a qualitative study of performance leadership and management in elite sport

21

Click here to load reader

Upload: rachel

Post on 14-Apr-2017

212 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

This article was downloaded by: [University of California, San Francisco]On: 20 December 2014, At: 04:15Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Applied Sport PsychologyPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uasp20

A Qualitative Study of PerformanceLeadership and Management in EliteSportDavid Fletcher a & Rachel Arnold aa Loughborough UniversityPublished online: 29 Apr 2011.

To cite this article: David Fletcher & Rachel Arnold (2011) A Qualitative Study of PerformanceLeadership and Management in Elite Sport, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23:2, 223-242, DOI:10.1080/10413200.2011.559184

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.559184

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 23: 223–242, 2011Copyright C© Association for Applied Sport PsychologyISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10413200.2011.559184

A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadershipand Management in Elite Sport

DAVID FLETCHER AND RACHEL ARNOLD

Loughborough University

This paper is an investigation of performance leadership and management in elite sport.Thirteen national performance directors of Olympic sports were interviewed with regard tobest practice. Four main areas were identified: vision, operations, people, and culture. Themain vision issues were vision development, influences on the vision, and sharing the vision.The main operations issues were financial management, strategic competition and trainingplanning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules and regulations. The mainpeople issues were staff management, lines of communication, and feedback mechanisms. Themain culture issues were establishing role awareness, and organizational and team atmosphere.

England won the World Cup . . . because we had an outstanding group of players . . . the mostintense preparation . . . [and] a powerful team spirit both on and off the pitch. Most importantly,we had a strong, dynamic organizational culture that fully supported our new approach. Withoutit, our systems would have been built on a foundation of sand and wouldn’t have weatheredthe mildest of storms. (Woodward, 2004, p. 6)

This quote by Sir Clive Woodward, head coach of the England rugby union team that wonthe 2003 World Cup, illustrates the importance of an organization’s shared beliefs, perceptions,and expectations in achieving at the highest level in competitive sport. Sport psychologistshave recognized this for some time and Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) recently emphasized thatit is essential for researchers and practitioners to better understand organizational influences onathletic performance. In support of their premise, they reviewed six lines of inquiry pointingto the salience of organizational issues in elite sport: factors affecting Olympic performance(see, for a review, Gould & Maynard, 2009), organizational stress (see, for a review, Fletcher,Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006), perceptions of roles (see, e.g., Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004),organizational success factors (see, e.g., Weinberg & McDermott, 2002), performance environ-ments in elite sport (see, e.g., Pain & Harwood, 2008), and organizational citizenship behavior(see Aoyagi, Cox, & McGuire, 2008). After reviewing the findings of this research, Fletcherand Wagstaff (2009) concluded that, “the way individuals are led and managed will become anincreasingly important factor in determining NSO’s [national sporting organizations] successin Olympic competition” (p. 433).

Performance leadership at the managerial level of organizations has been somewhatoverlooked by sport psychology researchers who have tended to focus on coaching-related

Received 9 July 2010; accepted 27 January 2011.Address correspondence to David Fletcher, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough

University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, LE11 3TU United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]

223

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 3: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

224 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

leadership (see, for a review, Chelladurai, 2007; Riemer, 2007). In contrast, organizationalpsychologists have examined managerial-level leadership in detail and proposed a wide ar-ray of theoretical approaches (see, for a review, Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001). These includetrait (Carlyle, 1841), behavioral and style (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939), skills (Katz,1955), social exchange (Homans, 1958; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001), contingency (Fiedler,1964), organizational systems (Katz & Kahn, 1978), strategic management (Bourgeois, 1984;Wortman, 1982), leader effectiveness (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983), functional (Hackman &Walton, 1986), and situational (Hersey, 1986) perspectives. Available space precludes a dis-cussion of all these approaches; however, given the focus of this study, it is worth brieflysummarizing the behavioral style, leader effectiveness, functional, social exchange, and situ-ational approaches to studying performance leadership.

Early researchers working in this line of inquiry conceptualized leadership as a set ofindividuals’ behaviors and unearthed a number of leadership styles. These include dictatorial,autocratic, participative and laissez faire (Lewin et al., 1939), charismatic (House, 1977;Weber, 1947), directive, supportive, participative and achievement-oriented (House, 1971;1996), transactional and transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns 1978), and people-oriented andtask-oriented (Tracy, 1987) styles. In extending this work, the leader effectiveness (Kenny& Zaccaro, 1983) and functional approaches (Hackman & Walton, 1986) linked a varietyof attributes and competencies to organizational and leadership effectiveness. These includehonesty, self-insight, flexibility, emotional intelligence, an ability to generate enthusiasm,collective thinking, cooperation, trust, and an ability to create a vision (Ringer, 2007; Stein,Papadogiannis, Yip, & Sitarenios, 2009; Yukl, 2008). From a social perspective, the emergenceof the social exchange approach (Homans, 1958; see, for a recent review, Zaccaro & Klimoski,2001) enhanced understanding of leadership by paying greater attention to the relationshipbetween leaders and their subordinates. More recently, the situational approach (Hersey, 1986)provided a prescriptive view of leadership together with accompanying suggestions on howleaders can become effective in different types of organizational settings and tasks. Althoughthere has been a wide array of theoretical approaches to performance leadership, the conceptualunderpinning of leadership is relatively well-established, with Northouse (2010) recentlydefining it as, “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve acommon goal” (p. 3).

Turning to the area of performance management, this line of inquiry has also tended tobe overlooked by sport psychology researchers. In contrast, other academic disciplines haveexplored this concept in detail (see, for a review, Holloway, 2009). These include humanresources management (see, e.g., Armstrong & Baron, 1998), occupational psychology andorganizational behavior (see, e.g., Fletcher, 2001), management accounting and finance (see,e.g., Kloot & Martin, 2001), operations management (see, e.g., Radnor & Barnes, 2007),and team performance management (see, e.g., Ratten, 2009). As a result of these multipleperspectives on performance management, it is not surprising that the literature in the areais crowded and confused. Consequently, a precise definition of performance managementhas proved to be elusive (Thorpe & Holloway, 2008), although it is possible to elucidate anoverarching purpose:

The basic aims of performance management are to share understanding about what is to beachieved, to develop the capacity of people and the organization to achieve it, and to providethe support and guidance individuals and teams need to improve their performance. (Thorpe& Holloway, 2008, p. 88)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 4: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 225

In accordance with these aims, a number of researchers have discussed best practice per-formance management systems (Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway, 2009; Walters, 1995).Characteristics of these systems include having aims, identifying risk factors, communicatinga vision, measuring performance, regularly reporting results, and encouraging a culture ofopenness, empowerment, and sensitivity. Furthermore, a performance management systemmust be compatible with the organization’s culture (Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway,2009) and should be carefully matched to the organization’s circumstances, any problemsrequiring attention, and the preferred management style (Walters, 1995).

Although performance leadership and management can be conceived as distinct constructs,it is generally accepted that, at an operational level, considerable overlap exists. From aconceptual perspective, Kotter (1990) argued that leadership is about seeking adaptive andconstructive change and movement, whereas management is about seeking order, consistency,and stability in organizations. Bennis and Nanus (1985) attempted to capture the distinction intheir frequently quoted remark: “Leaders are people who do the right thing and managers arepeople who do things right” (p. 221). Despite these differences, Northouse (2010) recognizedthe many similarities between leadership and management noting that both involve influence,working with people, and are concerned with effective goal accomplishment. He also pointedout that when leaders are involved in planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling, they areinvolved in management; whereas, when managers are involved in influencing a group to meetits goals, they are involved in leadership. In view of these observations, Northouse (2010)concluded by encouraging researchers to “treat the role of managers and leaders similarly anddo not emphasize the differences between them” (p. 11).

Despite the significant amount of research examining performance leadership and man-agement spanning various academic disciplines, sport psychology appears to have overlookedthese potentially fruitful lines of inquiry. Indeed, Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) concludedtheir review paper by stating that, “there is currently no rigorous research that specificallyaddresses performance management . . . in elite sport” (p. 433). The purpose of this study is,therefore, to investigate performance leadership and management in elite sport. Specifically,the intention here is to explore perceptions of best practice for leading and managing teams inpreparation for Olympic competition. It is hoped that evidence-based information in this areawill help inform practitioners who provide support to the management staff of internationalsports teams (cf. Males, 2006; Timson, 2006). Indeed, when reflecting on his work with the2004 British Olympic Team, Simon Timson (2006) observed that:

Increasingly, sport psychologists are being asked to provide support to management and coach-ing teams with issues such as leadership and communication. These were some key themesof my work with the HQ [headquaters] team at the camp. Further training and professionaldevelopment in these areas may help sport psychologists to provide an enhanced service duringthe planning and at future Olympic holding camps. (p. 24)

METHOD

Design

In view of the rather scant knowledge of performance leadership and management in elitesport, this study was deemed best suited to qualitative methods. Such methods are typicallycharacterized by the adoption of an explorative approach to inquiry and the collection ofrich, descriptive data that portrays complex human experiences (Silverman, 2006). Qualitativeresearch emphasizes the exploration of multiple realities gained from different interpretations

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 5: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

226 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

of the social world. Therefore, collecting rich data from various perspectives will help promotea greater profundity of performance leadership and management in elite sport. Furthermore,the specific method of interviews encourages individuals to provide in-depth information thatresonates at a personal level and captures the subjective meaning in contextual situations(Kvale & Brinkmann, 2008). Hence, interviews were selected to explore the topic area via theexperiences of those who have firsthand practice of performance leadership and managementin elite sport.

Participants

To address the aim of this study a purposive sampling technique was used to solicitparticipants that were national performance directors (NPDs) of an Olympic sport. Thisapproach to sampling is often utilized in qualitative research when there are a limited numberof people that have experience or expertise in the research area. The sample consisted of 13current NPDs (11 male, 2 female) who ranged in age from 42 to 54 years (M = 48.88, SD =4.52). The participants had worked in elite sport for between four to 35 years (M = 20.21,SD = 11.02) and as a NPD for between .5 to 13 years (M = 6.01, SD = 3.76). The representedOlympic sports accumulated a total of 24 medals at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and accountedfor £138 million of public investment (approximately equivalent to US $264 million). In termsof the sample size, 13 NPDs was considered an appropriate number because the participantsbegan to recall analogous vignettes as the data collection phase progressed. Consequently,new themes failed to emerge from the analysis and it was deemed that both theoretical anddata saturation had occurred (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001;Bowen, 2008).

Procedure

After completing the American Psychological Association’s (2010) Ethical ComplianceChecklist and obtaining institutional ethical approval for the study, current NPDs working inOlympic sports were contacted by email. This communication informed them of the purposeof the study, described what it would entail for participants, and invited them to participate.As a result of one of the emails, the researchers were invited to present information about thestudy at a NPD forum. NPDs who expressed an interest in participating were contacted toarrange a convenient time and location for the interview, and were provided with a copy of aninterview guide specifically designed for this study. The interviews were digitally recorded intheir entirety.

Interview Guide

An interview guide1 was developed to help investigate the research question and it wasdivided into five sections. Section 1 provided participants with information about the study,its purpose, and their right to withdraw at any time. In particular, it was emphasized thatconfidential, personally identifiable information concerning their participation would not bedisclosed at any stage of the research process (cf. American Psychological Association, 2010).Section 2 provided an opportunity to confirm participant understanding and, subsequently,invited the participants to voluntarily proceed with the interview. Section 3 consisted ofintroductory questions (e.g., How did you first get involved in [sport]?) These questionsallowed the interviewer to develop rapport with the participant and gain an insight into hisor her background. Section 4 explored various aspects of the NPD role and responsibilities(e.g., “What are the important considerations related to your work in elite sport?”) and the

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 6: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 227

participant’s perceptions of best practice for leading and managing teams in preparation forOlympic competition (e.g., “What are the important considerations related to your work in elitesport?”; “What qualities do you think NPDs should possess to be effective?”; “What do youbelieve represents best practice in your role?”) The conception and phrasing of the questionsin this section were, in part, informed by the extant literature on performance leadership andmanagement. Section 5 encouraged the participants to voice any further pertinent issues andalso evaluated the efficacy of the interview. Although the participants were guided through anidentical set of questions in Sections 3, 4, and 5 the order of questioning varied according to theflow of the conversation. This flexibility allowed the participants to pursue the interview in thedirection that they deemed appropriate. A pilot interview was conducted on a recently retiredNPD to help ensure that the guide addressed the relevant areas of performance leadershipand management in elite sport. The pilot interview also enabled the interviewer to refine herinterview skills and techniques. Based on this interview it was decided that several furtherclarification and elaboration probes were required to attain a deeper understanding of theparticipants’ subjective experiences (cf. Biddle et al., 2001).

Data Analysis

The interviews ranged in duration from 32 to 103 min (M = 54, SD = 20.40), weretranscribed verbatim, and yielded 329 pages of 1.5 spaced text. Because knowledge of perfor-mance leadership and management in elite sport is scarce, a thematic interpretational contentanalysis was deemed the most appropriate approach for analyzing the data (Aronson, 1994;Cote, Salmela, & Baria, 1993; Gibbs, 2007). This is because content analysis has the potentialto generate knowledge via the emergence and interpretation of themes from the interviewtranscripts. Furthermore, incorporating inductive reasoning within these procedures can helpto foster innovation (Neuendorf, 2002). The first stage of the content analysis involved theinterviewer immersing herself in the transcripts and extracting raw-data quotes pertainingto performance leadership and management in elite sport. Quotes that represented commonthemes were then paraphrased as lower-order themes, before they were combined and cat-alogued as higher-order themes (Aronson, 1994). Higher-order themes were subsequentlypieced together into appropriate general dimensions, forming a comprehensive picture of theparticipants’ collective experiences. Although inductive procedures dominated the study’s dataanalysis, deductive reasoning also played a partial role in the later stages of the process. Morespecifically, the performance leadership and management literature from academic disciplinesoutside sport psychology influenced the appellation of the themes and dimensions. This ap-proach is common in the analysis of qualitative data, as Gibbs (2007) noted: “It is very hardfor analysts to eliminate completely all prior frameworks . . . inevitably qualitative analysis isguided and framed by pre-existing ideas and concepts” (p. 45). In terms of the data handling,manual analysis was considered more appropriate than computer-assisted analysis because thelatter can distance the researcher from the data (Davis & Meyer, 2009; Mangabeira, Lee, &Fielding, 2004). Finally, a frequency analysis was conducted to illustrate how often each themewas mentioned by the participants (Neuendorf, 2002).

Trustworthiness and Validity

While acknowledging that various criteria exist for evaluating the quality of qualitativeresearch (Krefting, 1991; Sparkes & Smith, 2009; Weed, 2009), this study sought to employthe criteria most appropriate for the research question and emergent data. One such criterionwas authenticity, which was enhanced by acknowledging any researcher biases (Biddle et al.,2001; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Patton, 2002; Watt, 2007). As part of this process a critical

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 7: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

228 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

friend questioned any interpretations made at each stage of the data analysis (Faulkner &Sparkes, 1999; Holt & Sparkes, 2001; Sparkes & Partington, 2003), particularly followingany deductive reasoning that occurred. This was supplemented by member checking whichinvolved sending three participants the themes and dimensions to check for both clarityand accuracy. Other chosen criteria included credibility and rigor and were addressed byinterviewing knowledgeable participants from a wide range of sports and, as a result, providedmore in-depth raw data to drive the generation of the results (Patton, 2002; Paulus, Woodside, &Ziegler, 2008). Finally, although the above techniques were utilized to contribute to qualitativevalidity criteria, Biddle et al. (2001) noted that readers should be provided with the opportunityto evaluate and interpret the data in a way that is most meaningful to them. Consequently, thefindings of this study are presented using both hierarchical content trees and direct quotations.This combination enables the reader to appreciate the wide array of emergent themes togetherwith their complexity and, ultimately, to gain a better understanding of performance leadershipand management in elite sport.

RESULTS

The results derived from the data analysis procedures represent the participants’ collatedresponses. The interview data yielded 251 distinct raw-data quotes2 which were abstractedinto 43 lower-order themes, and 12 higher-order themes. The higher-order themes formedfour general dimensions of performance leadership and management in elite sport: vision,operations, people, and culture (see Figures 1–4). Vision was defined as the team’s ultimateaspiration. The term operations was defined as the management of logistics that enable per-formance. The term people was defined as the leadership of individuals that contribute to theteam’s functioning. Culture was defined as the shared beliefs and expectations within the team.

Vision

Vision consisted of three higher-order themes: vision development, influences on the vision,and sharing the vision (see Figure 1). In terms of the development of the vision, the NPDs agreedthat it is important to seek collective input into its design, ensure that it is appropriately focusedand flexible for adaptation, and stimulate shared ownership within the team. In addition, someof the NPDs suggested that the vision should evolve over time. The most frequently citedthemes in this higher-order theme were ensuring that the vision was appropriately focused andhad shared ownership:

The vision for the organization needs to be clear, and specific to what you want to achieve,where you want to go . . . it’s got to be stretched, though at the same time remain realistic andachievable . . . and, I think, ultimately targets and goals need to be owned by everyone whois working towards that vision . . . that way, people will buy into what you are trying to do.(Participant 10).

Alongside the development of the vision, the NPDs spoke about the influences on the team’svision. These included current political agendas, the team’s recent performances, feedbackfrom the staff, the expectations of the team’s stakeholder(s), and the team’s current focus.Collectively, these factors impact on the nature of the vision and its relevance to the team. Thisquote indicates how a political agenda influenced the vision:

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 8: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 229

Collective input 3

Appropriately focused 6

Flexible for adaptation 1 Vision development 17

Shared ownership 4

Evolves over time 3

Political agendas 3

Recent performances 7

Staff feedback 1 Influences on the vision 18

Stakeholder(s) expectations 2

Current focus 5

Clarifying the message 6

Dissemination of the message 2 Sharing the vision 15

Managing expectations 7

Higher-order Theme Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency

Figure 1. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Vision.

The reason it’s complicated is because in order to get [externally sourced funding] you haveto produce Olympic medals. When we first wrote our plan . . . (I think I wrote it in 1997,for the 2000 Olympics), we said we would get fourth place. . . . Then six to nine months outfrom the 2000 Olympics, [the nation’s high performance sports agency] decided they’d changethe goalposts. They said, “we are not going to give you any money unless you can get a medal,”and I said, “so what you’re saying is you have given us the money already, but you are notgoing to continue it for a fourth place” . . . They said, “yes.” So I went back and changed thefourth to a third place. (Participant 9)

To share the vision, the NPDs discussed how they initially clarify the message to theteam, emphasizing that it is authentic, appropriate, and realistic. Once clarified, the vision isdisseminated throughout the sport organization and performance team. The most frequentlycited theme in this higher-order theme was “managing expectations.” Several NPDs describedthat when sharing a vision with an organization and team it is important to manage people’sexpectations that arise as a result. This is described in the following quote:

Managing expectation is vital across far more than just performance—it relates to what we’retrying to achieve and where we’re aiming to be . . . I think it will be a big issue in the build upto [the] 2012 [Olympic Games] because, well . . . expectation of [nation] results . . . will needmanaging . . . get it wrong and you are in trouble. . . . So you can’t just publicize the vision—youneed to manage people’s interpretation of it and their expectations too. (Participant 13)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 9: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

230 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency Higher-order Theme

13 External budget allocation

10 Prioritized funding

7Nation’s high performance sports agency

rules41 Financial management

3 Self-sufficient and sustainable finances

8 Innovative investment

8 Collaborative involvement

3 Managing the quality 24Strategic competition and training

planning

13 Evaluation and reporting

9 Objectivity throughout the process

6 Athlete/sport relevant criteria

4 Support staff involvement 25 Athlete selection for competition

2 External consultation

4 Appeals process

3 Awareness and education

1 Clarification of the laws of the sport 6 Upholding rules and regulations

2 Reinforcement of externally imposed rules

Figure 2. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Operations.

Higher-order Theme Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency

5 Recruitment of personnel

15 Supporting the workforce 27 Staff management

7 Staff development pathways

5 Multidirectional interaction

7 Multiple implementation methods 13 Lines of communication

1 Optimal frequency of exchange

8 Athlete reviews

7 Formal and informal staff

evaluation 27 Feedback mechanisms

12 External assessments

Figure 3. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: People.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 10: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 231

Higher-order Theme Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency

12 National performance director awareness 20 Establishing role awareness

8 Developing colleague role knowledge

7 Creating an identity

5 Improving the quality and quantity of

contact time 18 Organizational and team atmosphere

6 Promoting compatibility behaviors

Figure 4. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Culture.

Operations

Operations consisted of four higher-order themes: financial management, strategic com-petition and training planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules andregulations (see Figure 2). Financial management involved the allocation of external budgets,prioritizing funding, adhering to the nation’s high performance sports agency rules, generatingself-sufficient and sustainable finances, and investing in innovative projects. The most fre-quently cited themes in this higher-order theme were prioritized funding and external budgetallocation. These themes were closely linked since prioritizing funding was dependant on thebudget that each sport had been allocated for the current Olympiad. Other common themes re-lating to financial management were the importance of self-sufficient and sustainable financesand innovative investment, as the below quote indicates:

I think ultimately we need to get ourselves into a self-sufficient, sustainable position for post[the] 2012 [Olympic Games] . . . because after that there will be a lot of changes to elite sportfunding. . . . At the same time we need to ensure that any technological advancements we investin are value-for-money developments . . . so, you know, the people who are doing the research,they have to come in and demonstrate to me and the coaches how it’s going to make a medalwinning difference. (Participant 3)

At the start of each year most of the NPDs planned strategically with other staff the compe-tition and training operations of the team. More specifically, coaches typically contributed tothe strategic element (e.g., by selecting competitions to attend), administrative staff organizedthe training and competition arrangements (e.g., travel and accommodation), and the NPDstypically made the final decisions on operational issues. After each competition the importanceof “evaluation and reporting” on the strategic plans was highlighted, and the following quoteprovides an insight into this process:

So this morning we went through our [nation] competition evaluation, that’s coaches, athletes,physio, sport science manager, administrator, everyone. . . . I picked up some key points. I willthen make sure that there is a file kept on [nation], so the next time we go there, there is afootprint. (Participant 8)

The most frequently cited themes within athlete selection for competition were athlete/sport-relevant criteria and objectivity throughout the process. In terms of ensuring that the criteriaremained relevant, the NPDs emphasized the importance of conducting regular reviews ofthe selection policies to monitor their appropriateness to current circumstances and goals.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 11: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

232 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Maintaining objectivity throughout the competition selection process is illustrated by thefollowing quote:

We used probably the most objective system that was possible . . . we had a very, very forensicfour day camp where they [the athletes] got marked out of 100 for a variety of attributes andalso had an interview . . . I mean we even brought external coaches in from [nation] who didn’tknow the athletes . . . We had [nation’s high performance sports agency] involved at every level[of the selection process]; they were there at the camp so they knew we had done everythingwe could do for it to be fair. I don’t think any sport could have a more objective start to theirprogram. (Participant 5)

The NPDs also took on the responsibility for upholding rules and regulations within theteam. For instance, they commonly provided awareness and education on the rules of thesport, dispute processes, and doping procedures. The following quote illustrates how one NPDmanaged this area:

The rules do change; they evolve. So we do a lot of CPD [continuing professional development]work with the coaches, and bring top judges and umpires into that CPD process . . . Also, inour sport, there is a rules dispute process so we train the athletes in that. Our racing manageralso makes sure that all the judges and umpires are up to speed on the regulations . . . as theyneed to become more professional like the athletes. (Participant 7)

People

People consisted of three higher-order themes: staff management, lines of communication,and feedback mechanisms (see Figure 3). The most frequently cited theme within staff man-agement was supporting the workforce. The following NPD account provides an insight intothe complexities of how to best support staff:

I think it’s crucial that you inspire and encourage them [staff] in their jobs, you have also got toempower them to do it. That shouldn’t be mistaken for not communicating with them regularly;I just try not to be constantly looking over their shoulder . . . We also try where possible withadministrative staff to make sure that they travel once with the team, so that they get a feel forwhat it’s like on the receiving end of what they do, and at the same time it’s recognition for thework they have done. (Participant 6)

A critical factor to emerge in terms of managing lines of communication was multipleimplementation methods. Due to the often disparate location of the team members, the NPDsadvocated a wide range of methods to communicate, including emails, telephones, electronicmessaging, short message service alerts, websites, newsletters, and meetings. However, despitethis diversity, all of the NPDs agreed that the importance of face-to-face communication shouldnot be underestimated:

Nothing can beat one-on-one, informal communication for getting a feel of what is going on. . . When you are dealing with players that are worth millions they expect you to be thereand talking to them . . . hopefully our most expensive player has just signed a contract for $71million with his club, and those kind of guys expect you to be there face-to-face when theyhave got a problem or issue, and their agents do too. (Participant 1)

The frequency of feedback varied between sports, although athletes generally were sub-jected to performance reviews, and coaches received informal verbal and/or formal written

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 12: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 233

feedback. A couple of NPDs were provided with formal feedback from their chairman orboard, whereas others received informal feedback through regular interactions with their staff.The most frequently cited theme within feedback mechanisms concerned managing externalassessments. To elaborate briefly, the sports represented in our sample participated in an ex-ternal assessment program that was delivered by the nation’s high performance sports agency.Although many of the NPDs highlighted the limitations of this program, some found that itwas helpful, as the following quote illustrates:

We have immersed [name of external assessment program] into our own reporting structuresso we don’t have a separate recording structure . . . we have been able to tailor it to our needsand it is part of our process now. That is important to me since the last thing I want is anotherreporting structure . . . Though I can see why some NPDs might find it a pain in the a∗∗, butwe don’t because we are already doing it; it’s engaged and integrated into our procedures.(Participant 2)

Culture

Culture consisted of two higher-order themes: establishing role awareness and organiza-tional and team atmosphere (see Figure 4). The process of establishing role awareness isimportant for building and maintaining a culture because it ensures that everyone is awareof what they are required to do, thus minimizing ambiguity and negativity. The NPDs allseemed aware of what their own role entailed, and several common themes emerged acrosssports. For example, the leadership and management of their Olympic programs involveddeveloping targets, structures and procedures, creating an environment to support elite ath-letes, co-ordinating disciplines, and making decisions. Although one NPD believed that hisperformance team members should intuitively understand their role, the majority suggestedthat they played an active role in developing colleague role knowledge, as the following quoteexemplifies:

We have annual ‘world class days’ where we bring everyone on the program together. . . .

When they [the staff] join us their role is made clear through extensive induction sessions,job descriptions, and contracts. However, one way I particularly like to make people aware oftheir role is through team circulars and, whether you are a team leader, assistant team leader,doctor or whatever you are, your role is summarized in that circular . . . [including] who youare managed by, to whom you are accountable, and where the buck stops. (Participant 3)

Many of the NPDs described creating an organizational and team atmosphere as a chal-lenging task, especially if their sport consisted of different disciplines, or the athletes werelocated worldwide. Improving the quality and quantity of contact time was highlighted as animportant way to create a team atmosphere, as the following quote illustrates:

We have two major camps each year which everyone goes to, and everyone coming togetherthen kind of builds up a team atmosphere . . . We have tended to also have a reception before wehave gone away, and when we go to major events we will start off with a meeting for everyone. . . where we establish certain rules, like (unless they are competing the next day) we requirethem to come to the venue, in their tracksuits, to support the other athletes . . . We go as a team,come back as a team. (Participant 5)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 13: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

234 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

DISCUSSION

Recent literature in sport psychology suggests that, to maximize the likelihood of success,organizations should pay more attention to the performance leadership and management oftheir Olympic programs (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). The data reported here supportsthis assertion by elucidating best practice for leading and managing teams in preparationfor Olympic competition. More specifically, the findings highlight the multifaceted natureof orchestrating elite performance involving the development of a vision, the managementof operations, the leadership of people, and the creation of a culture. There are, perhaps,two overarching messages to emerge from this study and its findings. The first messageis that research sport psychologists likely have much to learn and draw from other academicdisciplines such as human resources management, occupational psychology and organizationalbehavior, management accounting and finance, operations management, and team performancemanagement. The transfer of knowledge from these areas to the elite sport domain will helpto contribute to a more complete understanding of the psychosocial preparation of Olympicathletes. The second, related message is that, as a consequence of developments in the evidencebase, applied sport psychologists will likely need to broaden their competencies to providemore effectual support to the management staff of international sports teams. For example, incontrast to the psychological skills training commonly employed with athletes, the techniquesused in executive coaching appear more appropriate for enhancing the performance of leadersand managers in elite sport.

A main finding to emerge from the data was that NPDs invest a notable amount of timein identifying and articulating a vision. Furthermore, it is important that leaders operating inelite sport not only establish and express a team’s ultimate aspiration, but also disseminate thevision, role model its message, and inspire individuals to invest in it. This is an important aspectof performance leadership and management because devotion to a shared aspiration will likelyenhance team unity and the realization of the vision. In contrast to the preponderance of sportpsychology literature, which has tended to focus on the specific mechanisms underpinninggoal-setting for individual athletes (cf. Weinberg & Butt, 2005), the findings reported heredraw attention to the importance of a vision at a more global level in elite sport teams (cf. Vallee& Bloom, 2005). Notwithstanding this observation, the participants in this study emphasizedthat a clear vision should be underpinned by performance and process goals at organizational,team and individual levels that are harmoniously aligned. The complex, dynamic nature ofthis area is illustrated by the observation that continual assessment and response to changinginternal and external demands is critical to maintaining effective functioning and realizingthe vision. This is supported by the findings of Bayle and Robinson’s (2007) case study of11 French national governing bodies of sport which indicated that those who failed to takeadvantage of opportunities open to them, or avoided threats facing them, compromised theirmanagement and performance.

Following on from the development of a vision, one of the main roles of a NPD wasthe management of operations within the team, involving financial management, strategiccompetition and training planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rulesand regulations. The sport management literature has established that strategic investment inelite sport is a critical factor in achieving success at the highest level (De Bosscher, Bingham,Shibli, van Bottenburg, & De Knop, 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan & Green, 2008).Indeed, studies have repeatedly identified the ingredients of successful elite sport development,including elite facility development (see, e.g., Oakley & Green, 2001; Stotlar & Wonders,2006), support for full-time athletes (see, e.g., De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg, Shibli,& Bingham, 2009; Madella, Bayle, & Tome, 2005), the provision of coaching, and sports

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 14: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 235

science and medicine support services (see, e.g., Digel, 2002; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009),and a hierarchy of competition opportunities centered on preparation for international events(see, e.g., De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg, & Shibli, 2006; Tan & Green, 2008).The results reported here highlight the instrumental role that NPDs have in managing theseaspects of elite sport development and optimizing resources and processes. Interestingly, themanagerial skills required to execute these operations effectively contrast with the typicaltechnical instruction provided by sports coaches. More specifically, coaches tend to focus onimproving athlete or team performance, whereas NPDs are tasked with managing logistics thatenable performance development to occur. Psychologists, in an attempt to better support sportscoaches, have to date tended to focus their research efforts on aspects of the coach-athleterelationship (cf. Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007) and coach leadership (cf. Riemer, 2007),rather than the managerial competencies required to operate effectively in elite sport.

Turning to the leadership of people, the NPDs managed their staff through communicationand feedback mechanisms. A universal theme apparent throughout the data was that effectiveperformance leadership and management involves developing, inspiring, and challenging oth-ers to look beyond their own personal goals to the delivery of the team’s vision. Influencingpeople’s attitudes in terms of their trust in or loyalty to the leader, commitment to the team,and role satisfaction were all important aspects of this process. The findings suggest that staffmanagement involves recruiting, supporting, and developing people who are able to contributein a meaningful way to the team’s functioning. In terms of staff development pathways, the datasuggests that although sport organizations should provide continuing education for coachesthrough the medium of clinics, publications, and national conferences (see also Stotlar &Wonders, 2006), they should also invest in the provision of international work placementsand bespoke task-specific support for their staff. In order to enhance lines of communication,the findings emphasize the importance not only of multidirectional interaction between ath-letes and coaches, but also the inclusion of external organizations, the executive board, andthe administrative and support staff. For elite sport programs that are non-centralized, it isimportant to employ a wide range of communication methods, particularly those that exploitemerging technology such as mobile phones and the Internet. Feedback is typically providedvia performance reviews, verbal and written feedback, informal interaction with staff, andexternal assessments. This range of mechanisms is important because it enables performanceleaders and managers to select the most appropriate feedback methods based on individualand situational characteristics. Indeed, Armstrong and Baron (1998) emphasized that perfor-mance management systems should be closely aligned to the prevailing organizational culture;therefore, the feedback mechanisms used in elite sport should be compatible with the team’sculture.

The creation of the team’s culture was viewed as central to effective performance leader-ship and management, and therefore merited its own general dimension during the analysisprocedure. The findings revealed that creating a culture involves generating shared beliefs andexpectations within the team via the development of role awareness and a team atmosphere. Ifteam members understand their own role and are aware of others’ roles, the prevailing cultureis likely to be more conducive to realizing the team’s vision and goals. It is also importantin contemporary elite sport that the director, manager, and/or coach recognize the boundariesbetween their roles, and value the contribution that each person makes to the team’s cultureand functioning. Turning to the organizational and team atmosphere, although the sport psy-chology literature has addressed the issue of team building in some detail (see, e.g., Hardy& Crace, 1997; Yukelson, 1997), most of this work has focused on athletes’ perceptions and,to a lesser extent, coaches’ views (Bloom, Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003). In extending this ob-servation, the findings reported here emphasize the pivotal role that performance leaders and

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 15: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

236 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

managers have at an organizational level in this area. More specifically, this involves creating anidentity for the entire performance team, improving the quality and quantity of contact timenot only between athletes and coaches but also the wider support and administrative staff, andpromoting compatibility behaviors which involve the appreciation and respect of others’ roleswithin the team. Indeed, Bayle and Robinson (2007) argued that as the sport environment hasbecome more varied and uncertain, organizations have become more differentiated, leading toan increased need for integration. Performance leaders and managers play an important role infacilitating this integration via the transformation of individual attitudes and group cohesion.

From a practical perspective, the findings of this study go beyond merely identifying thecharacteristics of effective leaders to exploring how they create, optimize, and maintain a highperformance environment. More specifically, best practice for leading and managing Olympicteams involves the development of a vision, the management of operations, the leadershipof people, and the creation of a culture. The data presents more systematic information forsport psychologists who provide support to the management staff of international sports teams(cf. Males, 2006; Timson, 2006). The increased requests for managerial-level support in elitesport (Timson, 2006) are, in our opinion, a positive development for applied sport psychologybecause the potential to affect change is far greater working through performance leaders andmanagers, rather than by solely counseling athletes. For example, consultants can advise thosein positions of influence on creating an environment where high performance becomes sustain-able across the team. This shift in emphasis would likely necessitate practitioners broadeningtheir service delivery beyond psychological skills training and performance enhancementtechniques, to developing competencies more in line with those employed by occupationalpsychologists and human resource managers. Indeed, the techniques used in executive coach-ing (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001; Passmore & Gibbes,2007) will likely transfer well to performance leadership and management consultancy in elitesport. Berman and Bradt (2006) identified five components of executive coaching with leadersin business: (a) defining the imperative, (b) developing the milestones, (c) creating early wins,(d) define and allocate roles, and (e) evolving the culture. Although there are clear parallelsbetween these aspects and the general dimensions reported in this study, the findings reportedhere suggest that, in contrast to Berman and Bradt, this approach should not be viewed as aseries of discrete steps but rather as an iterative process that involves overlap and interactionbetween the domains. Building upon Timson’s (2006) observations, we suggest that sportpsychologists should strive to be in a position whereby they can competently provide supportacross all four of the dimensions reported here, particularly to those performance leadersand managers who lack experience in the role, including individuals with a predominantlyparticipation or coaching background. However, we acknowledge that the recommendationsof this study raise further important issues relating to the training and development of sportpsychologists. Specifically, questions that need to be addressed include the following: Whattraining should applied sport psychologists undertake alongside their traditional education?When should they complete this training—during their academic studies, supervised experi-ence, and/or continued professional development? Under what circumstances is it appropriateor ethical for a sport psychologist to refer a client(s) to an occupational psychologist? Althoughthe issues surrounding these questions are complex, it is likely that the ever-changing needsof contemporary elite sport will need to be continually balanced with a degree of pragmatismin terms of what the profession is able to offer and deliver.

When employing qualitative methods, it is important to consider some of the strengthsand limitations of the approach adopted. A notable strength of this study is the characteristicsof the sample. Specifically, the NPDs who participated in the interviews were some of themost powerful and influential figures in the nation’s elite sport program and constituted not

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 16: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 237

only an underrepresented population in sport psychology research, but also a minority groupin comparison to athletes, coaches, and officials in sport. Notwithstanding this strength, itis worth noting that the nature and high visibility of the sample may threaten the disclo-sure of sensitive information that is relevant to the study because doing so may potentiallycompromise the position and role of the participant. In an attempt to minimize this issue, weinformed the participants that we would adhere to American Psychological Association (2010)guidelines by withholding personally identifiable information concerning the participants, in-cluding both the nation and sports they represent. Utilizing semi-structured interviews tocollect the data from these individuals ensured that insightful vignettes and rich informationrelating to performance leadership and management in elite sport could emerge. In terms ofthe analysis and presentation of data, augmenting the findings of the content analysis withthose of the frequency analysis, together with using direct quotes alongside hierarchical trees,helped portray the scope and complexity of the issues investigated. However, although thefrequency analysis indicated how often each theme was mentioned by participants, it did notportray how many participants mentioned each theme. It is acknowledged that interviewingparticipants from a single nation limits the generalizability of the findings to other nations.However, logistical and financial constraints precluded more extensive sampling and, in anattempt to enhance applicability, participants from a range of sports, and of varying age andexperience, were included in the sample. Finally, from an operational perspective, it is impor-tant to note that although this exploratory study has adopted Northouse’s (2010) approach thatemphasizes the similarities between leaders and managers, we acknowledge that at a concep-tual level differences do exist (cf. Kotter, 1990). Indeed, as the knowledge base in this areadevelops, and perhaps the role of performance leaders and managers in elite sport diverges,researchers may need to differentiate the activities of these personnel at a more fine-grainedlevel.

The findings reported in this study suggest that the behavioral and style (Lewin et al., 1939),leader effectiveness (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983), functional (Hackman & Walton, 1986), socialexchange (Homans, 1958; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001), and situational (Hersey, 1986) ap-proaches represent promising theoretical inroads into understanding performance leadership.Indeed, from a leadership behavior and style perspective, researchers have begun examiningtransformational leadership in sport and have presented insights into its relationship with teamcohesion and performance level (see Callow, Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, 2009; Charbon-neau, Barling, & Kelloway, 2001; Rowold, 2006). Future researchers should go beyond globalmodels of leadership and the identification of the perceived roles of leaders, and examine(a) differentiated models of leadership in elite sport, and (b) what leaders do in terms oftheir behaviors and communication in specific contexts and situations. In seeking to identifybest practice for leading and managing teams in elite sport, the findings of this study havetended to focus on what have been termed in the general psychology literature as “bright” (i.e.,socially desirable) traits (e.g., conscientiousness, openness, intelligence, and charisma) asso-ciated with leader and manager effectiveness. However, this may paint a somewhat simplisticpicture, because some of the participants interviewed in this study alluded to aspects of “dark”(i.e., socially undesirable) traits (e.g., Narcissism, hubris, dominance, and Machiavellianism)which they perceived as beneficial attributes for performance leadership and management inelite sport. Further inquiry in this area should address the positive and negative effects ofboth bright and dark sides of leader traits (cf. Conger, 1990; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Judge& LePine, 2007; Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka, 2009) and their role in the management of elitesport teams. Future researchers should also develop interventions that focus on how leadersand managers create, optimize and maintain a high performance environment. Little is knownabout the effectiveness of applied sport psychologists’ work in this area and if progress is to be

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 17: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

238 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

made then more lucid, evidence-based recommendations will need to emerge from the empiri-cal literature. Finally, what was also clear from interviewing the participants is that they valuedopportunities to learn from one another, share knowledge, and provide feedback to other stake-holders. Future researchers may wish to elicit recommendations, advice and suggestions fromleaders and managers in order to identify implications for other NPDs and organizations in elitesport.

In conclusion, this paper has investigated performance leadership and management withthe intention of exploring perceptions of best practice for preparing Olympic teams. Perhapsthe most significant conclusion to be drawn is that leading and managing elite sport teamsis a multifaceted phenomenon involving the development of a vision, the management ofoperations, the leadership of people, and the creation of a culture. More specifically, in orderto sustain the highest levels of performance in their teams, leaders and managers must identifyand disseminate their vision, optimize their resources and processes, challenge and supporttheir people, and transform individuals’ attitudes and group cohesion. For this reason, NPDsand sport psychologists should attempt to develop their knowledge and competencies acrossall of these domains of practice. The interface between management and psychology, togetherwith the transference of knowledge from organizational psychology (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff,2009), heralds an exciting era in elite sport research with important implications for developingservice delivery.

FOOTNOTES

1. Due to space restrictions, the interview guide is not reproduced in full here. For a copy ofthe guide please contact the corresponding author.

2. Due to space restrictions, only a selection of the distinct raw data quotes are presented inthis paper. For a complete copy of this data please contact the corresponding author.

REFERENCES

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Asso-ciation (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Aoyagi, M. W., Cox, R. H., & McGuire, R. T. (2008). Organizational citizenship behavior insport:Relationships with leadership, team cohesion, and athlete satisfaction. Journal of Applied SportPsychology, 20(1), 25–41.

Armstrong, M., & Baron, A. (1998). Performance management: The new realities. London: The Instituteof Personnel and Development.

Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis. The Qualitative Report, 2(1), 1–4.Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.Bayle, E., & Robinson, L. (2007). A framework for understanding the performance of national governing

bodies of sport. European Sport Management Quarterly, 7(3), 249–268.Bennis, W. G., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row.Berman, W. H., & Bradt, G. (2006). Executive coaching and consulting: “Different strokes for different

folks”. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 244–253.Biddle, S. J., Markland, D., Gilbourne, D., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Sparkes, A. C. (2001). Research

methods in sport and exercise psychology: Quantitative and qualitative issues. Journal of SportsSciences, 19(10), 777–809.

Bloom, G. A., Stevens, D. E., & Wickwire, T. A. (2003). Expert coaches’ perceptions of team building.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(2), 129–143.

Bourgeois, L. J. (1984). Strategic management and determinism. Academy of ManagementReview, 9(4),586–596.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 18: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 239

Bowen, G. A. (2008). Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: A research note. QualitativeResearch, 8(1), 137–152.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.Callow, N., Smith, M. J., Hardy, L., Arthur, C. A., & Hardy, J. (2009). Measurement of transformational

leadership and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Journal of Applied SportPsychology, 21(4), 395–412.

Carlyle, T. (1841). On heroes, hero-worship, and the heroic history. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Charbonneau, D., Barling, J., & Kelloway, E. K. (2001). Transformational leadership and sports per-

formance: The mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 31(7),1521–1534.

Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sportpsychology (pp. 113–135). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Conger, J. A. (1990). The dark side of leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19(2), 44–55.Cote, J., Salmela, J. H., & Baria, A. (1993). Organizing and interpreting unstructured qualitative data.

The Sport Psychologist, 7(2), 127–137.Davis, N. W., & Meyer, B. B. (2009). Qualitative data analysis: A procedural comparison. Journal of

Applied Sport Psychology, 21(1), 116–124.De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibli, S., van Bottenburg, M., & De Knop, P. (2008). The global sporting

arms race: An international comparative study on sports policy factors leading to internationalsporting success. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.

De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S. (2006). A conceptual framework for ana-lyzing sports policy factors leading to international sporting success. European Sport ManagementQuarterly, 6(2), 185–215.

De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., van Bottenburg, M., Shibli, S., & Bingham, J. (2009). Explaining inter-national sporting success: An international comparison of elite sport systems and policies in sixcountries. Sport Management Review, 12(3), 113–136.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The sage handbook of qualitative research (3rded.). ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.

Digel, H. (2002). A comparison of competitive sports systems. New Studies in Athletics, 17(1), 37–49.

Faulkner, G., & Sparkes, A. (1999). Exercise as therapy for schizophrenia: An ethnographic study.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 21(1), 52–69.

Feldman, D. C., & Lankau, M. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research.Journal of Management, 31(6), 829–848.

Fiedler, F. E. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances inExperimental SocialPsychology, 1, 149–190.

Fletcher, C. (2001). Performance appraisal and management: The developing research agenda. Journalof Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(4), 473–487.

Fletcher, D., Hanton, S., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2006). An organizational stress review: Conceptual andtheoretical issues in competitive sport. In S. Hanton & S. D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Literature reviews insport psychology (pp. 321–374). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.

Fletcher, D., & Wagstaff, C. R. (2009). Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence, applica-tion and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(4), 427–434.

Gibbs, G. (2007). Analyzing qualitative data. London: Sage.Gould, D., & Maynard, I. (2009). Psychological preparation for the Olympic Games. Journalof Sports

Sciences, 27(13), 1393–1408.Green, M., & Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development: Policy learning and political priorities. New

York: Routledge.Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.),

Designing effective work groups (pp. 72–119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Hardy, C. J., & Crace, R. K. (1997). Foundations of team building: Introduction to the teambuilding

primer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 1–10.Hersey, P. (1986). The situational leader (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 19: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

240 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view from the dark side. International Journalof Selection and Assessment, 9(1), 40–51.

Holloway, J. (2009). Performance management from multiple perspectives: Taking stock. InternationalJournal of Productivity and Performance Management, 58(4), 391–399.

Holt, N. L., & Sparkes, A. C. (2001). An ethnographic study of cohesiveness in a college soccer teamover a season. The Sport Psychologist, 15(3), 237–259.

Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behaviour as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597–606.

Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). Comparative elite sport development: Systems, structures and publicpolicy. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

House, R. J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(3),321–339.

House, R. J. (1977). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.),Leadership: The cutting edge (pp. 64–81). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulatedtheory. Leader-ship Quarterly, 7(3), 323–352.

Jowett, S., & Poczwardowski, A. (2007). Understanding the coach-athlete relationship. In S. Jowett &D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp. 3–15). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Judge, T. A., & LePine, J. A. (2007). The bright and dark sides of personality: Implications for per-sonnel selection in individual and team contexts. In J. Langan-Fox, C. Cooper, & R. Klimoski(Eds.), Research companion to the dysfunctional workplace: Management challenges and symp-toms (pp. 332–355). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Kosalka, T. (2009). The bright and dark sides of leader traits: A reviewand theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(6), 855–875.

Kampa-Kokesch, S., & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Executive coaching: A comprehensive review of theliterature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 205–228.

Katz, R. L. (1955). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 33(1), 33–42.Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Kenny, D. A., & Zaccaro, S. J. (1983). An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 68(4), 678–685.Kloot, L., & Martin, J. (2001). Strategic performance management: A balanced approach to performance

management issues in local government. Management Accounting Research, 11(2), 231–251.Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York: Free Press.Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. American Journal

of Occupational Therapy, 45(3), 214–222.Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2008). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative researchinterviewing

(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created

social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 271–301.Madella, A., Bayle, E., & Tome, J. (2005). The organizational performance of national swimming fed-

erations in Mediterranean countries: A comparative approach. European Journal of Sport Science,5(4), 207–220.

Males, J. (2006). Reflections on Athens: Delivering sport psychology provision at the BOA headquarters.Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 2(2), 12–16.

Mangabeira, W. C., Lee, R. M., & Fielding, N. G. (2004). Computers and qualitative research: Adoption,use, and representation. Social Science Computer Review, 22(2), 167–178.

Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London, UK: Sage.Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Oakley, B., & Green, M. (2001). The production of Olympic champions: International perspectives on

elite sport development systems. European Journal for Sport Management, 8(1), 83–105.Pain, M. A., & Harwood, C. G. (2008). The performance environment of the England youth soccer

teams: A quantitative investigation. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(11), 1157–1169.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 20: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 241

Passmore, J., & Gibbes, C. (2007). The state of executive coaching research: What does the currentliterature tell us and what’s next for coaching research? International Coaching Psychology Review,2(2), 116–128.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Paulus, T., Woodside, M., & Ziegler, M. (2008). Extending the conversation: Qualitative research as

dialogic collaborative process. The Qualitative Report, 13(2), 226–243.Radnor, Z. J., & Barnes, D. (2007). Historical analysis of performance measurement and management

in operations management. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management,56(5), 384–396.

Ratten, V. (2009). The impact of sports on team performance management. Team Performance Manage-ment, 15(3), 97–99.

Reid, C., Stewart, E., & Thorne, G. (2004). Multidisciplinary sport science teams in elite sport: Com-prehensive servicing or conflict and confusion? The Sport Psychologist, 18(2), 204–217.

Riemer, H. A. (2007). Multidimensional model of coach leadership. In S. Jowett & D. Lavallee (Eds.),Social psychology in sport (pp. 57–73). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Ringer, M. (2007). Leadership for collective thinking in the workplace. Team Performance Management,13(3), 130–144.

Rowold, J. (2006). Transformational and transactional leadership in martial arts. Journal of Applied SportPsychology, 18(4), 312–325.

Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction(3rd ed.). London, UK: Sage.

Sotiriadou, K., & Shilbury, D. (2009). Australian elite athlete development: An organizational perspec-tive. Sport Management Review, 12(3), 137–148.

Sparkes, A. C., & Partington, S. (2003). Narrative practice and its potential contribution to sport psy-chology: The example of flow. The Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 292–317.

Sparkes, A. C., & Smith, B. (2009). Judging the quality of qualitative inquiry: Criteriology and relativismin action. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(5), 491–497.

Stein, S. J., Papadogiannis, P., Yip, J. A., & Sitarenios, G. (2009). Emotional intelligence of leaders:A profile of top executives. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 30(1), 87–101.

Stotlar, D. K., & Wonders, A. (2006). Developing elite athletes: A content analysis of US na-tional governing body systems. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 18(2), 121–144.

Tan, T., & Green, M. (2008). Analysing China’s drive for Olympic success in 2008. The InternationalJournal of the History of Sport, 25(3), 314–338.

Thorpe, R., & Holloway, J. (Eds.). (2008). Performance management: Multidisciplinary perspectives.Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Timson, S. (2006). Reflections on Athens: Delivering sport psychology at the BOA Cyprus holdingcamp. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 2(2), 20–24.

Tracy, L. (1987). Consideration and initiating structure: Are they basic dimensions of leaderbehavior?Social Behavior and Personality, 15(1), 21–33.

Vallee, C. N., & Bloom, G. A. (2005). Building a successful university sport program: Key and commonelements of expert coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17(3), 179–196.

Walters, M. (1995). The performance management handbook. London, UK: Institute of Personnel andDevelopment.

Watt, D. (2007). On becoming a qualitative researcher: The value of reflexivity. The Qualitative Report,12(1), 82–102.

Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.Weed, M. (2009). Research quality in sport and exercise psychology: Introduction to the collection.

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(5), 489–490.Weinberg, R. S., & Butt, J. (2005). Goal setting in sport and exercise domains: The theory and practice of

effective goal setting. In D. Hackfort, J. Duda, & R. Lidor (Eds.) Handbook of research in applied

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014

Page 21: A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport

242 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

sport and exercise psychology: International perspectives (pp. 129–146). Morgantown, WV: FitnessInformation Technology Inc.

Weinberg, R., & McDermott, M. (2002). A comparative analysis of sport and business organizations:Factors perceived critical for organizational success. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(4),282–298.

Woodward, C. (2004). Winning. London: Hodder & Stoughton.Wortman, M. S. (1982). Strategic management and changing leader-follower roles. Journalof Applied

Behavioral Science, 18(3), 371–383.Yukelson, D. (1997). Principles of effective team building interventions in sport: A direct services

approach at Penn State University. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 73–96.Yukl, G. (2008). How leaders influence organizational effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(6),

708–722.Zaccaro, S. J., & Klimoski, R. J. (Eds.). (2001). The nature of organizational leadership. San Francisco,

CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

alif

orni

a, S

an F

ranc

isco

] at

04:

15 2

0 D

ecem

ber

2014