MACHINES MANAGE NUMBERS

A VISUAL HISTORY OF CALCULATORS

The very first counting device was likely the human hand…

Simple, reliable, and extremely versatile, it’s affordable and needs no batteries or special training for basic uses. However its ubiquity (it enjoys near-100% market penetration) means that earning a living with your hands requires some effort to develop useful skills!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger-counting

HUMAN HAND

These ancient tally sticks unearthed in the Swiss Alps (top) are on display in a museum today.

Their use continued into the medieval era, as shown in the lower photo which records a debt of 20d each on 32 sheep, which was owed as a tithe in Hampshire England.

The basic idea of using marks inscribed on bone or wood to count likely arose over 40,000 years ago.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tally_stick

TALLY STICKS

"Medieval tally sticks" by Winchester City Council

Counting boards of many kinds were invented in multiple societies throughout antiquity.

Considered a direct precursor to the abacus, they could be as simple as lines scratched in dirt, or beautiful artisanal creations of wood, marble and even precious metals.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting_board

COUNTING BOARDS

The term “Abacus” wasn’t coined until the 14th century, but is now used to describe a variety of inventions - some dating back thousands of years.

At one time or another, cultures on every continent developed systems involving rows of objects – pebbles, beads, even knots in twine – coupled with ingenious and often surprisingly efficient methods for performing useful calculations with them.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus

http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/people/robson/words-pictures.pdf

ABACUS

Slide rules are perhaps the best known pre-electronic calculation device, still used in some parts of the world today.

In fact, astronauts on the Apollo missions carried slide rules (lower photo) as backups to their primitive onboard computers for making calculations related to course corrections and fuel consumption.

With hundreds of varieties adapted to various fields of mathematics, skilled users can compete on speed and accuracy with electronic calculators in many areas.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule#Historyhttp://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A19840160000

SLIDE RULES

Smithsonian Air and Space Museum

Early mechanical calculators emerged in the 17th century and grew steadily in complexity and usefulness, until being displaced by electronics in the latter half of the 20th century.

The tremendous variety and rich heritage of this field could easily become its own separate series, but one interesting 20th-century example is on the next page…

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comptometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator

THE RISE OF THE MACHINES

The legendary Curta (1948-1972) still has fans and users today. Famed for its flexibility and durability, working collectables can sell for thousands of dollars on eBay.

Its innovative, ingenious (and heavily patented) design enabled it to do more with far fewer moving parts than any precursor.

Remarkably, its design was completed while the creator was imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp!  

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curta

CURTA

The first electronic calculators appeared in the 1960s (photo, left), although some purely electrical models – relay-based, and the size of an office desk – were available as early as 1957.

Calculators remained rare and expensive novelties until the mid-1970s, when the TI-30 (pictured, right) debuted at the equivalent of about US$100 in today’s money.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator#History

ELECTRONICS

Today, the standalone calculator has largely been supplanted by software applications running on desktops, laptops and mobile devices.

Yet most retain the same basic user interface pioneered over 100 years ago by the early mechanical adding machines.

TODAY

Other fascinating and noteworthy stories are part of the history of mechanical calculation – in particular, I recommend reading about the Difference Engine, Galileo’s Military Compass and the Antikytheria mechanism for those interested – but in the spirit of focusing on stories relevant to the history of accounting, they have been omitted.

You may also enjoy browsing some vintage NCR (National Cash Register) ads from the 1950s and 60s here! In the spirit of fair warning, many of these do little to promote gender equality in the workplace…

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