.42) yet a lower, mod-erate degree of multiculturalism (M = 1.55, SD = 0.45). Specifically, MEI scoreswere highest for the paraprofessionals, followed by the first-generation collegestudents, and finally the normalistas.

Between subjects, significant differences occurred in the Type A subscores,F(2, 128) = 15.511, partial η2 = .198, power = .999, p < .000. Post hoc t tests resultsshowed mean differences that specifically occurred among the three groups, withnormalistas being significantly different (p < .05) from paraprofessionals andfirst-generation college students.


TABLE 3Multicultural Experience Inventory Multivariate Tests

Group F Hypothesis df p Partial 2 Observed Power

Pillai’s trace 6.995 4.00 .000 .100 .994Wilks’s ë 7.363 4.00 .000 .105 .996Hotelling’s trace 7.727 4.00 .000 .111 .997Roy’s largest root 15.639 2.00 .000 .199 .999

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TMI Descriptive and MANOVA Results

TMI descriptive statistics. A total of 129 (98%) completed inventories wereused in this analysis. The mean scores and standard deviations for each scale arefound in Table 4. The total group appeared to be somewhat ambivalent toward bothtraditional and modern orientations. Normalistas’ means are of particular intereston both traditional and modern orientations. Although they were recent immi-grants, the fact that they had been educated in their home countries and weremostly from major metropolitan, industrial cities may have impacted their views.

TMI MANOVA. Independent variables of group membership and genera-tional status were used to determine group differences in the TMI scale scores. Ap-propriateness for using multivariate testing was indicated by the insignificant BoxM. All multivariate tests showed that group membership may have mediated theTraditional Orientation construct (collective agency and efficacy) and the ModernOrientation construct (individual agency and efficacy; p < .0001). Wilks’s lambdarevealed the significant impact of group membership on the scores, F(4, 128) =10.111, partial η2 = .139, p <. 000; observed power was very high at 1 (see Table5). The greatest distinction as indicated by the descriptive results was found amongthe normalistas, whose values were distinct from those of the other groups on the


TABLE 4Traditional Modernism Inventory (TMI) Scale Descriptive Statistics

TMI Orientation Group M SD n

Traditional 1st-generation college student 2.32 .36 44Paraprofessional 2.11 .34 29Normalista 2.17 .24 56Total 2.21 .32 129

Modern 1st-generation college student 2.30 .40 44Paraprofessional 2.15 .36 29Normalista 1.87 .32 56Total 2.08 .41 129

Note. TMI codes: 1 = agree strongly, 2 = agree, 3 = disagree, 4 = disagree strongly.

TABLE 5Traditionalism Modernism Inventory Multivariate Analysis

Group F Hypothesis df p Partial 2 Observed Power(a)

Pillai’s trace 9.751 4.000 .000 .134 1.000Wilks’s ë 10.111 4.000 .000 .139 1.000Hotelling’s trace 10.467 4.000 .000 .144 1.000Roy’s largest root 18.707 2.000 .000 .229 1.000

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two constructs. Of interest was that normalistas, although they mildly agreed withtraditional orientation items, tended to be in greater agreement with modern orien-tation items.

Differences on the between-subject results were observed on both scores: Tra-ditional Orientation Score, F(2, 128) = 4.638, η2 = .069, power = .773, p <. 01; andModern Orientation Score, F(2, 128) = 17.941, η2 = .222, power = 1, p < .000.Tukey post hoc results revealed mean group differences, with the first-generationcollege students being most significantly different from the other two groups in thetraditional orientation (p < .05). Conversely, normalistas were most significantlydifferent from the other two groups in the modernism orientation (p < .05)

FAS Descriptive and MANOVA Results

FAS descriptive statistics. A total of 102 (77%) completed, usable invento-ries were analyzed for the third analysis. Table 6 reveals the computed scores anddescriptive statistics. Results are indicative of the three groups’ tendency to agreewith Mexican family values and authoritarianism or Euro-American family valuesand individualism. The largest group represented was the normalistas; they weremore inclined to strongly agree with Mexican family values and authoritarianismand disagree with the Modernism scale of Euro-American family values and indi-vidualism. This makes sense because they had recently immigrated.

FAS MANOVA. Box M was insignificant, supporting the use of MANOVA.To discern differences, we included as dependent variables the FAS mean scores(i.e., Traditionalism and Modernism) and used group membership as the independ-ent variable. Overall MANOVA results showed significant group differences on allthree scores (p < .0001). Wilks’s lambda findings indicated that group did appear toinfluence all three scores, F(4, 101) = 29.404, partial ç2 = .375, p < .000; the ob-served power was very high at 1 (see Table 7). The descriptive results indicated that


TABLE 6Family Attitudes Scale (FAS) Descriptive Statistics

FAS Orientation Group M SD n

Traditionalism 1st-generation college student 2.52 .25 28Paraprofessional 2.44 .35 18Normalista 1.99 .31 56Total 2.22 .39 102

Modernism 1st-generation college student 2.11 .41 28Paraprofessional 2.30 .36 18Normalista 3.01 .31 56Total 2.64 .54 102

Note. FAS codes: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = disagree, 4 = strongly disagree.

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the normalistas differed from the first-generation college student and parapro-fessional groups in regard to strong adherence to Mexican family values and authori-tarianism and disagreement with the Modernism scale of Euro-American family val-ues and individualism. Recall that this was the largest group represented in thesample and that this group’s response to the scale strongly influenced the total scoreresults. An additional note is that the paraprofessional group was slightly morealigned with the normalistas than the first-generation college group (see Table 6).Significant between-group differences were also noted for Traditionalism, F(2, 101)= 34.977, partial η2 = .414, power = 1, p < .000; and for Modernism, F(2, 101) =72.014, η2 = .593, power = 1, p < .000. The t test post hoc results indicated differ-ences between the groups, with normalistas being most significantly different fromthe other groups in terms of their adherence to traditional familial values (p < .05).

DISCUSSION

There were statistically significant main and between-group differences in regardto the MEI results, on which the normalistas indicated a mostly Hispanic Type Acode. Although a main group difference was found on the MEI Type B, there wereno statistically significant between-group differences among the normalistas,first-generation college students, and paraprofessional groups. These results aresuggestive of a multicultural shift of the normalistas to the majority society, simi-lar to the first-generation college students and paraprofessional groups within theeducational and social realms.

On the TMI, there was a statistically significant main and between-group differ-ence regarding agency for the first-generation college students compared to theparaprofessionals and normalistas. On the Modernism scale of individualism, thenormalistas demonstrated a statistically significant level of disagreement in com-parison with first-generation college students and paraprofessionals. In the case ofthe first-generation college students, their ambivalence may be suggestive of theacculturative conflict between traditional and modern values. For the parapro-fessionals, experience within the school system may afford them the opportunityto have a balance orientation toward traditionalism and modernism.


TABLE 7Family Attitudes Scale Multivariate Tests

Group F Hypothesis df p Partial 2 Observed Power(a)

Pillai’s trace 21.717 4.000 .000 .305 1.000Wilks’s λ 29.404 4.000 .000 .375 1.000Hotelling’s trace 37.807 4.000 .000 .438 1.000Roy’s largest root 77.135 2.000 .000 .609 1.000

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The normalista and paraprofessional groups were strongly influenced by theirTraditional Orientation suggestive of a propensity toward a social collectiveagency. This can be perceived as their collective self-efficacy encompassing com-munity and cultural values. However, among the normalistas, there appeared to bedichotomy of perspective because of their greater agreement with modernism. Per-haps their prior education and experiences with social settings resulted in this dual-ity, but it may also indicate an acculturative shift.

On the FAS, there were main and between-group statistical differences. Forparaprofessionals and normalistas, there was a tendency to adhere more to Mexi-can family values. This may have been influenced by their age, because thenormalistas and paraprofessionals were older than the first-generation college stu-dent group. Whereas the first-generation college students were in greater agree-ment with modern family values, the normalistas stood in disagreement with mod-ernism as it pertained to family values. Perhaps for the first-generation collegestudents, there was an acculturative conflict between their role as students andtheir role within the family. Findings allude to the complexity of the acculturationprocess found within the Latino groups.

CONCLUSION

Though there is apparent concern in the United States that immigrants are not as-similating into the larger culture, evidence suggests that this is not the case. Thisstudy, which examined the acculturation experience and background of first- andsecond-generation and immigrant bilingual education teacher candidates, foundthat acculturation is occurring among these groups. Differences and distinctionswere found among the Latino bilingual education teacher candidates. These ethnicminority teacher candidates did face overt acculturation conflicts, but they variedby group. Most of the distinctions concerned issues of ethnic identity and genera-tional acculturation. The intersection of ethnic identity and agency may have abearing on teacher identity and efficacy. A multicultural shift to the majority soci-ety by the foreign-trained teachers was very similar to subsequent generations’ ac-culturation, even though the former were a distinct immigrant group.

An important finding is that although there is a statistically significant differ-ence in the adherence to Mexican values as affected by age and generation, thisshift tends to be fluid. These findings within the diversity shifts in the educationaland social contexts are of importance for teacher education programs, especially inthe Southwest. Experts must not simply assume that all Latinos have similar affin-ity groups, agency orientation, and familial values. Thus, teacher preparation pro-grams must understand and encompass the values of the social cultural context.

Of foremost importance is the recognition that schools are a reflection of thelarger society and may reflect beliefs that differ from those of the community and


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the student. Then is the acknowledgement that all students in today’s classroombring their own unique perspectives and experiences. Lastly, varying views andknowledge are held by all teacher candidates.

We recommend that teacher preparation programs explore issues of accultura-tion when recruiting and preparing Spanish- and non-Spanish-speaking teachers.By employing acculturation measures as diagnostic tools, teacher preparation pro-grams can identify entry candidates’ acculturation levels. This process can laterhelp teacher candidates better understand themselves and their students. Not onlyare teacher preparation programs accountable to the communities they serve, butthey can strengthen their capacity to serve the needs of all teacher candidates.Good teacher preparation programs can result in culturally efficacious teacherswith an ethnic/sociocultural consciousness of self and their students and with astrong belief in their capacity to teach all students.

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