academician dmitrii petrovich konovalov (to 150th anniversary of his birthday)

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ISSN 1070-4272, Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry, 2006, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 686�691. � Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2006.Original Russian Text � A. G. Morachevskii, 2006, published in Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, 2006, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 695�699.

HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY��

Academician Dmitrii Petrovich Konovalov(To 150th Anniversary of His Birthday)

DOI: 10.1134/S1070427206040380

D.P. Konovalov, one of prominent Russian phys-ical chemists of the late XIX and early XX centuries,made an outstanding contribution to the developmentof the theory of solutions, delivered lectures at a num-ber of higher-school institutions in St. Petersburg,created the known school of physical chemistry, oc-cupied a number of high administrative positions,and was elected president of the Russian Physico-chemical Society (in 1923�1924 and 1927).

Dmitrii Petrovich Konovalov was born on March10 (22), 1856, in Verkhedneprovsk uezd of Yeka-terinoslav province (now Dnepropetrovsk oblast,Ukraine) into a wealthy nobleman’s family. Havingreceived primary education at home, he entered Yeka-terinoslav classical gymnasium in 1866 and finishedit with a gold medal in 1873. Konovalov expressedparticular interest in physicomathematical and naturalsciences. Immediately after finishing the gymnasium,he entered the metallurgical department of the Min-ing Institute in St. Petersburg. Founded by EmpressCatherine II in 1773, this higher-school institution,one of the oldest in Russia, had an excellent pedagog-ical staff and was very popular with youths. Chemis-try was taught by K.I. Lisenko, a prominent specialistin technical chemistry, lecturers of chemical-metal-lurgical disciplines included K.D. Sushin, V.V. Bek,and N.A. Iossa.

In 1878, Konovalov successfully finished the Min-ing Institute. He received the title of a first-class min-ing engineer and his name was put up on the marbleboard of honor in the conference hall of the Institute.However, Konovalov considered his knowledge inthe field of chemistry and, in particular, organic chem-istry insufficient and joined as an external studentthe physicomathematical faculty of St. PetersburgUniversity, to spend there nearly two academic years.Konovalov performed his first experimental studiesunder supervision of A.M. Butlerov (1828�1886) inhis laboratory. In addition, the young scientist hadan opportunity to attend lectures on mineral technol-ogy by Butlerov, analytical and organic chemistry byN.A. Menshutkin, higher mathematics by P.L. Cheby-shev and K.A. Posse, and physiology by I.M. Seche-nov. In the autumn of 1879, D.I. Mendeleev (1834�1907) returned from a long-term business trip and

Konovalov had an opportunity to make acquaintancewith him and attend his lectures.

In the beginning of 1879, Konovalov becamea member of the Russian Physicochemical Society onButlerov’s recommendation. In 1880, the first Kono-valov’s scientific study was published in a numberof periodic editions. The study, performed underButlerov’s supervision, was concerned with the actionof sulfuric acid of isobutyl alcohol and that of nitricacid on butylenes derivatives. Konovalov was on veryfriendly terms with Butlerov and received an excel-lent experimental training in his laboratory. However,Konovalov’s expectations of his future scientific activ-ities were associated with physicochemical problems.To receive further education and obtain a scientificdegree, Konovalov decided to go, at his own expense,to one of major research centers in France or Germany.On Mendeleev’s advice, he chose the laboratory ofa young German physicist, professor A. Kundt (1839�1894) at Strasbourg University (Germany) [1]. Duringhis business trip abroad, Mendeleev made acquain-tance with Kundt, who produced a very good impres-sion on him. In May 1880, Konovalov came to Stras-

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY Vol. 79 No. 4 2006

ACADEMICIAN DMITRII PETROVICH KONOVALOV 687

Kundt’s Institute of Physics in Strasbourg.

bourg with a recommendation letter from Butlerovand was cordially welcomed there. After passingthe physical practicum and accomplishing a minortask on Kundt’s instructions, Konovalov obtaineda working place and commenced studies of the sat-urated vapor pressure over liquid mixtures. Duringthe preparatory period, Konovalov spent a certaintime at the laboratory of physical chemistry, headedby professor R. Fittig (1835�1910). However, hesoon realized that the scientific level of Butlerov’slaboratory is higher in all respects and concentratedhis whole attention on Kundt’s laboratory. Alreadyin August and October 1881, the German journalWiedemanns Annalen published the results of Kono-valov’s studies of the vapor pressure. The material ofthe first of his publications was submitted as disserta-tion. After passing the required examination, Konova-lov successfully defended in July 1881 the dissertationU�ber die Dampfspannung der Flu�ssigkeitsgemische(On Vapor Pressure of Liquid Mixtures) and receivedhis Ph.D. and the degree of a master of natural sci-ence from Strasbourg University [2]. During his stayabroad, Konovalov visited scientific and industrialcenters in France and Switzerland. In Paris, he madeacquaintance with H. Le Chatelier (1850�1936),M. Berthelot (1827�1907), and other prominent French

scientists. Konovalov particularly highly appreciatedstudies performed by H. Sainte-Claire Deville (1818�

1881) and his classical works in the field of thermaldissociation of compounds. Konovalov also expresseda considerable interest in various chemical plants inWestern Europe.

In the end of July 1881, Konovalov returned toRussia and, after summer vacations, continued stud-ies of solutions at Butlerov’s laboratory. However,a vacancy soon appeared and Konovalov was electeda laboratory assistant to the laboratory of analyticalchemistry at St. Petersburg University, headed by pro-fessor N.A. Menshutkin (1842�1907). Laboratory as-sistant’s duties included preparation of practical worksfor students, help in setting of demonstration experi-ments for lectures, and pedagogical work in laboratorypracticum. Despite the wide range of duties, Konova-lov passed master’s examinations in 1882, with Men-deleev and Butlerov as the examiners in chemistry,and continued work on dissertation. He submitted inan extended form as master’s dissertation the study�On Vapor Pressure of Solutions.� The dissertationwas successfully defended on March 11, 1884, withMendeleev and Menshutkin as opponents. In confor-mity with the regulations of that time, the full text of


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the dissertation was published beforehand [3]. Later,this study was twice republished in 1909 and 1928.

Having received his master’s degree, Konovalovstarted to deliver as a privatdocent a facultative courseof lectures in physical chemistry for third- and fourth-year students. Simultaneously, Menshutkin suggestedto Konovalov to commence studies in chemical ki-netics. The first results obtained in this field werepublished by Konovalov and Menshutkin already inMay 1884. They observed catalytic effects in decom-position of ether vapor and Konovalov soon startedto study them on his own. In 1885, he published inZhurnal Russkogo Fiziko-Khimicheskogo Obshchestva(Journal of the Russian Physicochemical Society) andalso as a separate edition [4] his study �Role of Con-tact Actions in Dissociation Phenomena,� submittedas a doctoral (Chem. Sci.) dissertation. The disserta-tion was defended on November 4, 1885. In April1886, at the age of only thirty, Konovalov was ap-pointed extraordinary professor at the chair of analyt-ical and technical chemistry of St. Petersburg Univer-sity. When recommending Konovalov for this posi-tion, Menshutkin mentioned the �excellently passedmaster’s examination and talent in formulation ofindependent tasks and setting his own work and ex-periments� [5]. In 1890, after Mendeleev left the Uni-versity, Konovalov headed the chair of inorganicchemistry, with organic chemistry still taught byMenshutkin and lecturing in technical and analyticalchemistry taken up by A.E. Favorskii (1860�1945,academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSRsince 1929) and V.E. Tishchenko (1861�1941, aca-demician since 1935). Konovalov was the closest,among any of the known Russian chemists, to Men-deleev as a scientist, practical figure, and man. Men-deleev highly appreciated Konovalov’s works; the re-lationship between the scientists was maintained afterMendeleev left the University.

One of the closest Konovalov’s disciples, A.A. Bai-kov (1870�1946, academician of the Academy of Sci-ences of the USSR since 1932), wrote in his memoirs:�From the very first steps of his activities as a pro-fessor, Konovalov became an outstanding and brilliantlecturer. His lectures were distinguished by unusualsimplicity, clarity, and logicality of presentation. Thiswas the time of a rapid and vigorous development ofphysical chemistry, which made novel and significantchanges in the basic chemical problems. Konovalov,closely involved in the activities of this scientificmovement, delivered lectures in inorganic and generalchemistry for first-year students of the physicomathe-matical faculty. In his presentation, this main subjectof natural science acquired a fundamentally new char-

acter and produced a deep and indelible impression onlisteners... The laws of a labile chemical equilibrium,theory of solutions, relationship between chemical andelectrical phenomena and chemical dynamics werepresented in the course of chemistry and enabled wid-est generalizations linking into a harmonious wholenumerous, previously absolutely uncoordinated fac-tors. The outstanding service of Konovalov as a pro-fessor consists in that he was the first to take this wayand significantly changed the manner of presentationand teaching of inorganic and general chemistry� [6].

In 1893, Konovalov and Tishchenko were sent toa business trip to the United States to Chicago, to visitthe World Exhibition timed with the 400th anniver-sary of the discovery of America. During six months,the scientists familiarized themselves not only with ex-hibits (Konovalov was one of supervisors of the groupof experts of the largest department), but also visiteda large number of industrial plants. As a result of thistrip, a book Promyshlennost’ Soedinennykh ShtatovSevernoi Ameriki i sovremenye priemy khimicheskoitekhnologii (The Industry of the United States ofNorth America and Modern Methods of ChemicalTechnology) (St. Petersburg, 1894) was published byKonovalov.

Soon after returning from the United States, Kono-valov was appointed an ordinary professor of St. Pe-tersburg University. In 1890�1894, the scientist paida considerable attention to the construction of a newbuilding for chemical laboratories of the University.The opening ceremony of the building was held onOctober 16, 1894. In 1895�1896, Konovalov wasamong those who organized and held the All-RussiaIndustrial and Art Exhibition in Nizhni Novgorod.Later, he became a member of the Organizing Com-mittee of the Russian section at the World Exhibitionin Paris. Here, it should be kept in mind that Kono-valov taught in those years not only at St. PetersburgUniversity, but also at the Institute for Railway Engi-neers and at the Mining Institute (beginning in 1900).He also continued his intensive scientific activities.N.P. Vrevskaya, the widow of the closest Konovalov’sdisciple M.S. Vrevskii (1871�1929, correspondingmember of the Academy of Sciences of the USSRsince 1929), wrote in her memoirs devoted to herhusband and his colleagues: �The brilliant, talented,and full of creative force Dmitrii Petrovich Konovalovwas then at the summit of his fame� [7].

This, in all respects fruitful period of Konovalov’slife terminated in the end of 1903, when the scientist,remaining a professor at the University, became di-rector of the Mining Institute. As noted in the mono-



graph [5], at the turn of the XX century, the MiningInstitute was distinguished among the rest of the high-er-school institutions by the comparatively free modeof students’ life and existence of independent studentorganizations. The period of time from 1904 till 1906was difficult for Russia in political regard. Havingcome in conflict with the student organizations ofthe Mining Institute, the new director took a positionof principle, did not make a compromise, and resignedalready on June 27, 1905. In continuation of the con-flict, in the autumn of 1906, the honored professor,doctor of chemistry, and senior state councillor,Konovalov, also terminated teaching at St. PetersburgUniversity. In the summer of 1907, the scientist fullydevoted himself to administrative activities, he wasappointed director of the Mining department of theMinistry of Trade and Industry, and in May 1908, waselevated to become deputy minister of trade and in-dustry. He occupied this position during nearly eightyears, till the end of 1916.

Only in March 1916, Konovalov returned to ped-agogical activities: he was elected professor of Pet-rograd Technological Institute and was engaged in1916/17 and 1917/18 academic years in the develop-ment of a new course of chemical technology. Afternearly ten years’ break, Konovalov also resumed hisscientific activities. For the summer of 1918, Kono-valov went with his family to his homeland, Yekate-rinoslav province. Because of the civil war and faminein Petrograd, his stay at homeland was prolonged,and he could return to Petrograd only in the springof 1922. In those years, Konovalov taught at higher-school institutions of Yekaterinoslav, University andMining Institute, and was actively involved in the or-ganization of the State chemical laboratory, whichwas later transformed into the Research Institute ofChemistry and Power Engineering.

Meanwhile, the life in the country gradually returnedto the normal course. In December 1921, Konovalovwas elected a corresponding member of the RussianAcademy of Sciences on recommendation of promi-nent Russian scientists, academicians V.N. Ipat’ev(1867�1952), N.S. Kurnakov (1860�1941), P.P. Laza-rev (1878�1942), and A.E. Fersman (1883�1945). Atthat same time, he received an offer to become presi-dent of the Principal Board of Weights and Measuresin Petrograd. After he have his preliminary consent,Konovalov was elected to this position on February25, 1922 and started to execute his duties in March ofthe same year. Simultaneously, he became head ofthe chair of mineral technology at the TechnologicalInstitute. On January 13, 1923, Konovalov was electeda full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

After returning to Petrograd, Konovalov continuedresearch in the field of thermochemistry of organiccompounds, wrote the textbook Materialy i protsessykhimicheskoi tekhnologii (Materials and Processes ofChemical Technology) (Petrograd; part 1, 1924; part 2,1925), and supervised preparation of a posthumouspublication of Osnovy khimii (Fundamentals of Chem-istry) by Mendeleev. At the IV Mendeleev Congress,which was held in September 1925, Konovalov waschairman and presented a report �About Russia’sChemical Industry.� On December 9, 1928, the Acad-emy of Sciences celebrated the 50 years of Konova-lov’s scientific activities.

The central place in Konovalov’s scientific legacyis occupied by his studies of solutions. Konovalovwas one of the most convinced followers of Mende-leev’s concept of the nature of solutions, based onthe interaction between a solute with a solvent. A de-tailed analysis of Konovalov’s works in the field ofsolutions can be found in monographs by Yu.I. So-lov’ev [9�11] and A.Ya. Kipnis [12], as well as inquite a number of other publications [13�20]. In par-ticular, B.P. Nikol’skii noted that Konovalov was oneof the first scientists who understood the importanceof the thermodynamic method in studies of solutions.Among Russian scientists who developed this ap-proach later were G. Tamman (1861�1938) at Derpt(Yur’ev, now Tartu, Estonia) University, I.F. Shreder(1858�1918) at the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg,and, especially, Vrevskii at St. Petersburg University.

Konovalov’s study �On Vapor Pressure of Solu-tions� was analyzed in close detail by A.V. Storonkin[18]. He believes that the principal result of this studyis the establishment of general thermodynamic con-cepts, now named Konovalov’s laws. The discoveryof these laws is the most important result of the wholescientific activities of Konovalov. The basic works ofGibbs in thermodynamics of heterogeneous systems,published in 1875�1878, were not known to anybodyas yet. Konovalov’s laws, combined with the laws dis-covered by his disciple, Vrevskii [7], constitute the gen-eral thermodynamic theory of solutions. The thermo-dynamic concepts established by Konovalov are alsovalid for heterogeneous systems of other types. There-fore, Konovalov can be regarded, with good reason, asone of the founders of the thermodynamic theory ofphase equilibria. When assessing the scientific impor-tance of the classical Konovalov’s study �On VaporPressure of Solutions,� Storonkin concludes: �In thisstudy, Konovalov laid foundation of the general ther-modynamic theory of solutions and heterogeneoussystems, theoretically substantiated one of the mostimportant methods of substance separation, distilla-


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tion, and made an outstanding theoretical and exper-imental contribution to the chemical theory of solu-tions� [18]. The importance of Konovalov’s laws formodern science and chemical technology was consid-ered in [17�19].

In addition to the materials of his master’s disserta-tion �On Vapor Pressure of Solutions,� Konovalovpublished several series of studies in other areas ofphysical chemistry. They are devoted to osmotic pres-sure of solutions, solubility issues, critical phenomenaof phase separation of, electrical conductivity of so-lutions, catalysis, and thermochemistry. With the ex-ception of measurements of the calorific power of car-bon-containing compounds, all the studies were car-ried out during the period from 1885 till 1907. Asnoted by Nikol’skii [17], Konovalov was the first togive, as far back as 1890, a thermodynamic descrip-tion of the osmotic pressure, which virtually coincideswith the modern approaches. Konovalov’s studies inelectrochemistry of nonaqueous solutions were per-formed in 1891�1893. The scientist examined the elec-trical conductivity of binary systems composed ofaromatic amines and aliphatic acids. In these systems,the maximum electrical conductivity corresponds tocompositions with a certain stoichiometric ratio ofcomponents, whereas pure components show virtuallyno conductivity. Thus, Konovalov was the first todiscover a class of electrolytes that were later named�solvoelectrolytes.� The existence of electrolytesof this kind confirms the opinion of supporters ofthe �chemical� or �hydrate� theory of solutions, beingan example of interaction between the solvent andthe solute [5, 20]. Konovalov’s works in the fieldof physicochemical foundations of the theory of cat-alysis were analyzed in detail by S.Z. Roginskii [21].Konovalov, in particular, demonstrated that the cata-lytic action of a solid is determined not only by itsnature, but also by the state of its surface. Takinginto account the state and nature of the surface isa distinctive feature of modern theories of heteroge-neous catalysis.

The high appraisal of Konovalov’s scientific activ-ities was made by the Russian Physicochemical Soci-ety in 1914, which awarded him a major MendeleevPrize for �the whole set of his outstanding studiesin the field of solutions and scientific-pedagogicalactivities which gave rise to the original school ofRussian physical chemists [22, 23]. In addition tothe already mentioned Baikov and Vrevskii, the best-known representatives of Konovalov’s school includeprofessors E.V. Biron (1874�1919), I.I. Zhukov(1880�1949, corresponding member of the Academyof Sciences of the USSR since 1946), V.Ya. Kurbatov

(1878�1957), and N.N. Tuturin (1866�1912). Amongthose who worked under Konovalov’s supervision inYekaterinoslav were A.I. Brodskii (1895�1969, cor-responding member of the Academy of Sciences ofthe USSR since 1943) and S.Z. Roginskii (1900�1970,corresponding member of the Academy of Sciencesof the USSR since 1939).

Konovalov’s contribution to the development ofphysical chemistry was also highly appraised bythe world community: he was elected honorary mem-ber of the London Chemical Society (in 1914), honor-ary member of the Swiss Society of Natural Science,corresponding member of the Go�ttingen ScientificSociety (1923), honorary member of the French Chem-ical Society (1926), and member of the InternationalCommittee of Weights and Measures (1926).

To Konovalov’s life have been devoted monographby Solov’ev and Kipnis [5], articles by Baikov [6],Storonkin [18], V.V. Mikhailov [23], and other mate-rials [14, 24�27].

Dmitrii Petrovich Konovalov died of pneumoniaon January 6, 1929, at the age of 72. At a meeting ofthe Department of Applied Chemistry of the RussianPhysicochemical Society, devoted to Konovalov’smemory, Tishchenko voiced the opinion of Russianchemists: �In Dmitrii Petrovich’s person, we lostan exceedingly gifted man with astute mind, highspirit, strong will, and strength of the sense of dutyand love for work� [5]. The main thing in Konovalov’slive was work, he had worked much and hard duringhis whole life till his very last days.

REFERENCES

1. Konovalov, D.P., A.M. Butlerov, 1828�1928, Lenin-grad: Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1929, pp. 55�72.

2. Biograficheskii slovar’ professorov i prepodavateleiSankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta (Biographic Dic-tionary of Professors and Teachers of St. PetersburgUniversity), St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. 1, pp. 340�341.

3. Konovalov, D.P., Ob uprugosti para rastvorov (OnVapor Pressure of Solutions), St. Petersburg, 1884.

4. Konovalov, D.P., Rol’ kontaktnykh deistvii v yavle-niyakh dissotsiatsii (Role of Contact Actions in Dis-sociation Phenomena), St. Petersburg, 1885.

5. Solov’ev, Yu.I. and Kipnis, A.Ya., Dmitrii PetrovichKonovalov, 1856�1929, Moscow: Nauka, 1964.

6. Baikov, A.A., Sobranie trudov, (Coll. of Works),vol. 1: Stat’i, vystupleniya, rechi (Articles, Reports,and Speeches), Moscow: Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1952.

7. Vrevskii, M.S., Raboty po teorii rastvorov (Works on



on Theory of Solutions), with Biographic Essay byVrevskaya, N.P., Moscow: Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1958.

8. Atroshchenko, V.I., Berezhnoi, A.S., Boyarskaya, L.A.,et al., Razvitie neorganicheskoi khimii na Ukraine(Development of Inorganic Chemistry in the Ukraine),Gorodyskii, A.V. Ed., Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1987.

9. Solov’ev, Yu.I., Istoriya ucheniya o rastvorakh (His-tory of the Theory of Solutions), Moscow: Akad.Nauk SSSR, 1959.

10. Solov’ev, Yu.I., Ocherki po istorii fizicheskoi khimii(Essays on the History of Physical Chemistry),Moscow: Nauka, 1964.

11. Solov’ev, Yu.I., Istoriya khimii v Rossii (History ofChemistry in Russia), Moscow: Nauka, 1985.

12. Kipnis, A.Ya., Razvitie khimicheskoi termodinamikiv Rossii (Development of Chemical Thermodynamicsin Russia), Moscow: Nauka, 1964.

13. Usanovich, M.I., Materialy po istorii otechestvennoikhimii (Materials on the History of Domestic Chemis-try), Moscow: Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1950, pp. 63�66.

14. Usanovich, M.I., Iz istorii khimii. Ocherki iz zhizni ideyatel’nosti vydayushchikhsya uchenykh (Excerptsfrom the History of Chemistry, Essays about Life andActivities of Outstanding Scientists), Almaty: Kaz.Nats. Univ., 2004.

15. Nikol’skii, B.P., Vestn. Leningr. Gos. Univ., 1946,no. 1, pp. 67�80.

16. Nikol’skii, B.P., Vestn. Leningr. Gos. Univ., 1960,no. 22, issue 4, pp. 11�25.

17. Nikol’skii, B.P., Zh. Obshch. Khim., 1982, vol. 52,no. 10, pp. 2382�2392.

18. Storonkin, A.V., Vestn. Leningr. Gos. Univ., 1954,vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 167�176.

19. Stabnikov, V.N. and Fertman, G.I., Usp. Khim., 1951,vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 776�783.

20. Pospekhov, L.A., Zh. Obshch. Khim., 1952, vol. 22,no. 1, pp. 48�51.

21. Roginskii, S.Z., Materialy po istorii otechestvennoikhimii (Materials on the History of Domestic Chem-istry), Moscow: Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1950, pp. 37�51.

22. Makarenya, A.A. and Solov’ev, Yu.I., Vestn. Leningr.Gos. Univ., 1960, no. 22, issue 4, pp. 82�88.

23. Mikhailov, V.V., Usp. Khim., 1954, vol. 23, no. 4,pp. 510�523.

24. Balezin, S.A. and Beskov, S.L., Vydayushchiesyarusskie uchenye-khimiki (Outstanding Russian Chem-ists), Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1972.

25. Musabekov, Yu.S. and Chernyak, A.Ya., Vydayu-shchiesya khimiki mira. Bibliograficheskii ukazatel’(Outstanding Chemists of the World: BibliographicIndex), Moscow: Kniga, 1971.

26. Pozin, M.E. and Kopylev, B.A., Zh. Prikl. Khim.,1954, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 353�355.

27. Soloviev, Y.I., Dictionary of Scientific Biography,Gillispie, Ch.C., Ed., New York: Charles Scribner’sSons, 1981, vol. 7, pp. 461�462.

A. G. Morachevskii

academician dmitrii petrovich konovalov (to 150th anniversary of his birthday)

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