a note on languages and language

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This article was downloaded by: [Open University] On: 14 June 2012, At: 13:26 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Australasia n Journal of Philosophy Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rajp20 A note on ‘languages and language’ John Hawthorne a a  Syracuse University Available online: 02 Jun 2006 To cite this article: John Hawthorne (1990): A note on ‘languages and language’, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 68:1, 116-118 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048409012340233 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, r edistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply , or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

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Page 1: A Note on Languages and Language

8/13/2019 A Note on Languages and Language

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/a-note-on-languages-and-language 1/4

This article was downloaded by: [Open University]On: 14 June 2012, At: 13:26Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,London W1T 3JH, UK

Australasian Journal of 

PhilosophyPublication details, including instructions for

authors and subscription information:

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rajp20

A note on ‘languages andlanguage’John Hawthorne

a

a Syracuse University

Available online: 02 Jun 2006

To cite this article: John Hawthorne (1990): A note on ‘languages and language’,

Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 68:1, 116-118

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048409012340233

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private studypurposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or makeany representation that the contents will be complete or accurate orup to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug dosesshould be independently verified with primary sources. The publishershall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, orcosts or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

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  ustralasian Journ al o f PhilosophyVol. 68, No. 1; M arch 1990

A N O T E O N ' L A N G U A G E S A N D L A N G U A G E '

J o h n H a w t h o rn e

U n d e r w h a t c o n d i t io n s d o e s a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n u s e s o m e p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e ?

I n ' L a n g u a g e s a n d L a n g u a g e ' , D a v i d L e w i s c l a i m s t h a t a p o p u l a t i o n u s e s

s o m e l a n g u a g e b y v i r t u e o f c e r t a i n c o n v e n t i o n s p r e v a i li n g i n t h a t p o p u l a ti o n .1

I n t h is p a p e r , I sh a l l r a i s e a d i f f i c u l t y f o r Le w i s ' s p r o p o sa l w h i c h su g g e s t s

t h a t n o p u r e l y c o n v e n t i o n - b a s e d a c c o u n t o f l a n g u a g e u s e is p o ss ib le .

A c o n v e n t i o n , L e w i s e x p la i n s , i s a n y r e g u l a r i t y R i n t h e a c t i o n s o r t h e

a c t i o n s a n d b e l i e f s o f a p o p u l a t i o n s a t i s f y i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g si x c o n d i t i o n s :

[ 1] E v e r y o n e c o n f o r m s to R .

[2 ] Ev e r y o n e b e l ie v e s t h a t t h e o t h e r s c o n f o r m t o R .

[ 3] Th e b e l i e f t h a t o t h e r s c o n f o r m t o R g iv e s e a c h p e r so n a d e c i s i v e

r e a s o n t o c o n f o r m h i m s e l f .

[4 ] Th e r e is a p r e f e r e n c e f o r c o n f o r m i t y r a t h e r t h a n s l i g h t l y - l e s s - t h a n -g e n e r a l c o n f o r m i t y .

[ 5 ] Th e r e i s a t l e a s t o n e o t h e r p o s s i b l e r e g u l a r i t y R ' su c h t h a t : [ a ] R

a n d R ' a r e n o t c o m p o s s i b l e a n d [b ] if t h e r e w e r e g e n e r a l c o n f o r m i t y

t o R [ 3 ] a n d [ 4 ] w o u l d b e t r u e o f R ' .

[ 6] T h a t c o n d i t i o n s [1 ] to [ 5 ] o b t a i n is c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o l a n g u a g e u s e , L e w i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h

o p e r a t e a r e t h o s e o f t r u t h fu l n e s s a n d t r u s t i n s o m e l a n g u a g e L a n d t h a t ,

m o r e o v e r , a n e c e s s a r y a n d s u f f ic i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r l a n g u a g e u s e c a n b e g i v e ni n t e r m s o f t h o s e c o n v e n t i o n s : ' a l a n g u a g e L / s used by a p o p u l a t i o n P i f

a n d o n l y i f t h e r e p r e v a i l s i n P a c o n v e n t i o n o f t r u t h f u l n e s s a n d t r u s t i n

L , s u s ta i n e d b y a n i n te r e s t i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' (1 6 9 ). ' T r u t h f u l n e s s ' a n d ' tr u s t '

a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : 'To b e t r u t h f u l i n L i s t o a c t

i n a c e r t a in w a y : t o tr y n e v e r t o u t t e r a n y s e n t e n c e s o f L t h a t a r e n o t t r u e

i n L . Th u s i t is to a v o i d u t t e r i n g a n y s e n t e n c e o f L u n l e s s o n e b e l i e v e s i t

t o b e t r u e i n L ' ( 1 6 7 ) ; 'To b e t r u s t i n g i n L i s t o f o r m b e l i e f s i n a c e r t a i n

w a y : t o i m p u t e t r u t h f u l n e s s i n L t o o t h e r s , a n d t h u s t e n d t o r e sp o n d t o

a n o t h e r ' s u t t e r a n c e o f a n y s e n t e n c e o f L b y c o m i n g t o b e l ie v e t h a t t h e u t t e r e dse n t e n c e i s t r u e i n L ' ( 1 6 7 ) .

A l a n g u a g e i s h e r e t a k e n t o b e a f u n c t i o n fr o m s t r in g s to m e a n i n g s . W h i l e

L e w i s c o n s t ru e s m e a n i n g s a s s e t s o f p o s s ib l e w o r l ds , h i s a c c o u n t o f l a n g u a g e

u s e a s c o n v e n t i o n - b a s e d d o e s n o t r e l y o n c o n s t r u i n g m e a n i n g s in t h a t w a y .

i Lewis, David, Languages and Language in Philosophical Papers Vol 1 Oxford UniversityPress [1983]. All page references in text are to this paper.

116

   D  o  w  n   l  o  a   d  e   d   b  y   [   O  p  e  n   U  n   i  v  e  r  s   i   t  y   ]

  a   t   1   3  :   2   6   1   4   J  u  n  e   2   0   1   2

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John Haw thorne 117

T h e r e a r e c l e a r l y a g r e a t m a n y E n g l i sh s e n t e n c e s t h a t a r e e x t r e m e l y l o ng .

A s a n y l in g u i s t w i ll te l l y o u , t h e c l a ss o f E n g l i sh s e n t e n c e s w h i c h a r e s o

l o n g t h a t a p e r s o n c o u l d n o t p o s s i b ly u t t e r o n e o f t h e m i n h e r l i fe t i m e is

m u c h l a r g e r t h a n t h e r e m a i n i n g c l a s s . S i n c e i t i s u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h a t o u r

l a n g u a g e c o n t a i n s s u c h s e n t e n c es , i t w o u l d b e a g r a v e p r o b l e m f o r L e w i s 's

a c c o u n t i f i t h a d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e e x c l u s io n o f s u c h s e n t e n c e s f r o m

o u r l a n g u a g e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h is a c c o u n t h a s t h a t v e r y c o n s e q u e n c e .

L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e f r a g m e n t L * o f E n g l is h c o n t a i n i n g t h e l e n g t h y s e n t e n c e s

u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e r e i s C e r t a i n l y a regularity o f t r u t h f u l n e s s i n t h a t

f r a g m e n t . I t i s v a c u o u s l y t r u e t h a t w e n e v e r u t t e r s e n t e n c e s o f L * u n l e s s

w e b e l i e v e t h e m t o b e t r u e . T h i s i s a c a s e o f w h a t L e w i s c a ll s t r u t h f u l n e s s -

b y - s i l e n c e ( 1 8 7 ). H o w e v e r , t h e r e g u l a ri t y w o u l d n o t h e r e b e a c o n v e n t i o n a lo n e . I f t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f t r u t h f u l n e s s i n L * i s t o b e c o n v e n t i o n a l , t h e r e m u s t

b e a v a i l a b l e s o m e a l t e r n a t i v e r e g u l a r i t y R ' s u c h t h a t i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e

t o f o l l o w R a n d R ' s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . N o s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e e x i s t s i n t h e p r e s e n t

c a s e , si n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o u l d n t f a i l t o b e t r u t h f u l i n t h e r e l e v a n t f u n c t i o n

f r o m s tr in g s t o m e a n i n g s . L e w i s re c o g n i s e s th a t w e h a v e a c o n v e n t i o n o f

t r u t h fu l n e s s a n d t r u s t i n a l a n g u a g e i f a n d o n l y i f w e h a v e a c o n v e n t i o n

o f t ru t h f u l n e s s a n d t r u s t i n e v e r y f r a g m e n t o f t h a t l a n g u a g e . S i n c e E n g l i s h

c o n t a i n s L * , i t f o l l o w s t h a t w e d o n o t h a v e a c o n v e n t i o n o f t r u t h f u l n e s s

in Eng l i sh .W h a t a b o u t t ru s t ? A s a p r e l i m i n a r y , l e t u s l o o k a t a p a s s a g e w h e r e L e w i s

d e v e l o p s h is a c c o u n t o f tr u s t i n o r d e r to a n s w e r a d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i o n . T h e

o b j e c t i o n i s f o r m u l a t e d a s f o l lo w s :

L e t L b e t h e l a n g u a g e o f P ; t h a t is , t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t o u g h t t o c o u n t

a s t h e m o s t i n c l u s i v e l a n g u a g e u s e d b y P . (A s s u m e t h a t P i s li n g u i st i c a ll y

h o m o g e n o u s . ) L e t L + b e o b t a i n e d b y a d d i n g g a r b a g e t o L ; s o m e e x t r a

s e n t e n c e s , v e r y l o n g a n d d i f f i c u lt t o p r o n o u n c e , a n d h e n c e n e v e r u t te r e d

i n P , w i t h a r b i t r a r i l y c h o s e n m e a n i n g s i n L + . T h e n i t s e e m s t h a t L +is a l a n g u a g e u s e d b y P , w h i c h i s a b s u r d . ( 1 8 7 )

H e o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g s o l u ti o n :

. . . e x p e c t a t i o n o f t r u th f u l n e ss - b y - si l e n c e is n o t y e t t r u s t . . . F o r tr us t,

o n e m u s t b e a b l e t o t a k e a n u t t e r a n c e o f a s e n t e n c e a s e v i d e n c e th a t

t h e s e n t e n c e i s t r u e. T h a t i s so o n l y i f o n e ' s d e g r e e o f b e l i e f t h a t t h e

s e n t e n c e w i l l b e u t t e r e d f a l se l y i s l o w , n o t o n l y a b s o l u t e l y , b u t a s a f r a c t i o n

o f o ne ' s d e g r e e o f b e l i e f - -p e r h a p s a l r e a d y v e r y l o w - - t h a t t h e s e n te n c e

w i l l b e u t t e r e d a t a l l . F u r t h e r , t h i s m u s t b e s o n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e o n e

b e l i e v e s i n a d v a n c e t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e i s p r o b a b l y t r u e : o n e ' s d e g r e e o f

b e l i e f t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e w i ll b e u t t e r e d f a l se l y m u s t b e s u b s t a n t i a ll y l o w e r

t h a n t h e p r o d u c t o f o n e ' s d e g r e e o f b e l i e f t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e w i ll b e u t t e r e d

t i m e s o n e ' s p r i o r d e g r e e o r b e l i e f th a t i t is fa l se . ( 1 8 7 )

L e t u s a p p l y t h i s m a c h i n e r y t o t h e l o n g s e n t e n c e s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

S i n c e w e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t c l a ss o f E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s w h i c h n o o n e w i ll

o r c o u l d p o s s i b ly u t t e r , o u r p r i o r d e g r e e o f b e l i e f t h a t t h o s e s e n t e n c e s w i ll

b e u t t e r e d i s z e r o . T h e r e f o r e , th e l e f t h a l f o f L e w i s ' s f o r m u l a w i ll n o t y i e l d

   D  o  w  n   l  o  a   d  e   d   b  y   [   O  p  e  n   U  n   i  v  e  r  s   i   t  y   ]

  a   t   1   3  :   2   6   1   4   J  u  n  e   2   0   1   2

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118 A No t e on L anguages an d L angua ge

a l o w e r v a l u e t h a n t h e r i g h t in t h e c a s e o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s , a n d s o th e c o n d i t i o n s

f o r a t r u st c o n v e n t i o n a r e n o t m e t h e r e . H e n c e , w h i l e L e w i s s f o r m u l a

s u c c es s fu l ly ru l e s o u t g a r b a g e s e n t e n c e s f r o m m e m b e r s h i p i n o u r l a n g u a g e ,

i t r u l es o u t l e n g t h y s e n t e n c e s o f E n g l i s h a t t h e s a m e t i m e .

T h u s L e w i s s c r i t e r io n e n t a i l s t h a t w e d o n o t u s e t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e .

C a n i t b e r e c t i f i e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h i s t r o u b l e s o m e c o n s e q u e n c e ? T h e

f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n p e r s u a d e s m e t h a t i t c a n n o t . L e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t

y o u a n d I sp e a k t w o d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s , A a n d B . A a n d B a s s ig n t h e

s a m e m e a n i n g s t o s e n t e n c e s o f a l e n g t h t h a t a t l e a s t o n e o f u s c o u l d p o s s ib l y

u t t e r , b u t d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s t o s e n t e n c e s t h a t a r e t o o l o n g f o r e i t h e r o f

u s t o u tt e r. W o u l d t h e f a c t th a t w e s p o k e t w o d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s i m p e d e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n u s ? C l e a r l y n o t. D i s c o u r s e b e t w e e n u s w o u l d p r o c e e dv e r y s m o o t h l y . F r o m t hi s I in f e r th a t w e c o u l d n t a s a m a t t e r o f c o n v e n t i o n

s p e a k l a n g u a g e A r a t h e r t h a n l a n g u a g e B . F o r th e c o n f o r m i t y o f o t h e r s

t o la n g u a g e A w o u l d n t g i v e m e g o o d r e a s o n t o c o n f o r m t o A r a t h e r t h a n

B . M y i n t e r e s t i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o u l d b e e q u a l l y w e l l s e r v e d b y A o r

B , e v e n g i v e n t h a t t h e r e st o f th e p o p u l a t i o n s p o k e l a n g u a g e A . T h e t h i r d

o f th e c o n d i t i o n s d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y f o r a c o n v e n t i o n to o p e r a t e , n a m e l y

t h a t t h e c o n f o r m i t y o f o t h e r s g i v e s o n e a d e c i s iv e r e a s o n t o c o n f o r m , w il l

n o t b e s a t is fi ed i n th e c a s e o f a n y h u m a n l a n g u a g e c o n t a i n in g v e r y l o n g

s e n te n c e s. O n e c o u l d t a m p e r w i t h L e w i s s a c c o u n t o f w h a t c o n s t it u t e s a

c o n v e n t i o n . H o w e v e r , I a m i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k t h a t t h e p r o b l e m l ie s e l s e w h e r e .

D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t t h e p l a t i t u d e t h a t l a n g u a g e i s c o n v e n t i o n a l t u r n s o u t

t o b e f a ls e ? T h i s d o e s n o t f o ll o w . W e o p e r a t e w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n o f t r u t h f u l n e s s

a n d t r u st , b u t i t i s n o t a c o n v e n t i o n o f t r u t h f u l n e s s a n d t r u s t in E n g l i s h ;

i t i s r a t h e r a c o n v e n t i o n o f tr u t h f u l n e s s a n d t ru s t in s o m e f r a g m e n t o f E n g l i sh .

I d o n t w i s h t o c l a i m t h a t t h e r e a r e n o c o n v e n t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e , b u t o n l y

t h a t a c r i te r io n o f la n g u a g e u s e c a n n o t b e g i v e n in t e r m s o f c o n v e n t i o n

a l on e . W h a t a c c o u n t c o u l d w e g i v e, t h e n , o f t h e c o n d i ti o n s u n d e r w h i c h

a p o p u l a t i o n u s es a l a n g u a g e c o n t a i n i n g s o m e v e r y lo n g s tr in g s o f w o r d s ?

T h e f o l l o w i n g so l u ti o n m i g h t b e p r o p o s e d . L o o k a t th a t f r a g m e n t o f E n g li s h

i n w h i c h t h e r e i s a c o n v e n t i o n o f t r u s t a n d t r u t h fu l n e s s. T h e r e w i ll b e r u l e s

i m p l i c i t i n t h e f r a g m e n t d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h o t h e r s e n t e n c e s b e l o n g t o t h e

E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . T h i s p r o p o s a l f a i l s , s i n c e t h e f r a g m e n t w i l l n o t d e t e r m i n e

a u n i q u e s et o f r ul es . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e f r a g m e n t w i ll n o t d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

t h e r u l e s f o r e a c h l o g i c a l c o n s t a n t a r e r e c u r s i v e o r n o t . M o r e g e n e r a l l y ,

f o r e a c h s u b s e n t e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n , t h e r e w i l l b e a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

o f t h e p l u s / q u u s v a r i e t y . T h e p r o b l e m i s s i m i l ar to t h e o n e p r e s e n t e d b yK r i p k e s W i t t g e n s t e i n . 2 I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o o b v i o u s s o l u t i o n

to it. 3

S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y R e c e i v e d J u n e 1 9 8 9

2 In Saul Kripke, Wittgensteinon Rules an d Private Language,Ha rvard University Press (1982 ).3 Than ks to Peter van Inwagen, Frances How ard, Susan Crandall, and Chris Knight.

   D  o  w  n   l  o  a   d  e   d   b  y   [   O  p  e  n   U  n   i  v  e  r  s   i   t  y   ]

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