academic freedom: a relevant concept for collegiate nursing education

ACADEMIC FREEDOM:

A Relevant Concept for by Sandra S. Sweeney and Patricia M. Ostmoe

CADEMIC freedom is an abstraction that is difficult A both to define and comprehend, a concept whose meaning and interpretation have been subject to numerous trans- formations and misinterpretations throughout the course of its historical development.

As an ideal, academic freedom became institutionalized in American higher education when the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) published their “Report on Academic Freedom” in 1915. (General Report, AAUP, 1915:41-42) Since that time, it has become a principle of major value within the academic community.

Because it is so valued, academic freedom has exerted a significant influence on the thinking and behavior of the

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Collegiate Nursing Education

subscribing community’s members. The academic community, of course, is composed of those engaged in the pursuit of scholarship in collegiate and university settings. Such a definition sounds simple enough until one begins to scrutinize those who make up the community. Although its members may seem relatively homogeneous from a distance, on closer inspection notable differences emerge.

If, for example, one considers the value systems of scholars from the natural sciences, behavioral sciences, liberal arts, performing arts, and the professions, the differences are considerable. Even if the topic is relatively narrow, such as academic freedom, one can expect a wide range of opinion, influenced largely by the subgroup to which one belongs.

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Academic nursing is one such subgroup. As a discipline, it exemplifies the need to combine multiple sets of values (those of the nursing profession and the academic profession) in such a way as to ensure credible membership and performance in both spheres.

Academic nurses understand nursing’s values clearly, but do not always grasp the values of the academic profession. For instance, they may fail to truly comprehend academic freedom, a concept which is at the very core of the academic system. Academic freedom should be understood by all those who seek to stand as peers among a diverse array of faculty colleagues with few bonds beyond the common acceptance and understanding of such fundamental concepts.

The History of Academic Freedom

Although it is not possible to document the specific origins of academic freedom, Pozanski suggests “the recorded history of academic freedom started probably with Socrates appearing before his judges, if not before.” (Pozanski, 1969: 20)

Formal authentication of the concept occurred in Germany in 1673(Pozanski, 1%9:20), but it was not recognized in many countries, including America, until the early nineteenth century. At that time, “German scholars boasted of their academic freedom and brought it to the attention of the scholarly world.”(Metzger, 1961:109) From then on, the Ger- man model formed a framework which other academic communities attempted to emulate. Imitation does not ensure comparable results, however, and American scholars did not enjoy the privilege and protection of academic freedom for yet another century.

The German university identified two separate components, Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit; which together composed the classical definition of academic freedom. Lehrfreiheit

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(teaching freedom) and Lern freiheif (learning freedom) together mean that “professors should have the right to teach, conduct research and publish their research without interference and that students should have the corresponding right to study and to learn.”(Searle, 1972:87) Thus, a student’s Lern freiheif is best realized as a result of his professor’s Lehrfreiheit. (Brubacher, 197750) These freedoms, as defined within the German model, were such distinct prerogatives of the academic profession and essential ingredients of the university that no institution had the right to call itself a “university” in their absence. (Metzger, 1961 : 113)

Modification frequently accompanies the migration of ideas from one environment to another. The development of academic freedom in America was influenced by our unique social climate, as well as by the form and structure of our university governance. (Ross, 1976: 192-193)

During the late 18OOs, the country itself was generally conservative and unresponsive to liberal or unorthodox ideas. (Ross, 1976: 196-1 97) At the same time, knowledge was beginning to develop and progress at a phenomenal pace. As the university movement began to emerge, American scholars returning from study at German universities were eager to transplant and incorporate the principles of academic freedom into the higher education setting.

However, American institutions of higher education were predominantly religious, providing an environment less than conducive to the German models’ pluralistic, research ori- ented and heuristic character. At these early American universities, faculty security and job retention, which are closely related to academic freedom, remained largely at the discretion and control of university trustees, administrators, or wealthy benefactors -irrespective of one’s knowledge or research ac- complishments. The expansion of knowledge, however, could not be constrained, and while outspoken faculty members continued to be attacked or, in some instances, removed from

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their posts, the cause of scholarship slowly but surely advanced until 1915 when it finally prevailed,

The year 1915 marks a historical watershed when the American Association of University Professors’ statement on academic freedom was issued in response to the arbitrary termination of several colleagues.

According to the statement, academic freedom consists of: “freedom of inquiry and research; freedom of teaching within the university or college; and freedom of extramural utterance and action.”(Generul Report, AAUP, 1915:20) In America, then, academic freedom focused on the autonomy which one who teaches at an institution of higher education must have in the attempt to expand the horizons and frontiers of knowledge. The statement emphasized faculty “teaching freedoms,” but did not encompass the concept of “learning freedoms,” originally given equal weight in the German university model. This modification of the original tenents of Lehrfreiheit and Lern freiheit seemed to overlook and diminish the importance of the students’ rights to participate in and be accorded academic freedom.

The Nursing Profession

In 1915, while members of the academic profession were organizing and publishing statements on academic freedom and tenure, nursing had yet to commence its transition from hospital-based, diploma education to collegiate and university baccalaureate and higher degree programs.

Colleges of nursing are relatively recent additions to the structure and environment of higher education in America. Nursing’s movement into such institutions is documented generally as having begun in the second decade of this century. Since these early efforts, baccalaureate programs of nursing have increased in number, masters programs have been established, and doctoral programs have been introduced.


During the past fifty years, nursing has initiated the process by which it seeks permanent acceptance and institutionalization within college and university settings.

The profession’s attempts to transfer educational programs to colleges and universities have not been easy, nor is the task complete. Rationales for the slow transition of nursing educational programs into higher education have been given in numerous articles. However, little has been published to explore the effect of altered or unfamiliar values, value orientations, and expectations accompanying change in organizational structure or environment.

In making this transition, nursing has unique problems that present further complications. As Palmer observes:

Few nurse faculty members have grown up in nursing schools rich in traditions of learning, research, scholarship, and prac- tice. Initially, large numbers of nurse faculty members came from hospital systems and work. (Palmer, 1970:123-124)

Palmer further suggests that because their educational preparation and background were based on the diploma model, many nurses subsequently transferred this model vir- tually intact, including values, behaviors, and roles into the academic setting. (Palmer, 1970: 123-124) However, it is essential that nurses who accept appointments to college and university faculty positions identify, combine, accept, and internalize the academic value systems as well as their professional value system to develop and sustain creditable reputa- tions among collegial counterparts. In the process of interfac- ing two value systems, academic freedom (at the essence of the university model and absent from the diploma model) becomes a crucial value. The critical nature of this value is heightened by the fact that even in academic circles, there is some dispute about its meaning.

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Issues Effecting Academic Freedom

A basic issue impinging on academic freedom currently relates to the confusion between the specific concept of academic freedom (Lehrfreiheir and Lernfreiheit) and a more general concept which includes the notion of civil liberties afforded by the First Amendment of the Constitution. (Van Alstyne, 1972:61)

In an effort to dispel the confusion, attempts have been made to distinguish between the two concepts. Simon remarks:

Academic freedom is the freedom of research and instruction according to agreed methodological rules of procedure, under the exclusive supervision of a body of colleagues who are bound to follow the same rules. Academic freedom thus differs from freedom in general with respect to two ingredients: a broad unity of method and a corporation or community which both guarantees and supervises it. (Simon, 1%9: 11)

The Keast Commission refers to

. . .the right, identified with the purposes of academic institutions, whereby members of the academic community are protected in the privilege to receive, discover, convey to others and, as generally described in the 1940 Statement of Principles,' to act upon knowledge and ideas. Academic freedom should be distinguished from the personal freedoms guaranteed by the constitution. . .(Faculty Tenure, 1973:256)

Given the preceding distinctions, academic freedom is clearly related to and defined within the context of academe and

*The 1940 Statement of Principles is an extension of the original General Report of the AAUP Committee on Academic Freedom and Tenure published in 1915.


membership in the academy. Arguments have been advanced both for and against inclusion of civil liberties within this definition. For example, campus unrest during the Vietnam War produced demonstrations, rallies, and other manifesta- tions of support and protest on American campuses. Concern was expressed by many groups (citizens, parents, legislative bodies) over the university faculty members who elected to cancel classes or participate in demonstrations, or both. Some faculty members defended these actions by invoking the generalized concept of academic freedom. However, such an interpretation is erroneous. Faculty members have a respon- siblilty to continue holding classes even though the campus may be experiencing periods of unrest. Professors may participate in demonstrations, but it is not within the prerogatives granted by academic freedom to cancel one’s class to do so.

A closely related problem, which is frequently encountered, involves the interjection of personal opinions by faculty on controversial matters, such as the morality or immorality of the Vietnam conflict. Although such behavior is defended by invoking the generalized concept of academic freedom, it is in- consistent with the narrower interpretation. Faculty members ought to avoid interjecting their personal opinions into dis- cussions unless the content is relevant to the subject being taught.

Resolution of this issue is not easy because philosophical arguments can be used to support both sides of the question. Resolution can only result when there is a clear distinction between the rights accorded by academic freedom, and the rights ascribed to civil liberty and guaranteed by the First Arnend- rnent .

The mission of the university is to teach, conduct research, and provide service to the society that supports it. Inherent in this mission is the pursuit of truth. While it is apparent that academic freedom may be conceptualized in different ways, it should be practiced according to guidelines offered by the

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AAUP. Scholars ought to fulfill the obligations of academic freedom by documenting fully the thought processes by which they reach their conclusions. They must allow the accuracy, reliability, and validity of these conclusions to be judged freely by their students and fellow colleagues. (Brubacher, 1977:43) Beyond these restrictions, university faculty members are guaranteed the protection of their civil liberties under the First Amendment. However, they are not entitled to protection in any greater degree than the ordinary citizen.

Academia must determine the concrete distinctions, if any, that exist between those “special” freedoms ensured by academic freedom, and the “general” freedoms protected by the First Admendment. Once accomplished, the concepts can be expressed in terms discrete enough to remove existing am- biguities and provide a universally accepted interpretation.

Moreover, these distinctions must be clarified if academic freedom, as it was originally formulated, is to survive. For, if the First Amendment does, in fact, satisfy and ensure protection for academic professionals, then it is legitimate to question whether academic freedom as a separate entity is indeed necessary.

Yet another issue surrounding the concept of academic freedom relates to responsibility. Freedom incurs responsibility. However, responsibility is rarely mentioned as a con- comitant obligation of academic freedom. This omission should be corrected. The freedom to teach applies primarily to those areas of instruction in which faculty members are qualified to teach. Furthermore, professors who base their actions on the principle of academic freedom incur specific obligations. For instance:

The liberty of the scholar within the university to set forth his conclusions, be they what they may, is conditioned by their being conclusions gained by a scholar’s method and held in a scholar’s spirit. . .they must be the fruits of competent and pa- tient and sincere inquiry, and they should be set forth with dignity, courtesy, and temperateness of language. . . .


The university teacher, in giving instruction on controversial matters. . . should, if he is fit for his position, be a person of fair and judicial mind; he should. . .set forth the divergent opinions of other investigators; he should cause his students to become familiar with the best published expressions of the great historic types of doctrines upon the questions at issue; and he should remember that his business is not to provide students with ready-made conclusions, but to train them to think for themselves, and to provide them access to those materials which they need if they are to think intelligently. . . . The teacher ought to be especially on his guard against taking unfair advantage of the student’s immaturity by indoctrinating him with the teacher’s own opinions before the student has had an opportunity fairly to examine other opinions. . .and before he has sufficient knowledge to form any definitive opinions of his own.. . and . . . In their extra-mural utterances, it is obvious that academic teachers are under a peculiar obligation to avoid hasty or un- official or exaggerated statements, and to refrain from intem- perate or sensational modes of expression. . . . (GenerulReport, AAUP, 1915~33-37)

These examples highlight some of the responsibilities that re- strain academic freedom and distinguish it from license.

A third issue of special interest to nursing faculty members, who are often untenured, is the status of academic freedom for non-tenured faculty. Theoretically, academic freedom exists for all faculty members by virtue of their position within the community of scholars. This view is consistent with the stand advocated by AAUP. However, some would argue that academic freedom is, in reality, afforded only by the granting of tenure.

Tenure is generally defined as “the holding of something or the terms under which something is held.”(Morris, 1976:1327) When referring to higher education, it suggests a

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“permanence of position often granted an employee after a specified number of years.”(Morris, 1976: 1327) Tenure has been defined by the Keast Commission as:

. . .a faculty member’s right to retain his academic ap- pointment under an arrangement in which faculty appointments in institutions of higher education are continued, once competence has been demonstrated, until retirement for age or physical disability, subject to dismissal for adequate cause or unavoidable termination on account of financial exigency or change of institu- tional program. (Faculty Tenure, 1973:256)

In effect, tenure is a means of ensuring academic freedom for faculty members with institutions of higher education. Academic freedom is tenure’s “reason for being.” These two concepts- tenure and academic freedom -have been closely associated since their inception. Conceptually, they serve to complement each other in a mutually beneficial manner. It is at the operational level, however, that divergent philosophies and viewpoints manifest themselves.

Pragmatists argue that the tenure system, as it exists at present, “allows and encourages more traditional infringements of academic freedom.” (Silber, Van Waes, and Kershaw, 1974:42) These authors go on to elaborate:

Tenured professors may be able to keep nontenured faculty from developing their intellectual interests according to their own professional judgment. That is, the nontenured faculty may find themselves compelled to follow a doctrinal orthodoxy defined by the seniors in their department. This represents by far the most serious and most frequent violation of academic freedom in our colleges and universities. Not only has tenure been unable to stop this infringement, tenure makes it easy to accomplish. (Silber, Van Waes, and Kershaw, 1974:42)


Nisbet supports this statement indicating, “As for academic freedom, it must be accepted that no university worthy of the name could survive without it, but an academic freedom that extends not just to tenured faculty but to all faculty members.’’ (Nisbet, 1973:28) Schmitt relates academic freedom to the concept of professionalism. He asserts:

There are two sorts of grounds on which one’s work as an academic is judged: professional and nonprofessional. The claim to academic freedom amounts to denying anyone the right to penalize an academic economically on any nonprofessional grounds. I may be refused promotion or continued employment only if I have been found to be deficient in my professional conduct. Professional incompetence or dishonesty warrants dismissal. Nothing else does. Only one’s professional colleagues are competent to judge one’s conformity to professional standards. That is the essence of the claim to academic freedom. (Scmitt, 1972: 112)

Schmitt’s comments appear to reflect the influence currently being exerted by the increased amount of bureaucracy and politics evident within American higher education today.

Nisbet equates academic freedom with courage rather than tenure. He suggests that academic freedom does not exist because of tenure, but rather from the willingness of the university to defend it, asserting, “it was not a system of tenure but an impressive unity of trustees, administration and faculty at Harvard that turned back the late Senator Joseph McCar- thy in the early 1950’s.”(Nisbet, 1973:28) This issue- whether or not academic freedom is, in fact, extended to all faculty (tenured and nontenured)- will always be the subject of debate because of the philosophical and value orientations implicit in adopting either stance.

If academic freedom is a right of both tenured and nontenured members of academe, and, if it truly is the essence of the university, why are some members of the academic com-

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munity often so reluctant to acknowledge, accept, and encourage their colleagues when they express viewpoints different from their own? Academicians in general, and nurse faculties in particular, might ponder this question.

The increasing influence of both internal and external forces constitutes another issue confronting academic freedom. De Bardeleben cites religion and politics as two external forces that may impinge on academic freedom. For example, consci- entious objectors sometimes have been relieved of their academic positions, and attacks on them have been justified in the name of protecting certain mores of social conduct. The influence of political controls and regulations imposed as con- ditions of government-sponsored research constitutes yet another potential source of interference. (De Bardeleben,

Hechinger expresses similar concern over internal forces on campus, suggesting that coercive groups that are sometimes radical in orientation have impinged seriously on the concept of academic freedom. For instance, “unacceptable” speakers have been prevented from making campus appearances, heck- lers have interrupted speeches, halted presentations, and thrown classes into disorder, and dissenters have restrained serious debate and rational argument, creating an atmos- phere of intolerance toward objective research. (Hechinger, 1970:33-34) Such examples lead us to question what constitutes the protection of academic freedom against impingement.

1%9:71-83)

Future Implications

Academia has entered an era new to its experience-a period of decline. Predictions of a changing economic environment with decreased enrollments and increased budge- tary expenditures have come true. In the future, the budget will be under further stress by the higher ratios of tenured to


nontenured faculty, and the increase in the number of university faculties that support collective bargaining and unionizaton. The federal government will doubtless remain a major source of funding; and demands for increased account- ability by the public may encourage legislative bodies to in- itiate statewide academic planning committees and boards of control.

Issues and implications are much easier to identify than to solve. In view of an uncertain future, it behooves the academic community, and particularly nursing, to be well informed about the history and meaning of traditional concepts such as academic freedom. One must truly appreciate what is poss- essed before one can knowledgeably determine what can be destroyed and surrendered, and what should be maintained despite the cost.

Scholarly communities such as nursing should review the meaning and significance of academic freedom, an essential value of the university. As nurse faculty members become more familiar with issues and implications of the concept, they will be more able to identify, internalize, and articulate their professional and academic value systems. In the long run, the concept of academic freedom is only as strong as the integrity of the community it serves.

References AAUP, General Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom

and Academic Tenure, Bulletin, Vol. 1 (December) 1915, pp. 20-43

Brubacher, John S., On the Philosophy of Higher Education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977.

DeBardeleben, Arthur, “The University’s External Constitu- ency,” in Dimensions of Academic Freedom, Urbana: Univer- sity of Illinois Press, 1969.

Hechinger, Fred M., “Academic Freedom in America,” Change, Vol. 2 (November-December) 1970.

Keast, William R., chairman, Faculty Tenure: A Report and Recommendations by the Commission on Academic Tenure in

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Higher Education, San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1973. Linowitz, S.M., chairman, Campus Tensions: Analysis and

Recommendations, Report of the Special Committee on Campus Tensions, Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1970.

Metzger, Walter P., Academic Freedom in the Age of the University, New York: Columbia University Press, 1%1.

Morris, William (ed.), The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976.

Nisbet, Robert, “The Future of Tenure,’’ Change, Vol. 5 , No. 3 (April) 1973.

Palmer, Irene Sabelberg, “The Responsibility of the University Faculty in Nursing,” Nursing Forum, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970.

Pozanski, Edward I.J., “What Price Academic Freedom?” in The University and Social Werfare, Israel Katz and Harold Siver (eds.) Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1%9.

Ross, Murrray G., The University, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

Schmitt, Richard, “Academic Freedom: The Future of a Confu- sion,” in The Concept of Academic Freedom, E.L. Pincoffs (ed.), Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972.

Searle, John R., “Two Concepts of Academic Freedom,” in The Concept of Academic Freedom, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972.

Silber, John R., Robert Van Waes, and Joseph A. Kershaw, “The Debate on Tenure,” Change, Vol. 6 (November) 1974.

Simon, Emst, “Acaemic Freedom Today,” in The University and Social Werfare, Israel Katz and Harold Silver (eds.), Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1969.

Van Alstyne, William, “The Specific Theory of Academic Freedom and the General Issue of Civil Liberty,” in The Concep? of Academic Freedom, E.L. Pincoffs (ed.), Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972.

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academic freedom: a relevant concept for collegiate nursing education

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