A Study on the Role Performed by Buddhist Temples in Response to Environmental Degradation in Sri Lanka.

W. M. Dhanapala,

Introduction

This study is concerned with the institutional role played by the Buddhist temples in response to the environmental degradation in Sri Lanka. The processes of industrialization, urbanization, the expansion of market economy, and myriads of other problems have caused an irreversible damage to the natural environment of the country (Karunanayaka.1992. Ratnayaka: 2008, Ministry of Environment: 2008). Studies on this change and institutional response to it have extensively discussed the role played by the government departments, private sector institutions and non-governmental organizations, and scholars have paid little attention towards the role performed by the Buddhist temples and related organizations in response to environmental issues (Karunanayaka. And Katupotha.1993). In particular, the sociology of religion needs to address the religious response to environmental degradation in Sri Lanka and enrich the conceptual and theatrical understanding of that phenomenon. Even though Buddhist temples play a vital role in protecting and preserving the environment, their contribution is not properly researched and documented. Present study is an attempt to explore and explain functions of Buddhist temples performed for the protection of environment in the country and it reveals some significant aspects of the Buddhist response to environmental degradation. Research problem

Sociology of religion tends to explain the manifest conventional functions of religion and they have not properly addressed the latent environmental functions with due academic recognition. The conventional social functions include social control, emotional support, social solidarity, and spiritual development of the devotees (Haralambas and Heald.1981:453). But the social functions of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka have not been confined to them but they seem to have addressed a wide range of needs pertaining to the well-being of people and their environment ( Bond: 1992. Gombrich and Obesekera: 1998). Whereas the religious functions are well known as manifest functions, their contribution to the protection of environment remains latent. As the meditation is considered it is facilitated by calm and quite forest environments and Buddhist monks pay special attention to develop and preserve such environments in and around the location of temples. Consequently the Buddhist temples have been able to make a significant contribution to protect the environment. This research explores and explains as to how those manifest and latent functions contribute to find solutions to the environmental degradation in the country. Furthermore it explores the transformation of certain latent functions into manifest functions as a result of the proper awareness and perception of the cause and effects of environmental degradation. Objectives of the research. To explore Buddhist monks’ perception and awareness of environmental

degradation in Sri Lanka. To explore and explain the institutional role played by the Buddhist temples in

response to the environmental degradation.

To understand the ways and means through which the manifest and latent functions of environmental protection and preservation are performed.

Methodology of the research

This research study is predominantly based on data collected from primary sources found in Buddhist temples. A random sample of 200 temples was selected for the study and data were gathered from the chief incumbents of those temples by means of a questionnaire and interviews conducted with them. The research technique of observation was also used to gain important data pertaining to the visible evidence of the institutional role of temples in the domain of environmental protection. Focused group interviews were held with six groups comprised of twenty Monks and thirty lay persons who assisted institutional affaires of temples. All together 250 respondents provided information for the study. Special attention was paid to obtain detailed information with reference to number of temples and centers of religious practice such as Gothama Thapowana at Rajagiriya, Abhayabumi Thapowana in Kegalla, Kaludiyapokuna Thapowana at Mihinthale, Sri Dalada Thapowana in Kandy, Deviyangekanda Thapowa at Padaviya, Mihidu Aranya, Araliya Thapowa in Kurunagala, Enderagala Arannya at Wathuruwila, Dolukanda Aryanya in Kurunegala, Dimbulaga Aranya in Polonnaruwa, Milinduthalawa and Sinharaja Krantha Aranya in Rathnapura, Panankanda Aranya, Athugalakanda Aranya, Pallededde Aranya, Mangalarama Senasuna, Dharmapalarama Senasuna, Gallen Aranya Senasunain Dambulla, Rathana Sadaham Arana at Thanamalwila Olaganwala Aranya Senasanya at Mahiyanganaya and Sirivajiranana Dharmayathanaya in Maharagama.

The data gathered from those primary sources were carefully processed and analyzed with necessary verifications for writing this research paper. Researchers’ personal visits, observations and cross checking of information collected by the enumerators who administered the questionnaire assured the validity of the research as a whole. Secondary sources helped to identify the primary sources as well as the information pertaining to the environmental degradation in Sri Lanka. Environmental degradation in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island spread over an area of 65610 km2 and it occupies 118th rank in area among 184 countries. It is a tropical island receiving an average of 2000mm of rain fall annually and feeding 103 natural stream basins (Department of Census. 2012). The rain water received in two monsoons per year is saved in thousands of tanks for agricultural, hydraulic power and variety of other purposes (Baldwin. 1991). Over twenty million of population in Sri Lanka strives to survive meeting their needs struggling with the rules and norms of preserving the environment. In particular the forest cover of the island which remained at 80% of the total lands in 1884 has drastically decreased to nearly 11% within a period over a century with an adverse impact on the natural equilibrium of environmental phenomena (Karunanayaka. 1992). The continuous cultivation of commercial crops, expansion of other agricultural production, industrialization, urbanization, expansion of human settlements and extensive use of natural resource have been conducive to the environmental degradation in Sri Lanka

As a developing middle income country Sri Lanka has confronted with a myriads of environmental problems such as severe deforestation, land degradation, soil erosion, coastal erosion, pollution of air, water and soil, loss of biodiversity, degradation of natural water sources and streams, improper disposal of industrial emissions and domestic garbage, expansion of slums and shanties and urban traffic congestion. Sri Lanka enjoys the position of being one of 34 biodiversity hotpots at the

global scale and having the highest species diversity per unit land area of all Asian countries with reference to all vertebrate groups except birds and all flowering plants. The wet zone forests in the southeast of the country sustain over 75% of endemic species of flora and fauna. The seriousness of the environmental degradation is well evident from the statistics pertaining to some selected species. Nearly 25% of 3771 species of flowering plants, 18% of 91 species of mammals, 7% of 227 species of birds, 60% of 171 reptile species, 100% of the 59 species of fresh water crabs remain endemic. Among the 1104 species of flowering plans 553 are endemic and 675 are threatened. As the most visible and felt impacts of environmental degradation are concerned, prolonged droughts and consequent drying of natural water sources and streams, serious inundations in the rainy seasons, scarcity of timber, sand and other construction materials, loss of coastal belt etc. compel Sri Lankans to be more conscious about the protection of environment. (Marambe and Silval: 2012: 20) The institutional role of Buddhist temples in the field of environment.

The Theravāda Buddhism in Sri Lank has an institutional capacity of more than 11000 temples and religious centers spread throughout the country. Over 25000 Buddhist monks enjoy the residence of them and perform their religious and other social roles for the well-being of people living around them and others who are addressed through mass media. The Buddhist school educational system comprises of Pirivenas and Sunday Dhamma Schools. There are 719 Pirivenas with the capacity of 6090 members of teaching staff serving 62091 students. Around 9582 Sunday Dhamma Schools are conducted by those temples for the benefit of 1968093 students with the active support of 122084 well trained Dhamma teachers. The functioning of these institutions is supported and reinforced by thousands of Buddhist Societies established for the practice of Buddhism and Buddhist social work including charity ( Department of Buddhist Affaires: 2014).

As is evident from the research study Buddhist temples and related religious centers perform number of tasks in response to the environmental degradation in the country. They are the actions such as (1) active involvement in the protection and preservation of natural forest reserves and reforestation (2) enhancement of community awareness of environmental problems and the importance of environmental preservation, (3) provision of leadership for public campaigns against environmentally destructive projects and other activities, (4) working as mediators between community and state and private companies, (5) playing a role of advocacy on behalf of people affected by environmental disasters, (6) regular organization of tree plantation campaigns, (7) active involvement in solving the problems of human-elephant conflict and human-monkey conflict, (8) organization of voluntary labor activities to assure the environmental cleanliness and proper disposal of garbage, (9) cultivation of medicinal herbal plants and (10) introduction of environment- friendly practices to religious rites and rituals. Active involvement in the protection and preservation of natural forest reserves and reforestation

More than 20% of the Buddhist monks referred to their active involvement in activities such as the protection of existing environment, its preservation for the future generations and reforestation in different regions in the island. The Gothama Thapowana (which means: Gothama Ascetic Forest) at Kalapaluwawa in Rajagiriya, in the capital of the country is an important Buddhist center established in 1962. It has an area of 12 acres fully covered with high grown forest like environment within a highly urbanizing area. It trains Forest Residential monks (Arannyawasi) who are well

disciplined, and well versed with Tripitaka. The concept of Forest Monastery has been adopted in six urban and rural areas such as the Abhayabhumi Thapowana in Kegale, Deviyange Kanda Thapowana in Padaviya, Sri Dalada Thapowana in Udawattha Kale in Kandy, Kaludiya Pokuna Thapowana in Mihinthale, and Katharagama Thapowana. All the Thapowana temples remain ideal places for the practice of meditation. Forests, empty places and shade of trees have been prescribed as ideal locations for meditation in Buddhism (Rahula. 2004:98).

The Buddhist monks of the Wanawasa Sector (Forest Residential Sector) are especially interested in the establishment of Forest Monasteries and practice Theravāda Buddhism at those calm and quite natural environments. Even though the manifest function of them is to practice Buddhism at an ideal place for it, the natural environment is protected and preserved as a latent function. The Wanawasa Monks pay special attention to protect and preserve the forest areas under their purview. They are legally provided two Acres of forest reserves by the Department of Forest Conservation and the legal permission needs to be renewed annually. More than 250 licensed Forest Monasteries have been established in state forest lands. Apart from them a considerable number of Forest Monasteries exist in forest lands belonged to Buddhist temples and individuals. The Wanawasa sector has 215 Forest Monasteries in different parts of the country. Even though there is a legal limit for the state forest lands offered to Forest Monasteries their functioning is not confined to legal boundaries. The Forest Monasteries enjoy the natural facilitation of meditation in a vast area of forests extending the protective and even reforestation functions to those areas. For instance, the historical Gallen Aranya Senasuna in Dambulla has an area of 25 Acres and it was a barren land when it was started in 1979. In the course of last three decades it has undergone a complete reforestation with 30000 to 40000 small and big valuable trees. All the types of trees naturally available in Sri Lanka have been grown there.

Almost all the monks were interested in the development and maintenance of the green environment of the temple premises and lands belonged to the temple. According to the research findings, activities such as plantation of trees, watering of plants, had been personally done by 86% and 73% of monks respectively. Tasks such as cleaning of the temple and disposal of garbage had been personally carried out by 92% and 93% of the monks respectively. Measures for the prevention of soil erosion had been taken by 58% of the monks. Enhancement of community awareness.

According to the research findings, Buddhist monks have played a significant role in educating the communities living around the temples. All the temples had Sunday Dhamma Schools and Buddhist Societies established for various purposes and they have played an instrumental role in that endeavor. As the statistics are concerned 69% of chief incumbents showed special interest in the protection of environment and the importance of public awareness of it whereas the rest 31% of monks had a general interest in the same requirement. They were highly enthusiastic in developing their perception and awareness of current problems of environmental degradation in their areas in particular and country wide problems in general. It was evident from the 48% of monks who had participated in at least two workshops or awareness programs of environmental protection. Each temple had a Sunday Dhamma School and at least a Buddhist Society of community members and they had been effective mechanisms through which the temple had been able to carry out its awareness programs. In addition to the incorporation of environmental education in to the education of Dhamma Schools, 58% of temples had made them a forum for the public dissemination of information pertaining to the environmental issues and public responsibility. With the

assistance of Dhamma Schools, Pirivenas and Buddhist Societies those temples had held more than 560 lectures, seminars, poster campaigns, debates and competitions of drawings and essays that fell into the domain of environmental education, within a period of one year. Leadership functions

The conflict between development and environmental protection assumed a considerable proportion in the course of last period with the implementation of big development projects by the state and the private sector companies. Community and civic organizations had organized number of protest campaigns against the adverse impacts of those projects and Buddhist monks were seen in some of them playing a leading role. Only 8% of the sample had provided leadership for public protest campaigns against projects activities such as land acquisition, road construction, granite quarries, and industrial emissions and consequent pollution of water. There had been 33 community meetings in the temples to discuss environmental issues under the leadership of the chief incumbent monks. Buddhist communities show a special interest in having the leadership of Buddhist monks in protest campaigns profiting from the highest veneration they receive from the public. Leadership of Buddhist monks, which is further strengthened by the name, position in the Chapter of monks and sacred value of the temple, usually prevent the coercive reactions against protest campaigns. Mediatory functions

In response to certain environmental issues Buddhist monks had been invited by the affected parties to intervene and play a mediatory role to solve those problems. The venerable religious position of the Buddhist monks facilitates the effective performance of the mediatory role as the relevant parties listen to them and usually acquiesce in their decisions. As revealed by 25% of the monks, more than 90 cases had been solved by working as mediators between people and the state, people and private companies, people and businessmen and two parties of people in the same and different communities. As the business of building materials is concerned, the supply of sand and timber causes a serious damage to major rivers and other streams. Irrespective of higher regulation of those businesses by the government, businessmen in the country continue their illegal excavation of sands and felling of trees from forest reserves. The Buddhist monks of the sample had solved more than 40 cases of illegal sand and timber through mediation. The beneficiaries were very thankful to the monks for their intervention in protecting the water sources of their paddy fields from sand and timber thieves. Advocacy on behalf of people affected by illegal and environmentally disastrous acts

As was revealed by 7% of the sample, Buddhist monks play an important social role of formally appearing on behalf of community members affected by environmental problems as well as other social problems in the area. In particular, the poor rural and even urban people hesitate to complain against certain adverse environmental impacts of projects and businesses carried out with the support and patronage of local politicians in power as they are afraid of revenge by the influential people. In such situations, the monks had to listen to those helpless people and appear on behalf of them and bring justice to them. They had solved more than 40 cases of illegal cultivation of cannabis by clearing forest lands and consequent expelling of elephants towards human settlements, collection of herbal medicine for business purposes, gem mining and felling of home garden trees and digging out of vast areas of land for sand and adding

poisonous things to water by small and large scale production of illicit alcohol etc. Most of those illegal activities had been perpetrated in and in adjacent areas of human settlements with a serious impact on the health of residents and their means of sustenance. For some monks it had been a dangerous intervention as certain culprits threatened them to be silent or face lethal repercussions. To keep the active monks silent they had even reminded of the monks who had been recently killed for appearing on behalf of affected people and complaining against such environmentally harmful illegal businesses. Such lethal reactions and threats clearly reveal the magnitude of the seriousness of actively responding to environmental problems and the risk that the active monks have to take in their role of advocacy. Regular organization of tree plantation campaigns.

Tree planting activities had been carried out by all the temples of the sample and it had assumed a significant recognition among all the other activities regularly organized by the temple and its other institutions. All the temples had organized 440 tree planting programs in a period of one year and they had been carried out regularly. They had been organized not only on the days nationally prescribed for such activities but especially on days important for each temple for commemorating various historical events. The Sunday Dhamma School and Buddhist Societies of each temple had been active in carrying out the tasks pertaining to tree plantation. Various types of tree plants had been gathered and cultivated in selected areas and also distributed among people interested in planting them in their gardens. As a result all the temples observed in the study had an attractive green environment comprised of varieties of flora. Active involvement in solving the problems of human-elephant and human- monkey conflicts

The problem of Human-animal conflicts has assumed horrendous proportions with the expansion of paddy cultivation, Chena cultivation, commercial crop cultivation, and other legal and illegal activities which have been ultimately conducive to the continuous deforestation drastically shrinking the strips of forest lands available for the survival of the wild fauna and flora of Sri Lanka. In particular elephants and monkeys find it difficult to find food and water in the natural forests and consequently they used to come to the adjacent cultivations and human settlements searching for food and water. This phenomenon brings about a lethal impact on villagers and elephants confronting with each other. Annually an average of 15 persons is killed by elephant attacks. The number of elephants killed by people is not known as they are killed in various strategies adopted in secret manner. However, the number is more than the human cost. The people of areas such as Dehiaththakandiya, Polonnaruwa, where the elephants and monkeys attack crops and lives of them had requested 9% of monks to do whatever they could in order to save their lives at least. The Buddhist monks had actively involved in searching short term and long term solutions to both conflicts. Driving the elephants and monkeys out of human settlement and cultivation areas to distance forest reserves, transportation of them to remote forest areas, constructions of electrified wire fences around settlements, were the major measures they had been able to adopt through the relevant authorities. Meanwhile, the monks had educated villagers about precautionary and preventive measures to save their lives and also the lives of elephants and monkeys. Furthermore, cultivation of plants known as Pathok and Hana (in Sinhalese) which divert elephants’ movements had been promoted by the temples. Alternative means of sustenance had been sought by the temple for villagers who were continuously attacked by elephants due to the wrong selection of land.

Organization of voluntary labor activities to assure the environmental cleanliness and proper disposal of garbage

Environmental cleanliness and proper disposal of garbage is periodically emphasized in Sri Lanka particularly, in times when the death toll of Dengue fever is in rise. The government takes legal actions against people who hesitate to abide by the rule of disposing garbage in such times and they are effective as long as the authorities are concerned about it. But the Buddhist temples have adopted long lasting solution by reinforcing the activities of environmental cleanliness and proper disposal of garbage. All the temples of the sample had organized voluntary labor campaigns to clean the environment in selected areas. Over 91% of the monks of the sample had reiterated the importance of keeping the domestic and public environments clean in Dhamma sermons. According to the Buddhist monks, people regularly organized the ritual of preaching Dhamma and such events have provided them with sufficient opportunities to address the problems of improper disposal of garbage taking examples from the surrounding environment and inculcate good environmental norms in the minds of them. In funeral ceremonies of people who had succumbed to dengue fever, illnesses caused by environmental hazards and accidents, the monks had taken more than usual time to explain and convince the importance of protecting the quality of environment with special reference to the main cause of the death. Cultivation of herbal medicinal plants

In their response to the environmental degradation in the country, Buddhist monks had paid special attention to the cultivation of plants identified with medicinal value in the folk medicine and Ayurveda medicine. Both medical systems have existed for centuries and still remain in practice. These two medical systems predominantly depend on the availability of flora which provides the ingredients of local medicine and today they face a serious problem of finding them as a result of the deforestation and other problems of the environment. Sri Lanka imports a considerable portion of ingredients of folk and Ayurveda medicine from India. As tradition Buddhist monks also practice folk and Ayurvedic medicine in Sri Lanka and all of them are interested in maintaining herbal gardens which directly produce and supply the herbal medical needs. The research identified 5 monks with herbal medicinal gardens such as Dolukanda Aranya. But the cultivation of medicinal plants is not confined to them. More than 60 percent of the sample mentioned that they had special interest in selecting plants of medicinal value for the cultivation in temple lands. Even though most of them were not medical practitioners they were highly conscious about the scarcity of plants required for the folk medicine and Ayurveda and importance of growing them in their residential places themselves. This particular conscious had motivated them to enrich the green environment of temples and places of religious practice with rare plants in the country. Introduction of environment- friendly practices to religious rites and rituals

As was evident from the study, 67% of the monks had reduced the use of environmentally harmful materials in religious activities. They had discouraged the use of plastic and polythene bags, containers and decorations in religious rites and rituals. Even the extra ordinary use of trees and tree leaves for various activities pertaining to religious processions and festivals had been controlled by them. In particular, the annual Vesak and Poson festivals and special festivals of the temple require considerable amount of timber and other natural resources and they are disposed after them. It was after careful consideration of the environmental impacts of religious affairs the monks had controlled the use of natural resource and even the rituals of treating the

Bo Tree pouring water and worshiping it lighting oil lamps and candles under it in hundreds or even thousands on full moon (Poya) days. Such environment-friendly measures had had multiple positive impacts on people and the environment of the religious place and the area as a whole. Conclusion

Environmental degradation is a serious problem in Sri Lanka and the Government, private sector corporations and Non-governmental organizations have responded to it at various levels. Even though those responses have been immensely discussed religious responses have not been duly addressed. This study explored and explained the way Buddhist temples and related institutes and centers had responded to this phenomenon. As is evident from the analysis the Buddhist temple and related organs have performed number of functions in response to the major problems stemming from the environmental degradation. The Wanawasi (Forest Monastery) sector of monks dominates among the others adopting practical measures to protect and preserve the existing natural environment while actively engaging in reforestation of barren lands depending on their capacities. The other monks who live in rural and urban human settlements dominate playing number of roles for the benefit of the people affected by the environmental problems and the protection and preservation of the environment. Their active intervention in the capacity of religious leadership had been highly effective with reference to number of issues. The institutional capacity of Buddhist temples and related institutes and organizations is the driving force behind the successful reactions against environmental degradation and its adverse impacts on people and their means of living. Accordingly the environmental protection and preservation which was a latent function of temple at the beginning has been transformed into a manifest function of the temple in response to the adverse impacts of environmental degradation.

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