UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Working Paper 2007-06

Chulalongkonrn University University of California, BerkeleyThai Public Policy Foundation

July 2007

A Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development

Koh Lanta Yai, Krabi Province

A Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development

Chulalongkonrn UniversityUniversity of California, Berkeley

Thai Public Policy Foundation2007

Koh Lanta Yai, Krabi Province

WP-2007-06

Acknowledgements and Participants iv

Introduction 1

TheSumatra-AndamanEarthquakeandTsunami 1

ThePartnership:ChulalongkornUniversity,theUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley&theThaiPublicPolicyFoundation 2

Workshop2005 2

Workshop2006 2

WorkingObjectives 2

WorkingGroups:Ecology,Infrastructure,Economic-Social-Cultural-Political 3

TheMasterPlan 4

Koh Lanta Yai - Tourist Destination and Home 4

Location,Population,TourismFigures 4

CurrentLandUses 6

DevelopmentTrends 8

Watersheds: Ecological Building Blocks 10

WatershedThreats 13

WatershedAssessment 15

EcologicalResources 18

Rainforest 20

RiparianCorridors 20

Wetlands 21

BeachForest 21

BeachandInter-tidalZones 22

Mangroves 22

CoralReefs 23

EcologicalPreservationPriority 23

Ecosystems,ResourceUse,andStakeholders 24

Infrastructure 24

RoadsandTraffic 27

FerriesandProposedBridgeConnections 27

EnergyResources 28

WaterResources 29

SolidWaste 33

TheDump 36

Economic, Social, Cultural, and Political 37

ConceptualFramework:Communities’ ResponsestoDevelopment 37

AnalyticalFramework:GovernmentVisionvs.CommunityTrends 37

Elementsofthegap 38

CulturalResources 39

Lanta Ban Rao – Facing the Future 40

ImmediateRecommendations 41

Implementation:LantaBanRaoForum 43

GoalsofLantaBanRao 45

DirectedDevelopmentandClusterTourism 45

DescriptionsofProposedTourismClusters 45

Next steps 50

References 52

Table of Contents

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Acknowledgments

Onceagainwehavebeenprivilegedtoparticipateinaremarkableinternationaleducationalpartnershipbetween Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok and the University of California, Berkeley. Together, tenChulalongkorn students and ten Berkeley students, with the participation of the community of theislandofKohLantaYai,createdthisdocument.Itmakescleartheoptionsforthefuturedevelopmentofthe islandasahometo localpeopleandasatouristdestination.Thebalancingof livelihoodandenvironmentisglobalquestion,butitisansweredinlocaldecisionsandlocalplaces.OurintentinthisdocumentistomakethechoicesattendingtheresidentsandleadersofKohLantaYaievident,andtoreshapethefutureoftheislandtocontinuetobeahealthy,sustaininghometoitsresidents,supportedbycarefullyconsideredtourism.

This project is the second of three collaborative efforts focused on the Krabi Province of Thailand.ThroughtheforesightandcommitmentofitsPresident,KhunChoteSoponpanich,theThaiPublicPolicyFoundationhasprovided the leadershipandextraordinary support in theseefforts, tomutual cross-culturallearningandenvironmentalsustainability.WewerefortunatethatKhunPissimaiKhandobee,advisortotheFoundation,wasanindefatigableparticipantandfacilitatorinallphasesoftheprojectandbroughtadefttouchtothemanyaspectsoflogistics,translation,andfieldresearch.

At Berkeley, Professor David Dowall, of the Department of City and Regional Planning and DirectoroftheInstituteofUrbanandRegionalDevelopmentinitiatedtheUniversityofCaliforniasideoftheproject.Fromtwodecadesofworking,hissharedwisdominThailandbroughttheprojecttofruitionand conclusion. The Institute and the Beatrix Jones Farrand Fund of the Department of LandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanningsupportedtheproject,providingforfacultyandstudenttravel.JanetDawsonoftheInstituteseamlesslycoordinatedtheBerkeleylogistics.

ThefacultyofChulalongkornUniversitywas,ofcourse,integraltothisundertaking.DeanAmaraPongsapichoftheFacultyofPoliticalScienceandDeanLersomSthapitanondaoftheFacultyofArchitectureprovidedalargerinstitutionalcontextfortheprojectandmadetheresourcesoftheUniversitygenerouslyavailabletothestudio.ProfessorSuwattanaThadaniti,DirectoroftheSocialScienceResearchInstituteandDr.NarumonArunotha,itsDeputyDirectorforResearchandInternationalRelationsparticipatedinformingtheprojectandgaveinsightintotheparticularculturalcontextinwhichweworked.

ProfessorSiriwanSilapacharananoftheDepartmentUrbanandRegionalPlanningandLecturerPitchPongsawatoftheDepartmentofGovernment,co-directedthestudio.Withouttheireffective,energetic,andinsightfulguidance,theprojectsimplywouldnothavebeenpossible.TheChairoftheLandscapeArchitecture Department, Professor Angsana Boonyob, has provided careful critiques of our work inBangkok.LecturerDanaiThaitakoooftheDepartmentofLandscapeArchitecturewasessentialtothefieldresearchinKohLantaYaiandinvaluablysharedhisprofoundunderstandingoftheThaienvironmentwithus.

Wehavebeenhonoredwithsuchexceptionalpartnersandwelookforwardwithenthusiasmtofuturecollaborations.

LouiseA.MozingoAssociateProfessorDepartmentofLandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanningUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

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Photos of Participants

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Participants

ThaiPublicPolicyFoundationKhunChoteSoponpanich,PresidentKhunPissmaiKhanobdee,Advisor

ChulalongkornUniversityDeanAssociateProfessorLersomSthapitanonda,FacultyofArchitectureDeanProfessorDr.AmaraPongsapich,FacultyofPoliticalScienceAssistantProfessorDr.SuwattanaThadaniti,DirectoroftheSocialScienceResearchInstituteDr.NarumonArunotha,DeputyDirectorforResearchandInternationalRelations,SocialScienceResearchInstituteAssistantProfessorDr.SiriwanSilapacharanan,UrbanandRegionalPlanningChairAssistantProfessorDr.AngsanaBoonyobhas,LandscapeArchitectureLecturerPitchPongsawat,GovernmentLecturerDanaiThaitakoo,LandscapeArchitectureElisabethAppel–Kummer,LandscapeArchitecture

ChulalongkornUniversityStudentsPattamaChooprasert,UrbanandRegionalPlanningTrichartLaokeawnoo,UrbanandRegionalPlanningWanwisaMahitthiharn,Dept.ofUrbanandRegionalPlanningYingyotNgoenmak,LandscapeArchitecturePraphaiphitOlanwat,PrograminHumanandSocialDevelopmentBulwachPruksanubal,UrbanandRegionalPlanningChumkateSawangchareon,LandscapeArchitectureAroonwanSiriwashiraporn,UrbanandRegionalPlanningWachiraSorsaeng,LandscapeArchitectureUsumaSuksom,SociologyandAnthropologySukhumarnWiriyothin,PrograminHumanandSocialDevelopment

UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyAssociateProfessorLouiseA.Mozingo,DepartmentofLandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanningProfessorDavidE.Dowall,DepartmentofCityandRegionalPlanning;Director,InstituteofUrbanandRegionalDevelopmentJanetDawson,AssistanttotheDirector,InstituteofUrbanandRegionalDevelopment

UniversityofCaliforniaStudentsKaumudiAtaputta,EngineeringAndreChan,CityandRegionalPlanningRachelEdmonds,LandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanningSarahGraham,LandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanning;CityandRegionalPlanningMichaelHerrin,LandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanning

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Introduction

TheSumatra-AndamanEarthquakeandTsunamiOn December 26, 2004, a massive underseaSumatra-Andamanearthquake,measuring9.3ontheRichterscale,jarredthewatersoftheAndamanSea.Approximately580kilometersoffthecoastofThailand,itcausedadevastatingtsunamiwave10metersinheighttostrikethecoastof6provincesof western Thailand, completely destroying 47villagesandseverelyimpacting360othervillages.AsofMay2006,thedeathtollwas8,212people,with approximately 500 bodies still unidentified,2,817peoplestillmissing,and8,457peopleseekingtreatmentforinjuries.Thetsunamialsoorphaned1,637children.

The economic impacts of the tsunami wereimmediateandwidespread.TheTourismAuthorityofThailand(TAT)estimatesthattouristarrivalsfellby20%inThailand,leadingtoalossof$25millioneachmonth,resultinginthelossof120,000jobs

in the tourism sector. The TAT reports that theAndaman region alone suffered a 30% loss oftouristarrivalsintheregion.

Other sectors of the Thailand economy weresimilarly affected by the tsunami. Approximately5,000 boats were lost or damaged, and 30,000people lost their jobs in the fisheries sector.Over 2,000 hectares of agricultural land weredestroyed.Overall, economic lossesareestimatedat$1.6billion,withrepaircostsestimatedat$482million.

The tsunami severely affected fragile nearshoreecosystemsinThailand.Over305acresofmangroveforests were impacted. Over 3,600 acres of coralreefsweredamaged.Approximately400acresofseagrassbeds,vital forbothhabitatandgrazing,wereflooded.Theintrusionofsaltwaterfromthetsunami, in addition todamaging2,000hectaresofagricultural land,alsocontaminated102 largeponds,2,321wells, and twogroundwells. (www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/thailand.asp)

Fishing boat in Mangrove Forest: traditional means of livelihood in Koh Lanta Yai.

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ThePartnership:ChulalongkornUniversity,theUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,andtheThaiPublicPolicyFoundationIn February 2005, in response to the severeeconomic and environmental damage caused bythetsunami,ChoteSoponpanich,PresidentoftheThai Public Policy Foundation, contacted RobertBirgenau,ChancelloroftheUniversityofCaliforniaat Berkeley, to explore a possible collaborationbetween the institutions in post-tsunamiplanning for sustainable tourism development. Apartnershipwasformedbetweenthe3institutions,leveraging prior institutional connections withthe Chulalongkorn University’s Social ResearchInstituteinBangkok.

Workshop2005From May to October 2005 the partnershipdeveloped it’s first project — Strategic Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Krabi Province.WithsupportfromtheThaiPublicPolicyFoundation, a workshop comprising 10 graduatestudents from University of California, Berkeleyand 10 graduate students from ChulalongkornUniversity with backgrounds in city planning,architecture, government, political science, andsociology conducted field research throughoutKrabi Province. To identify advantages anddisadvantages of various planning policies,the workshop developed three local tourismdevelopmentscenarios,cross-matrixedwiththreeglobal economic prosperity scenarios. Utilizingan extensive community participation process,the plan concluded that sustainable tourismdevelopmentmust takeplacewithin the contextofintegratedregionalplanningforenvironmentalhealthofforestsandwatersheds,efficientprovisionofinfrastructure,andequitableandself-sufficienteconomicandsocialdevelopment.

ThegovernmentofKrabiprovince,recognizingtheimportance of tourism industry development fortheoverallrecoveryoftheAndamanregion,beganto prioritize tourism “hubs” for the Andamanregion.Thetsunamidamagedtheinfrastructureof

apopular“eco-tourist”destination,theKoPhiPhiislands,beyondthecapabilitiesofnear-termrepair,especially since the islands are located withina marine sanctuary. Therefore, the governmentidentifiedKohLantaYaifortourismdevelopmentasthenextHuboftheAndaman,sinceitsexistinginfrastructurewasnotextensivelydamagedbythetsunami.

Workshop2006Anew workshop to develop theMaster Plan forSustainableTourismDevelopmentinKohLantaYaiinMaytoJune2006wasthenaturalcontinuationof the 2005 workshop in Krabi Province. Itwas comprised of ten graduate students fromUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyandtengraduatestudentsfromChulalongkornUniversity,Bangkok,with backgrounds in city planning, architecture,political science, landscape architecture, civiland environmental engineering, industrialengineering andoperations research, andhumanandsocialdevelopment.Togethertheyconductedfield research in Koh Lanta Yai and returned toChulalongkornUniversity,Bangkok for additionalexpertdebriefings, extensivedataanalysis, andaseries of daily design charrettes. Initial findingsand proposals were presented at ChulalongkornUniversity on 16 June 2006. In July and August2006,theChulalongkornstudentsreturnedtoKohLantaYaiYaitoconductfurtherfieldresearch.InSeptember2006,thestudentsfrombothuniversitiesre-convened at their respective universities toanalyze the findings fromthe field research,andprepare a presentation for the local communitymembers and government officials in October2006.Thefindings,analysis,andrecommendationsof the field researchandworkshopcomprise thecontentofthisreport.

WorkingObjectivesTheworkshopbeganwithfourworkingobjectives:

1. Environmentalprotectionofkeyecologicalresourcesincludingmangroveforest,coralreef,fisheries,andwildlife

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2. Respectforthesocialandculturalheritageoftheislandresidents

3. Developmentoftourismtointegratelocalpeople

4. Integrationoflocalknowledgeandinitiativeinthemasterplanningprocess

WorkingGroups:Ecology,Infrastructure,Economic-Social-Cultural-PoliticalIn the master planning process, the graduatestudents from Chulalongkorn University and theUniversity of California, Berkeley initially met inBangkok for a series of expert debriefings, andthenformulatedaplantoassesstheconditionsoftheisland.Thestudentsarrangedthemselvesintothree groups to conduct the field research andanalysis:

· Ecology· Infrastructure· Economic-Social-Cultural-Political

Eachgroupconductedfield researchwithintheirfocusarea,totheextentpossibleallgroupsvisitedinterview sites and candidates at different timesand dates to form a comprehensive and multi-disciplinaryanalysisoftheentireislandcommunity.Theworkshopre-convenedeacheveningtoalloweach group to present its findings to the othergroups,andformulateastrategyforthenextday’sfield research. After eight days of field research,the workshop re-convened daily in Bangkok foran intensive brain-storming and charrette, inpreparation for a preliminary presentation ofrecommendationsattheconclusionofthesummerworkshopsession.

EcologyTheprimaryfocusoftheEcologygroupwastoassessthe current ecosystem health of the island anddetermine best management practices to sustainlocal ecology as part of a tourism developmentstrategy.Theyidentifiedtheislandecosystemsand

their primary threats. The group approached theisland’s ecological assessment from a watershedperspective, determining thatwatersheds are the“veins” of the island, providing the link betweenisland activity and ecological health. UsingGeographicInformationScience(GIS)analysis,thegroupidentifiedtheisland’swatershedsandtheirlevelofdevelopment.Thegroupsexaminedthreewatersheds closely that typified watersheds thatwere1)heavily-developed,(2)medium-developed,and (3) minimally-developed to determine thesource and effects of local and tourist activityoccurringwithineachwatershed.Thecomparativecontrol was a watershed consisting mainly ofundevelopedrainforest.

InfrastructureThe Infrastructure group focused on assessingfour areas of the island’s infrastructure: roads,transportation (including the ferry connectionand proposed bridge), water resources, and solidwastemanagement.Theroadsandtransportationsystemswereevaluatedfortheireffectivenessforlocalandtouristmobility,andtheireffectsontheisland’s ecosystems. Water resources, which varyconsiderablyontheisland,wereevaluatedintermsof quantity, quality, equity of access, and as along-termresource.Solidwastemanagement,andobviousissueontheisland,wasexaminedregardingit’s relation to quantity, collection, fees, theexistingdump,andecologicalandaestheticeffect.The group also investigated existing examples ofsustainableinfrastructureonKohLantaYai.

Economic-Social-Cultural-Political(ESCP)ThegoaloftheEconomic-Social-Cultural-Political(ESCP)groupwastodeterminetheinterconnectionbetweentheisland’slocalresidentsandtheroleoftourism in theirdaily lives. Thegroupconductedover120interviewswithislandlocals,ingroupandindividualsettings,andinformaltownhallsettingsaswell as in local residents’homes. Thepreviousyear’s workshop revealed that a government-led tourism strategy has neither addressed thecomplexneedsofKoh LantaYaiYai communities

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norstrengthenedtheminthefaceofinternationaltourism.TheESCPgroupexaminedhowlocalcultureandpractices,tourismdevelopment,andthelocalgovernanceinteract,guide,andsustaintheisland’sfutureinthefaceofexpectedtourismgrowth.

TheMasterPlanThe vision of the master plan for Koh Lanta Yaiis thatthe islandholdsvaluenotonlyasan idealtouristdestinationbutalsoasahome–LantaBanRao. The island faces numerous risks associatedwith unconstrained development; its ecosystemsare rapidly deteriorating in quality, and bettermanagement practices must be implementedimmediately to protect the island’s resources, notjustasahuboftourismintheAndamanSea,butalsoasahomeforthecurrent localresidentsandfutureThaigenerations.

ThefollowingchaptersofthisreportoutlinetheroleofKohLantaYaiasatouristdestinationandhome,theisland’sdevelopment risks, its ecological resourcesandthreats,itsculturalresourcesandthreats,andseveral immediate recommendations that needto be implemented to preserve these ecologicaland cultural resources. The key developmentrecommendations are encompassed by the visionof Lanta Ban Rao, which unites and balances theneeds and ambitions of the local residents, thetourism industry, and the government agenciesinto a single sustainable tourism developmentstrategy.AkeycomponentofLantaBanRaovisionisaclusterdevelopment strategy tomaximize theunique tourist-attracting qualities of the island,minimize the impact of tourism on the ecologicalresources that attract tourism, and promoteefficientdevelopmentanddeliveryofgovernmentinfrastructure services. A second key componentof theLantaBanRaovision is the formationofacommunity-ledorganizationthatprovidesaforumfor local residents, tourism industry partners, andgovernmentagenciestoparticipateandcollaboratein the sustainable tourism development of KohLantaYaiYai.

Aswithanymasterplanningstudy,thereareseverallimitations to this study.Muchof the fieldworkandresearchwasconductedduringthelowtouristseason,minimizingtheabilitytoobservefirsthandthefullimpactoftourismontheislandsresources.However,theextensiveinterviewsconductedwithislandlocalsandobservationofthethreatstotheecosystem during the low season provide a viewofthis impact,whilealsorevealingthehardshipsendured and the local wisdom practiced by thelocalresidentswhenthetourismeconomyabates.

This master plan does not focus on maximizingtourismdevelopmentorgrowth.Instead,themasterplanisastudyofbettermanagementpracticestopromoteasustainabletourismstrategyfortheislandwithafocusonpreservationoftheenvironmental,socialandculturalassetsoftheislandnecessaryforthehigh-valuetourismpreferredbybothtouristsand local residents.Primaryattention isgiven tothe development of infrastructure to satisfy thebasicneedsoftheisland’slocalresidents,withthebeliefthatagrassrootsapproachwillempowerthelocals to maximize the island’s tourism potentialwithawarenessoftheconnectionsbetweentheirenvironmentalandsocio-culturalassets.

Koh Lanta Yai -Tourist Destination and Home

Location,Population,TourismFiguresKohLantaYaiisanislandlocatedinthesouthernThailand province of Krabi. It is approximatelya twelve hour drive from Bangkok, a two hourdrivefromKrabiairport,oraccessibleviaseasonalferriesfromKohPhiPhiorKrabiTown.KohLantaYai has a permanent population of 9,245 and aseasonal population of 4,874. The population is90%Muslim.

Koh Lanta Yai has been experiencing a boomin tourism in the past five years. The number ofresortsandhotelshastripledfrom46in2001to154in2006.Theincreaseinthenumberofhotelsis consistentwith the increase in thenumber of

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Figure 1. Current Land Uses

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overnight tourists. In 2001 there were 113,000overnight tourists, while in 2004 there were210,000.Despitetheriseinovernighttourists,thetouristseasonisstillhighlyseasonal,andcurrentannual occupancy rates are only about 50%.Tourismmarketingfortheislandhasalsoincreased,and Koh Lanta Yai is increasingly promoted inbrochures,guidebooks,andontheInternet.

CurrentLandUsesCurrent land uses for Koh Lanta Yai are diverse,ranging from highly developed resort areas topristinerainforests.Theseusesincludeplantations,shrimpfarms,forestareas,clearedbutundevelopedareas, mangroves, beaches, national park area,a dump site, and developed areas for local andtouristuse,asshowninFigure1.

Plantations are scattered throughout the island,thoughtheyaremostheavilyconcentratedinthenorthwest part of the island. Rubber plantationsarethemostcommontypesofplantation,thoughafewbananaandoilpalmplantationsalsoexist.Withrisingrubberprices,thenumberandareaofrubberplantationswill likely increaseinthenearfuture.

Shrimp farms are located mostly on the easternside of the island, in areas just upland frommangroveforests.Theymustbe locatedneartheocean because they continuously pump oceanwater through the ponds. Shrimp farms have avery limited lifespan because of the chemicalsthat are involved in this process. Shrimp foodcontains high levels of nitrogen and antibiotics,the majority of which are excess and not usedby the shrimp. The excess quantities either formsedimentatthebottomofthepondorareflushedouttotheseaaseffluent.Becauseofthisprocess,thesoiloftheshrimpfarmwillsoonbecometoxictotheshrimp.Themaximumlifespanofashrimpfarm on Koh Lanta Yai is approximately 5 years.Aftertoxicsaturation,thelandiseitherfilledandusedforbananaplantationsorsimplyabandoned.Examplesofeachofthesetypesofmanagementisevidentontheeasternsideoftheisland.Though

shrimp farming has detrimental environmentalconsequences, Koh Lanta Yai exports significantquantitiesofshrimp,andshrimpfarmsareunlikelyto diminish as long as they are profitable in theshort-term.

Forestareasarelocatedupland,generallyinareasthataretoosteeportooremoteforfarming.Forestareasareattheheadofmanyislandwatersheds,helping to infiltrate and purify water before itflowsdownoneofKohLantaYai’smanystreams.Forested areas also minimize erosion, providehabitatfornativespecies,reducethetemperatureontheisland,createshade,produceoxygen,andareattractivefromatourismstandpoint.Themajorityof the privately owned forested area has beenclearedforrubberplantationsordevelopmentand,consequently,muchoftheremainingforestedareaiswithintheboundaryoftheNationalParklocatedonthesouthernsectoroftheisland.Theamountofforestedareahasbeenhalvedsince1985,andthenationalparkboundaryseemstobetheonlymechanism to prevent wholesale destruction oftheremainder.

KohLantaYai’s landuse ischangingquickly,andmanypiecesoflandareclearedbutundeveloped.The futureof this land isunclear.Perhaps itwaslogged for valuable timber, or perhaps it wasclearedfordevelopmentthatdidnotoccur.Landofthistypeislocatedthroughouttheisland,andoften on the fringe of current developments. Inmany cases, even though the land was cleared,unmanaged vegetation is now beginning toovergrowthearea.

Mangrovesarefoundinthenortheastpartoftheisland, as well as on the southwest part of KohLanta Noi. These areas together form a rich andextensivemangroveforest.Theimportanceofthemangroveforestsisparamount.Theseunassumingareasarehatcheriesforlargepopulationsoffishesandcrabs,habitatforbirds,actassedimenttrapsforstreamsandrivers,andactasabufferforcoastalerosion. Mangroves are crucial to supportingcoastal fisheries. We saw evidence of protection

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andreplantingofsomedestroyedmangroveareainthenortheastpartoftheisland,butmangroveforest is still being destroyed for firewood or toallowroomfortransienthousingoftheThai-Maipeople.

ThebeachesofKohLantaYaiareoneofitslargesttouristdraws.Nearlyallthesebeachesarelocated

onthewestsideoftheisland.Thequalityofthebeachesvariesseasonally.Duringtherainyseason,winds from the southeast bring debris, jellyfish,andsedimenttothebeaches,makingthebeachesunattractive. During the dry season, winds blowfrom the northeast, making water calmer, thebeaches cleaner, larger, and more attractive. KohLanta Yai’s beaches are not pristine, white sand

Figure 2. Future Development Risks

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12x11.75x7x2x

Figure 3. Existing Development

beachesbutareadrawtothetouristsvisitingtheisland.

TheNationalParkonKohLantaYai is located inthesouth.Ithasseveralmilesofcoastline,butismostlyuplandold-growthforest.Thenationalparkis accessible via a road along the western coastof the island which is currently being improvedto facilitate access. The national park lacks theresourcesorpowertoenforceitsboundaries,andtheymaynotbewellmarkedorunderstood—timberpoachingandbuildingisnotuncommon.

The island’s dump site is located in thenorthernportionof the island,abovePhraAevillage. It iscurrently the only trash collection dump on theisland. It is expanding rapidly, but without anymechanismtocontrolorplanforgrowth.

DevelopmentTrendsDevelopedareasontheislandarescatteredalongthecoast.Mosttouristfacilitiesarelocatedonthewestcoast, incloseproximitytotheisland’sbestbeaches. The character of tourist areas and localareas is significantly different. A glance at KohLanta Yai reveals a drastic discordance betweenscale and design of facilities for tourists versusthoseusedbythelocalpopulation.

InLantaVillageandtheOldTown, thescaleanddesign of the commercial corridor is small and

modest,with storefronts thatopen to the street.Private residences surrounding the villages aresmall, free standing structures offset slightlyfromthestreet,manywithacoveredporcharea.Thereisnoobvioususeoffencesorgatesaroundresidencesorcommercialproperties.Doorsopentothestreet. Invillages,thereisamplesharedopenspacethatisclearlyintegratedintothebuiltfabric.Hotelandbungalowresortfacilities,ingeneral,arenot located within Koh Lanta Yai’s villages. Theyoccupy large parcels of land, usually with directaccess to the beach. Long paved and unpaveddriveways provide access to these resorts fromthemainroad.Somehavecontrolledaccessgates,drives, and security personnel. The newer resortsalongthesouthwestcoastarelargerinscaleandtheir design does not even minimally reflect thelocalstyle.Ingeneral,thesheervarietyofbuildingtypes and visual dominance of resort facilitiesmakes itunclearwhat the localaestheticon theisland is. The resorts are characterized by quickdevelopment, extensive concrete use, poor siteplanning, and a focus on short-term growth.Compoundingthisproblem,olderresidencesalongthemainroadarejuxtaposednexttotheentrancesand gates of large resort complexes, creating avisual disparity that emphasizes the divergentstandardoflifeexperiencedbylocalsandvisitors.Koh Lanta Yai is developing quickly, and it facesmany of the same risks that any rapid growth

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Figure 4. Koh Lanta Yai (left) and Phuket (right).

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area faces. It is challenged with management ofecosystemsimpacts,localandtourismeconomies,desireforshort-termwealth,alackofenforceablezoning and design guidelines, resource use andwastemanagement.

Thebuildoutscenariomap(Figure2), isbasedonlikelyareasoffuturetourismdevelopment.Areasbetweenthemainpavedroadonthewestsideofthe island and beach are at the highest risk fordevelopment (in red) followedby areaswith flattopographyontheothersideofthemainroadandareasalongtheinteriorpavedroads.Theseareas(inorange) presently have the largest concentrationof tourist facilities and local settlement — theycanonlybeexpectedtogrow.Uplandareas thathavebeenclearedofforestarethenextlikelytobedeveloped(inyellow-green).Whilemanyoftheseareasarepresentlynotaccessiblebypavedroads,the upland development at the Pimilai resort onthe southwest sector of the island suggests howthese areas could be developed in the future asinclusive, gated resorts. The eastern side of theisland is the most remote from present touristdevelopments and would probably develop moreslowly(inyellow).

Comparing the present extent of developmenton Koh Lanta Yai to the intensity and extent ofdevelopmentontheislandofPhuket,thelikelihoodof this intense development becomes apparent.

Figure3 showsa comparativeaerial at the samescale of the two islands. Figure 4 shows a seriesof comparative photographs which demonstratemanyoftheproblemsofdevelopmentonPhuketarebeginningtoappearinKohLantaYai.Figure5showsascalecomparisonofdevelopment.

Unconstraineddevelopmentandrapiddestructionof natural ecosystems would jeopardize thelifestyle and livelihood of many island dwellers.Issuesofsolidwasteandwastewatermanagement,water consumption, anddestructive constructionpractices would ultimately destroy the veryresource that brings tourists to Koh Lanta Yai inthe first place. Koh Lanta Yai’s rapid growth isbeingcomparedwiththerapidgrowthofPhuket,and, inaworstcasescenario,maybeanalogous.However,KohLantaYaistillhaslegitimatenaturalattractions,adesiretoregulateitselfandmaintainthe‘quietisland’character,andapopulationthatishighlyinterestedandeagertoparticipateintheplanning process. We hope this awareness andlevelofeducationwillengenderafeelingofrealpersonalempowermentandtheabilitytochangethe likely course of development on Koh LantaYai.

Watersheds: Ecological Building Blocks

Watershedsareregionsthatdraindownslopeintoa river, stream, or other body of water throughsurfaceandsubsurfacepathways.Everystreamhasanaffiliatedwatershedandsmallwatershedscanjointobecomelargerwatersheds.Ifprecipitationflowsintoaspecificstream,theareaoflandwherethatprecipitationfellispartofthatwaterbody’swatershed. If it flows into a different stream, itis within the boundary of a different watershed.Riparian corridors are composed of watershedstreams and the immediate and particularvegetation that parallels the stream. Figure 6illustratesthisprocess.

Watersheds canbedelineatedbasedupon ridge-linesandvalleys.Theridgelinesindicatethehighestportion of a watershed and the valleys, which

Koh Phuket Koh Lanta Yai

Figure 5. Scale Comparison of Development

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often have an associated stream, river, or creek,indicating the lowest portion of the watershed.In order to delineate watersheds using atopographical map, lines can be drawn acrossthe ridgelines, to designate the watershed’sboundaries.Usingtheseboundaries,polygonscanbeformedwhichshowthegeographicalextentofthewatershed.

Because watermoves downstream,

what happens inone portion of a

watershed may have both direct and indirecteffects on other portions of the watershed.Poor water quality, or altered water quantity,can change physical, chemical and biologicalcomponents of the watershed. Not only doalterations of the water quality and quantity inawatershedaffecttheaquaticecosystems,buttheywill also affect terrestrial ecosystems due to the

Figure 6. Typical watershed on Koh Lanta Yai

Destruction of Natural Forests

1985 2000 2015?

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interdependentnaturethataquaticandterrestrialecosystemsoftenhaveononeanother.Therefore,watershedhealthcanoftenbeusedasanindicatoroftheislandsecologicalhealthasawhole.

Koh Lanta Yai is composed of 31 watershedswith affiliated riparian corridors. The watershedscontainallthelandusesonKohLantaYaiwhetherconstructed or spontaneous. Most important,

the island watersheds are the source of all thewater used on the island. (See section Water Consumption Interviews for further discussion).Figure7illustratestypicalwatershedusageonKohLantaYai.

Theprimary touristdraw toKohLantaYai is thebeach.PopulartouristguidebooksdescribeKoLantaYai’sbeachesasbeing,“long,unblemishedstretches

Swimming Pools

Beaches

Shared Village Wells

Irrigation

Fishing

Household Wells

Figure 7. Watershed Uses

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Solid WasteImpervious Surface

Influence of toilets on watershedsForest clearance and erosion

Erosion related to road buildingStormwater draining to ocean

Figure 8. Watershed Threats

ofwhitesandandturquoisewater,withthebestconditions for swimming.” The quality of thisforemosttouristattractionisentirelydependentonthestatusoftheisland’swatersheds.Inputsfromdevelopmentoragriculturalactivities,bothinthecoastalanduplandportionsoftheisland,canbecarriedintotheoceanviadrainagefromstreams,andtheseinputscanbecarriedbacktothebeachesby the tides. Excessive sediments, nutrients, and

solid wastes are all forms of pollutants that willdecreaseaestheticvaluesofthebeach,inadditiontobeingecologicallydetrimental.

WatershedThreatsAnykindofdisturbancetothelandscapesurface,particularly forest clearance and construction,exposes soil leads to erosion by rainwater. Asrainwater flows over the surface of exposed soil

14

it dissolves into small particles or sediment thatremainssuspendedinthewaterandiscarriedtothesea.Oncethefreshwaterreachesthesaltwaterofthesea,thesedimentdepositsonthetidalzoneandseafloor.Withincreasedimpervioussurfacestheflowofwaterincreasesaswell,addingtoitserosive capacity and increasing sediment in itswaterways.Thisprocessisevidentinthe“sedimentplumes” visibleon theaerialphotographsof thecoastlineofKohLantaYai—thestreaksoflightcolored flow extending from the most alteredwatershedsontheislandinthenorthwest(Figure8).Thesewatershedsarethemostdevelopedontheislandwithhighamountsofimpermeablesurfacesin their adjacent watersheds. As coastal andupland development increases, sediment plumeswill increase andbecomean accelerating threat.The aerial photographsof the southwestpart oftheislandswherewatershedsarenotalteredshownosuchplumes.

Thisprocessleadstofoursignificantecologically-destructive conditions. First, the topsoil thatsupportsthevegetationonlandisdestroyedwithresultinglossoflandbasedhabitats.Second,thesuspended sediment contaminates surface watermaking it unusable as a water source for localcommunitiesandtourism.Third,thedepositionofsediment in the tidal zone results inmuddy,notsandy, beaches and compromises the health andviabilityofthemangroveforestsandfishhabitatsthatthemanyislandresidentsdependonforfoodand livelihood. Fourth, the suspended sedimentclouds thewater clarity required for thegrowthandreproductionofcoralanddepositsovercoralreefs, literally suffocating these delicate marineecosystems. Sedimentation resulting from rapidcoastal development is an increasingly severethreattoThailand’scoralreefs.(Sudaraetal.1992)ThecurrenttourismonKohLantaYaidependsonsandy, clean beaches and the attraction of coralreefdiving.Bothwillsoonbelostifthewatershedsonislandcontinuetobealtered.

ThesourcesofsedimentsandcontaminantsinKohLantaYai’swatershedsareevidentinthelandscape

Figure 9. Sediment Plume Risk Projection

Above, Sediment plumes from typical watershed

Below, Potential change in watershed

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conditions of the island. Rubber plantationscover a largeportionofKoh LantaYai andhavedrasticallyreducedtheamountofnativerainforeston the island. In addition tohabitat destruction,rubberplantationscanresultinsedimentloading,fertilizerandpesticiderunoffintothewatershed.Soilerosionfromrubberplantationsisasignificantproblemsincemanyplantationsareonslopedareas.Best management practices such as contouringandterracing,mulching,plantingcovercropsandinstallingsiltpitsandbundscanensureexcessivesedimentloadsdonotendupinwaterbodiesandsurroundingcoastalareas.ThesearenotyetevidentonKohLantaYai.Inaddition,fertilizerrunofffromplantations can cause eutrophication, or algalblooms, that occur due to excessive nutrientsenteringthestreams,whichwillbedischargedintotheocean.Eutrophicationcanresultinahypoxic,oroxygendepletedzone,notallowingforanyfishorotheroceaniclifetosurvive.Figure9illustratesawatershedareawithtypicalsedimentplumesandhighlightsthepotentialriskareas.

OtheragricultureusesalsoeffectKohLantaYai’swatersheds. Forest clearing results in large, barepatches of topsoil and less slope stability, thuscreating more sediment runoff into the streamswhich can severally degrade marine ecosystemssuch as coral reefs. Shrimp farms are a majorenvironmental problem on Ko Lanta, as they arein many other locations throughout south EastAsia. Shrimp farms are extremely ecologicallydestructive as they encroach upon threatenednativeecosystemssuchasmangrovesandquicklydeplete the areas of all habitat and agriculturalvalues.Inaddition,shrimpfarmsreleaseeffluentsintothewatershedthatcontainpollutantsintheformoffertilizers,pesticidesandantibiotics.

As development increases, so do impermeablesurfacessuchasconcreteandasphalt.Impermeablesurfacesdonotallowprecipitationandrainwatertoseepintothegroundasitnormallywould,thereforereducing water infiltration and groundwaterrecharge.Insteadofseepingintotheground,largeamountsofrainwaterrunoffwillgodirectly into

riparianareas ina shortperiodof time. This canhavesignificanteffectsontheriparianecosystemas it can cause erosion of the banks, as well asdowncuttingofthechannel.Thisresultsinalterationofthechannel’sgeomorphologicalcharacteristics,whichmayresultinanalteredspeciescompositionof the riparian corridor. Additionally, the runoffcancarryhigherpollutantloadsintotheriparianareas due to lack of permeable surfaces to filterthepollutantsbeforetheyreachtheriparianarea.

Developmenthasothereffectsaswell.Theprocessof road construction can expose soils, resultingin sedimentation. Paved roads increase theimpermeablesurfaces inthewatershed.KoLantacontainsavastnumberofseptictanksandleakagefrom these tanks can pollute the groundwatersupply.Rawsewagecanhavedevastatingeffectson aquatic organisms, either by killing themdirectlyorbycausingeutrophication.

Solid waste can fall into streams and then becarriedtootherpartsoftheislandortotheocean,andeventuallyontothebeaches.Solidwastecandirectly kill terrestrial and aquatic wildlife thatmay ingest it or become physically tangled in itand end up starving to death. Solid waste alsoadds contaminants and toxins to surface waterthat people rely on for drinking and can pollutethe groundwater through leachate. This type ofpollutioncanleadtogreaterspreadofdiseasesandpollution.Solidwasteisalsoextremelydispleasingaesthetically and will have many detrimentaleffectstothetouristindustry(Figure10).

WatershedAssessmentTheimpactthatdevelopmenthashadonKohLantaYaiwatershedscanbedeterminedbythepercentoflandalterationinthewatershed.Landalterationson Koh Lanta Yai include plantations, shrimpfarms andurbanareas, all ofwhichdegrade thewatershedduetoincreasingimpermeablesurfaces,increasing exposed soils or discharging sediment,nutrientsorsolidwasteintothewatershed.InordertodeterminethecurrentamountofalterationtothewatershedsofKohLantaYai,thepercentcover

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ofthedifferentlanduseswasdeterminedrelativetoeachwatershedusingGISpolygons.Thepercentcoverofplantations,shrimpfarmsandurbanareaswere added together in order to determine thetotalpercentoflandusealterationperwatershed(see Figure 11 below). The watersheds were thenplacedintofourcategoriesbasedontheamountof alteration: Slightly Altered watersheds hadwatershedswith0to20%alteration,Moderately

Altered watersheds had 20 to 40% alteration,HighlyAlteredwatershedshadover40%alteration,andVeryHighlyAlteredwatershedshadover60%alteration(Table1).

Applying this method to the current state of KoLantaYai’swatersheds assessed the current stateof watershed health. Twelve watersheds wereslightly altered, mainly in the southern portion

Figure 10. Existing Beach in Koh Lanta Yai (above) and Rendering of Beach with Uncontrolled Development (below).

Figure 11. Landuse Context for Each Watershed

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of the island near or within the national forest.Tenwatershedsweremoderatelyaltered.Theninewatersheds that were highly altered which weremainlyinthenortheastsectoroftheislandwheredevelopmentishighest.Zerowatershedswereveryhighlyaltered.

In the case of build-out scenario discussedpreviously in this report, the same method ofcombining the projected developed areas withplantationsandshrimpfarmsprojectedthefuturefor Koh Lanta Yai’s watersheds. The results werethatninewatershedswereslightlyaltered,allinthesouthernportion,ninewatershedsweremoderatelyaltered, six watersheds were highly altered andsevenwatershedswereveryhighlyaltered.

The prospects for the island’s watershed and itssurrounding marine ecosystem with a buildoutscenario are grim. Only a minority of islandwatersheds on the west side of the NationalParkwouldhave any sort of ecological integrity.The remaining watersheds would be noticeablydegradedwithresultingdetrimentalecologicalandaesthetic conditions for island and surroundingwaters. And the buildout scenario assumes thatnofurtherforestclearancetakesplace(Figure12).Given the forest clearance practices of the last

WatershedHealth

Category

Current

Watersheds

Watershed

Scenario

SlightlyAltered

(0-20%)12 9

ModeratelyAltered

(20-40%)10 9

HighlyAltered

(40-60%)9 6

VeryHighlyAltered

(>60%)0 7

Table 1. Watershed alteration – current states and potential states under projected build out scenarios.

Figure 12. Watershed Assessment: Current Conditions (left) and Build-out Scenario (right)

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twenty-fiveyearsthismaybeoptimisticandplacestheisland’swatershedintegrityatfurtherrisk.

EcologicalResourcesKoh Lanta Yai plays host to several diverseecosystemsthatsymbioticallysustainamultitudeof terrestrial as well as aquatic resources. Thesesystemsareof significantecologicalandculturalvalue to both Koh Lanta Yai’s local and touristpopulations (Figure 13). The awareness andunderstandingoftheencompassingecosystemsisfundamentaltotheestablishmentandsuccessofalong-termsustainablemasterplanfortheisland.The nine ecosystems that comprise the majorityof Koh Lanta Yai’s environment include: tropicalrainforest, riparian corridors, wetlands, beachforest, beach and inter-tidal zones, mangroveforests,coralreefs,andoceans.

In recent years Koh Lanta has experiencedaccelerationintouristrelateddevelopment.Driveninpartbythedesiretoreapshort-termmonetarygains, this development compromises the long-

term viability of healthy ecosystems. The lackof ecological awareness and responsibility thatcharacterizescurrentlocalandtouristdevelopmenttrends carries with it ramifications that, if leftunchecked,willleadtoasocalled“tippingoftheenvironmental scale.” The resulting irreparabledegradation of precious natural resources, theisland’s foremost asset to both local and touristpopulations, will prompt the tide of tourism toretreatinsearchoflessadulteratedenvironmentsanddecimatetheecosystem-basedlocaleconomy.

The ecosystems that comprise Koh Lanta Yai areinterrelated. Logically any deleterious activitywithin one ecosystem is likely to negativelyimpact the others. All of the nine ecosystemsare significant and warrant protection of theintegrity of natural functions through carefulplanning of future development. As Table 2 andthe following text illustrate, thenineecosystemsprovide keyecological serviceson the island, yetalso are threatenedbydevelopmentpracticesontheisland.

Figure 13. Ecological Resources for Locals (left) and for Tourists (right)

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Table 2. Ecological Importance and Threats to Prominent Ecosystems of Koh Lanta

Ecosystem EcologicalService Threats

Tourism Island Growth

RainforestanduplandForestedAreas

SignificantHabitat Heavytouristuse Woodgathering

ClimateAmelioration Developmentofuplandresorts Clearcuttingforagriculture

GroundwaterRecharge Lossofhabitat

ErosionProtection Development

ResourceCollection(Wood/Food) Wildlifetrade

TouristAttraction SoilErosion

RiparianCorridor

SignificantHabitat Solidandliquidwastedisposal Sedimentation

FloodControl Roadconstruction

SourceofPotableWater Encroachingdevelopment

Agriculture Channelization

TouristAttraction Lossofhabitat

Damming

Wetlands

Habitat Lossofhabitat Channelization

WaterQuality,Infiltrationandconveyance

Development Development

FoodProduction

BeachForest

Habitat Lossofhabitat Alterationofwatertable/channelization

ErosionControl Overdevelopment Overdevelopment

Bufferbetweeninlandlanduses

Windbreak

BeachandIntertidalZone

Habitat Solidandliquidwastedisposal Overharvestingofwildlife

PurificationZone Development:waterfrontseawalls,encroachmentofseasideresorts&villages

Lossofhabitatfromwaterfrontpremiumsonproperty

AccesstoSea

FoodSource

VillageandResortDevelopment

TouristAttraction

MangroveForest

Habitat Oilandexhaustfromboats/ferries Lossofhabitatfromreclamation

Fisheries Touristtrafficdisturbingwildlife Wastewatereffluentfromshrimpfarms/households

WaterStorage Decreaseinwaterqualityduetodevelopmentrelatedsedimentinputs

ErosionControl

FloodControl

BuffersWaveAction

FoodSource

Wood

TouristAttraction

CoralReefandOcean

Habitat Watercraftnoiseandemissions Sediment/nutrientloadingfromconstruction/erosion

Fisheries Boatanchorsdestroyingcoralreefs Lossofhabitat

BuffersWaveAction Blackmarketshelltrade

TouristAttraction

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RainforestKohLantaYaiisfortunatetostillpossesssignificanttractsofrainforest,mostlyintheupperelevationsonslopesunsuitableforefficientagriculture.Whiletheforestedareasaredispersedalongthe lengthofthe island,the largestcontiguousportionsaresituated in the south within the National Park.Therainforestecosystemisknownforcontainingextremely high biodiversity and as such hasbeen the focus of extensive conservation effortsthroughouttheworld(Figure14).Despiteeffortsover the last twenty to thirty years the world’sremaining intact rainforests are being lost at analarmingratetologging,cattlegrazing,agriculture,and development. With each passing year theseremnant ecosystems take on greater and greatersignificancenotonlyasrepositoriesforbiodiversityand the important ecological functions theyperform,butalsoastouristdestinations.ExistingThaistatutestheoreticallyprohibittheclearcuttingofrainforestsbutinthelast20yearsKohLantaYaihaslostonethird of its rainforests to plantationsanddevelopment.Localauthoritiesdonotorcannotenforceexistinglaws.

On Koh Lanta Yai, the forested areashave traditionally supported selectiveharvesting of vegetation and wildlifeby local residents. In addition, theyalsoperformtheessentialfunctionofrecharging groundwater through thepromotionofprecipitationinfiltrationwhile simultaneously buffering soilerosion, directly influencing potablewateravailability.

Ontropical islandssuchasKohLantaYai,withhighlyerosivesoilsandsteepslopes, forested areas play a pivotalroleinmitigatingsoilerosionthroughtwomainfunctions: interceptionanddispersalofheavyrainsbydensemulti-tieredfoliarcanopiesandbindingsoilswith extensive interwoven root andmicorhizalsystems.

Currently, access to rainforest areas is limited toa few, unimproved roadways. However, this willsoonchangewithnewroadimprovementstotheNationalParkonthesouthwestsideoftheisland.The increasedvehicularaccess is likely tofurtherdisrupt wildlife and alter habitat quality unlessmeasuresaretakentominimize impacts.Tropicalrainforestsareparticularlysusceptibletoanimpactknowas“edgeeffect,”inwhichharmfuleffectsofadjacentlanduses(suchasclear-cuttingforrubberplantations or grading for new roads) manifestthemselvesbeyondtheecosysteminterface.RiparianCorridorsRiparian corridors are the vegetated zonesimmediately adjacent to water bodies such asrivers and streams. The proximity of terrestrialand aquatic conditions leads to high flora andfauna diversity. Long identified as biodiversity

Figure 14. Rain Forest Habitat on Koh Lanta Yai

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hotspots, the bourgeoning ecotourism industryrecognizes riparianecosystemsaspopular touristdestinations.

These ecosystems provide numerous ecologicalfunctions including wildlife migration corridorsupon which population viability is commonlydependent.Inaddition,theyactasself-regulatingstorm water conveyance and mitigation systems,the proper function of which directly influenceswaterquality,availability,andfloodhazard.Asthelast terrestrial moderator of sediment transport,theseecosystemsplayapivotalroleinregulatingthe loss of topsoil — thus their preservation iscriticaltoKohLantaYai’ssustainability.

Road building and agricultural practices such asclear-cutting remove riparian vegetation, notonly compromising the ability to retain soil butactually promoting mass-waste as the toe ofthe stream bank is destabilized. This results inunnaturally high sediment loads which adverselyimpactswaterquality.Developmentencroachmentthroughwholesaleremovalof riparianvegetation,and channelization of the remaining watercourse,is becoming a common practice in Koh LantaYai’s lower elevations with potentially disastrousconsequences.Aschannelizationproceedsupstreamwith development, it increases the likelihood offloodinginlowerportionsofthewatershed,directlythreatening human and existing development(Figure15).

WetlandsAs streams arrive at lower, flatter elevationson the island, the water decreases in velocityandexpandsover awidearea to formwetlands.Sharing many of the functions and threats asthose of riparian corridors, wetlands are highin biodiversity and particularly susceptible todevelopment and associated impacts. Acting asnatural water filters for nutrients and sediment,theyhaveadirectinfluenceonwaterqualityandthehealthofcoastalwaters.TheirbiodiversityhaslongmadethemavaluedsourceoffoodforKohLanta Yai residence. Wetland loss to filling andstream channelization is an ongoing occurrenceonKohLantaYai.Ecosystemlosstoland-usesuchas agriculture and resort development results inalterationofthehydrologiccycle.Relatednegativeimpactsincludehabitatloss,increasedimpervioussurfaces that reduce groundwater recharge, andimpaired water quality through the introductionofpollutantssuchasliquidandsolidwaste.

BeachForestThe island’s beach forests are found in themoreexposed coastal areas with wind and wateravailabilityactingasprimarycontrollingfactorsinvegetationcompositionanddensity.Theseforestsprovidevaluedbufferstostrongwinds,mediatingstormseverityintheinlandareas.Therootsystemsof common tree species such as Casurina pinesprotect against erosion by stabilizing soils. Theyprovide habitat for numerous species, primarily

Figure 15. Riparian Zone (left) and Channelized Stream (right)

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birds,andoffertheadditionalbenefitofscreeningadjacentdevelopment.

Local communities have long resided within thisecosystem type, favoring the access to resourcesit affords. As a result of its proximity to coastalwaters,therecenttourismincreaseandguesthouse/resort development have exerted tremendouspressureonthisecosystem.Thepracticeofstreamchannelization, especially following the 2004tsunami, led to the destruction of beach forests,lossofwildlifehabitat,increasingsedimenterosion,anddecreasingaestheticappeal.

BeachandInter-tidalZonesThe islandswhite, sandybeachesare theprimarydrawforthousandsoftouristsandtheyalsoplayan integral role in local culture. This ecosystemtype circumscribes the island, with the greaterconcentrationofhighqualitytouristbeachessuchastheKlongDaoandPhraAeBeachlocatedalongthewesterncoast(Figure16).

Constituting the foundation of Koh Lanta Yai’stourism industry, these ecosystem types are thefocusofintensiveresortdevelopment.Heavilyusedbytouristsandlocalsalike,theyprovideaccessto

theoceanandactivitiessuchasfoodcollection,swimmingand diving. Importantecological functions mustnotbeoverlooked,includingwaterfiltration,andwildlifehabitat.

The increased tourismdevelopment and resultantdischarge wastes threatenthis ecosystem, potentiallyjeopardizing both theecologicalandtourismvalueof the beaches and inter-tidal zones. The continuedconstruction of waterfrontseawallsandcoastalresortsis

likelytonegativelyimpacttheaestheticqualityoftheareasfortourists.Ifunregulated,developmentwilldominatethebeachlandscapeandpotentiallyseverlocalaccesstothecoast.

MangrovesHometonumerousrangeofaquatic,terrestrial,andavianwildlife species, Koh LantaYai’smangrovesspan the north and eastern coasts (Figure 17).Similartorainforests,theglobalrecognitionofthedwindling numbers of these sensitive ecosystemshas prompted widespread conservation efforts.They provide several important functions onKoh Lanta Yai. Mangroves buffer wave action(potentially of critical importance in areassusceptiblytotsunamis),trapsedimentthatmightotherwise impairwater quality compromise coralreef habitat, and are long standing foundationof the Thai Mai culture. Recently this ecosystemhasreceivedattentionforitssignificantpotentialas an ecotourism attraction. Local villagers haveestablished the Mangrove Education and EcoTourism Center (Thung Yee Pheng Eco TourismCenter)ontheeastsideoftheisland.(Figure18).Despite conservation efforts, Koh Lanta Yai’smangroves remain threatened. Several specificactivities are of particular concern. The use of

Figue 16. Beach Forest, Beach, and Intertidal Zone

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motorboats discharge oils and exhaust pollutionand loudmotors disturb wildlife. The practice ofclearingmangrovesinordertoincreasedevelopablelandandinfrastructureprojectsresultinecosystemfragmentationandlossofwildlifehabitat.Effluentfromshrimpfarmsandhouseholdsposeadditionalthreatstomangroveforestsfrompollutedchemicalandsewageladenwaters.

CoralReefsTheseecosystemssupportanabundanceofdistinctaquaticspeciesand,likerainforests,aretheobjectofconservationeffortsthroughouttheworld.Likebeaches, Koh Lanta Yai’s coral reefs and coastalwatersareprimarytouristattractions.Scubadivingis a thriving island enterprise and the reefs offKohLantaYaiareworldclass.Thecoralreefsalsoserveasasignificantsourceoffoodandrevenuegeneration for a large portion of local people,notablytheThaiMai.

Yet the unconstrained, unregulated developmenton Koh Lanta Yai fundamentally threatens the

continued survival of the coral reefs.Destructiveconstructionpractices,readilyseenthroughouttheisland,loosenandexposesoiltotheerosiveprocessoftheheavymonsoonrains.Suspendedsedimentthencollectsinwatercoursesandmakesitswaytothesea.Therethesedimentisdischarged,fallingtotheseafloorandontothecoralreefs.Thedelicatecoral that depends on crystalline seawater forhabitatisliterallysuffocatedbythesediment.Thecoralreef,andthegreatquantityanddiversityofspeciesthatdependsonit,dies;themostuniquetouristattractionof the islandwillalsobegone.This process is slow but it is continuing and willsoonbeirreversibleinthecoralreefsofKohLantaYai.

EcologicalPreservationPriorityTheidentificationandprioritizationofecosystemsandtheirassetsisofparticularimportancetotheoverall sustainability of Koh Lanta Yai. Based onfindings, the following ecological resources areprioritizedintofivecategories.Figure19illustratesthesecategories.

Figure 17. Mangroves and Waterways

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Highest-Ripariancorridors,Freshwater/SaltwaterInterfaceConnectingalloftheecosystems,ripariancorridorsandthezonewheretheymeettheseaareatthecoreofhealthyecosystemfunctionoftheisland.Securingtheseareaswillsignificantlymitigatethemanyassaultsontheislandecosystems,particularlyissuesoferosionandsedimentation,andreinforcestewardshipeffortsintheadjoiningecosystems.

Higher – Rainforests (National Park), Mangroves,andCoralReefsTheseresourcesbeardirectrelationtothehealthand sustainability of the beaches and coastalwaters. Rainforests on steep slopes stabilize soilthat might otherwise have impact downstream.Upland forests recharge the aquifer and slowlyrelease surface water insuring continued watersupply on the island. Mangroves are essential tofisheriesandprotecttheseaandcoralreefsfromsedimentation. Existing policies strive to protectthese resources but it is important that they arelocallyenforced.

High–BeachesAs one of the primary tourist attractions, thebeachesareavaluedresourcewhichmightsuggestthattheybegivenhighestpriority,buttheirwell-

being is largely dependent on the health of theripariancorridors, forestedareas,mangroves,andcoralreefs.

Moderate–PlantationsThe plantations are an ecological resource, asthey provide buffer between urban developmentand upland natural resources such as forestedareas.Theyalsoserveasalocaleconomydistinctfromthatoftourism,andprovidelimitedwildlifehabitat. Plantations can increase their positiveecosystemeffectthroughtheuseofmanagementpracticesthatmitigaterunoffandincreasehabitatvalue.

Low–ShrimpFarms,urbanareasBoth shrimp farms and urban areas have thepotential of providing ecological resources, suchas wildlife habitat, if planned and managedproperly. Currently their impacts constitute fargreaterecosystemthreatsuchaswaterpollution,impervioussurfaces,andsediment.

Ecosystems,ResourceUse,andStakeholdersKoh Lanta Yai’s ecosystems, their functions, andisland stakeholders are intricately connected andhighly codependent. While certain ecosystemsaremoreresilienttodisturbancethenothers,theisland’s ecosystems remain fragile environments.ThefuturesustainabilityofKohLantaYaidependson maintaining thriving, healthy ecosystemsas resources for tourists and locals alike.Infrastructure

InfrastructureThemanagementandplanningofinfrastructureisoneofthemostpressingproblemsontheislandofKohLantaYai.KohLantaYaistrugglestoadequatelymeet the infrastructural needs of both its localpopulation and the tourist industry. The tourismindustry places significant demands upon theisland’s finite resources, especially in comparisonto the localdemands. There isnocomprehensivemonitoringorregulationoftheuseoftheislands

Figure 18. Thung Yee Pheng Eco Tourism Center

25

Figure19.EcologicalResourcePreservationPriority

26

Figure20.ExistingInfrastructureMap

27

infrastructure and resources to ensure equitableuseandmeetfutureneeds.Figure20illustratestheexistinginfrastructureonKohLantaYai.

Therearefivecriticalinfrastructuresectorsrequir-ing immediate attention to enable local equityandthefuturesustainabilityofthetourism:roadsand traffic, bridge connections to the mainland,resourceuse,saltwaterintrusion,andsolidwaste.Continuing under current conditions, withoutaddressing infrastructure problems, will result indestruction of the unique environment and wayof life that makes Koh Lanta Yai such a populartouristdestinationandspecialplacetolive.

RoadsandTrafficCurrently,theislandofKohLantaYaiisexperiencinga significant amount of new road development.The central government has focused efforts ofinfrastructuraldevelopmentonbuildingnewroadsandwideningexistingroadsontheisland.Duringthesummerof2006,thetouristoff-season,therewereanumberofnewroadsbeingconstructedorwidened.

The focus on development of new roads ismisguidedconsideringtheother,andmorepressing,infrastructural needs of the island. On an islandwheretrafficislimitedbyaferry,thedevelopmentofnewandwiderroadsenablesgreateramountsoftouristtrafficthathaveadverseecologicalandsocial effects on the island. In addition, widerroadsencouragedriverstodriveathigherspeedspresenting significant safety hazards for bothdriversandpedestrians.

The existence of more roads and the process ofroad building also have severe consequences onthe environment. In order to build new roads,ecologically valuable forests are cut down, andoftenswathsofforest2-3timesthewidthoftheroadaresacrificedintheconstructionprocess.Inaddition,duringtheconstructionofnewroads,soilsareharvestedfromoneareaoftheislandtobeusedtoleveltheroadsinanother.Thispracticecreatesmultipleopportunitiesforerosionbothwherethe

soil is taken from and where it is placed. Looseand exposed soils erode into waterways duringconstruction, especially since most constructiontakesplaceduringtherainyseason.

In addition to erosion during the constructionprocess,theexistenceofroadshasadirecteffecton habitats and watersheds. Paved roads causefragmentationofnativeecosystems,resultinginareductionofhabitatdiversity.Roadsareimpervioussurfaces,meaningthatwhenitrainsthevaluableresource of water washes off the roads ratherthan being absorbed by the ground to replenishthe islandsaquifer.Thus,moreroadscreatemoreimpervioussurfacesontheisland,whichtranslatestoadepletionoftheisland’swaterresources.

Trafficonthemainwestcoastroadduringthehighseason is considerable — the road was widenedafterthetsunami,andcentralplanningauthoritiespropose further widening of the road, includingthepavingoftheroadintotheNationalPark.Withcontinuedtouristdevelopment,thewestcoastroadwillbecomeasignificantdetractiontotheislandcharacterasnoise,pollution,dust,andcongestionwill increase. The island provides a very limitedpublic transportation system, too expensive formostlocals.Nobikepathsexistontheislandthatcouldprovideanalternate,energysaving,andnonpollutingmobilitysystemthatwouldbeespeciallycompatiblewithtourismdevelopment—atouristattractioninandofitself.

FerriesandProposedBridgeConnectionsCurrently,KohLantaYaiisonlyaccessiblebyferryfrom the mainland. This year-round ferry systemhastwosegments—oneferryconnectsKohLantaYaitoKohLantaNoi,andthesecondferryconnectsKoh LantaNoi to themainland.During thehighseason, ferries connect Koh Lanta Yai to otherislands intheAndamanSeaanddirectlytoKrabiCity. A current proposal suggests building eitheroneortwobridgestopermanentlyreplaceoneorbothsegmentsoftheyear-roundferry.Thebiggestproblem with the ferry system is its inconsistentschedule — running only when they are full;

28

leavingthepassengersatthemercyoftheferryoperators.Also,theferrieshavenolateeveningservicetoallowforemergencymedicalaccess,exceptatanexorbitantpricewellbeyondthemeansofmostlocals.

Asapartoftheferrycompany’scontractwiththegovernmenttherearestipulationsabouttheservicetobeprovidedtotheisland.Obviously,theferrycompanyisnothonoringthiscontracttoprovideproperservice.Thus,thegovernmenthastheabilitytoenforceitscontractwiththeferryorsearchforacompetitorthatwillhonorthecontract(Figure21).The proposed bridge would have a number ofconsequencesthatneedtobefullyexploredbeforeany definitive decision. Building a bridge wouldcauseasignificantamountofdamagetomangroveforests that are adjacent to the proposed bridgesites.Proponentsforthebridgestatethatitwouldincreasetheamountoftourismontheisland.Yettourism industry disproportionately produces themajority of the environmental impacts on theisland,particularlysolidwaste.(SeeTable3).Thus,increasingthedailypopulationoftouristsontheisland will exacerbate the solid waste and otherenvironmentalproblemsontheisland.Inaddition,anewbridgewouldalsointroducemorecarstotheisland.Morecarswouldmeanmorelanddedicatedtoparkinglots,fastertrafficandsignificantlymorepollution.

ThelackofdirectaccesstoKohLantaYaialsoaddstothetouristvalueoftheisland.TheisolatedfeelofKohLantaYaiisoneofthemaindrawstotheislandandsignificantlycontributesto itsunique,exclusiveappeal.Creatingdirectaccesscouldruinthisislandcharacterandexpandmasstourismontheisland.Overall,therecouldbenofinancialgainfor the tourism industry with the loss of higherpriced,moreexclusivetourism.

EnergyResourcesElectricity, themostwidelyused energy resourceonKoh Lanta Yai, is supplied from themainlandbyarecent,federallyfundedinfrastructuresystem.Theelectricitysystemisfairlycohesive−reachingmost of the island − and suffers the predictableminor electricity outages. Because the system iscomprehensiveandelectricityis inlimitedsupplytheconsiderationsofenergyarenotaboutequityofaccess,butofunnecessaryconsumption.

Hotel Size Water Consumption

(in liters)

Wastewater (in liters)

Solid Waste Production

(in kg)

Energy Consumption

(in kwh)

Small 180 150 3.23 13

Medium 260 180 6.67 36

Large 285 200 10.10 51

Table 3. Resource Consumption Rates of Tourists Per Day According to Tourism Destination (Source: Strategic Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Krabi Province. 2005)

Figure 21. Present Ferry Service (left) and the Proposed Efficient Ferry Service (right)

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The Koh Lanta Yai region of Thailand has a veryspecific traditional bungalow-style architecturewhich responds to the availability of naturalresources and the local climate. Typically, suchhouses are raised off of the ground, have highroofs,andaresetdiscretelywithinthe landscapetotakeadvantageoftheseabreezes.Theseformselegantly utilize passive ventilation to cool thehouses.Thetraditionalhousingstructuresarealsomadeof localmaterials,manywoodor bamboo,which may need to be replaced, but are readilyavailablebecauseofthelocalsupply.

Veryfewofthetourismdevelopmentshavetakenthe opportunity to learn from this traditionalregionalarchitecturalstylewhichrespondstothelocal environment. Instead, many of the tourismdevelopments are more generic in their design,influenced more by international architecturalstyles and mass-produced building materials.Thus,thesedevelopmentshaveinherentlygreaterenergydemandsasaresultoftheneedtolightandcool the buildings mechanically. In addition, thetourismdevelopmentspredominatelyusematerialssuch as concrete, steel and wood which are notlocal.Theneedtotransportthesematerialstotheislandalsoresultsinhighenergycostsduringtheconstructionprocess.Figure22indicatesthatthelarger the hotel size the greater the amount ofenergyconsumedbyvisitingtourists.

Certainexistingtouristresortsontheislandhaveconsideredthelocalarchitecturalstyle.Placementof buildings creates a unique atmosphere andsustainable development. The Narima Resort has

built their guestrooms in the local bungalowstyle. In addition, the bungalows sit within thesurrounding forest, which was preserved duringdevelopment.Theforestshadesthestructuresandlowersenergyuse,which saves the resortmoneyby allowing for the use of natural ventilation,lighting,andcooling.Inadditiontobeingenergyefficient,Narima’scarefuldedicationtotraditionalarchitecture creates a distinct, selective, andaestheticallypleasingenvironmentthatoffersthetouristahistoricalandenvironmentalexperienceuniqueinKohLanta.NarimaResortistheoppositeof most other island tourist developments thatdestroy the surrounding environment placingobtrusive, energy-inefficient structures on sitesdenudedofvegetation.

WaterResourcesAs a tropical island, Koh Lanta Yai experiencesabundantrainfallduringthemonsoonseasons.Onaverage,rainfallovertheislandrangesfrom2200-2400mm/yearorapproximately350millioncubicmetersofrainwaterperyear.Thereislimiteddataavailableonwhatfractionofthistotalrainwateris actuallyharvestedandusedeither forpotableorirrigationpurposes.However,spaceforstoringwater isaconstraintonthesmall island,makingrainwatercollectiondifficult.

In addition, Koh Lanta Yai is located over twolarge aquifers. Though the soil type allows forlargeamountsofwaterstorage,thekarstaquifersproduce hard, turbid water that, although notharmful, is not suitable for drinking purposeswithoutadditionalfiltrationandtreatment.

Figure 22. Energy Consumed by Tourists

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In Koh Lanta Yai, water is one of the naturalresources most impacted by the rapid rate ofdevelopment. Currently, there is no one watersupply system providing water for the island.Hotelsand largerbusinessareable tobuild theirownwater supply systems.Most localpeoplearelefttoprovidetheirownwater.Althoughalargewater supply system capable of meeting bothlocalandtouristdemandcouldassuresafe,cleandrinkingwaterandminimizemanyofthecurrentlyobservedproblems,thefinancialandenvironmentalcost of building such a system is prohibitive.The island is in dire needof bettermanagementpractices toprovideaconsistentwater supply tolocalinhabitantsandtoregulatethetouristwatersupply.

Locals provide for their water needs throughrainwater harvesting, limited mountain springwater, surfacewater,villageand individualwells,orpurchaseofbottledwater.However,thegreatestwaterdemandoccurswithinthedryseasonwhenthemonsoonrainsdonotreplenishthestreamsorfill theharvesting cisterns, andwaterbecomesascarceresource.Water isavailable inavarietyofways,butlocalsareforcedtospendalotoftime,energy,andmoneytomakesuretheyareabletomeettheirbasicwaterneeds(Figure23).

Currently,mostdrinkingwater is treated,bottledwaterwhichiseithermanufacturedontheislandor imported from Krabi. There are two islandplants which bottle drinking water. These plantsextractgroundwaterthatisthentreatedwithsandfiltrationandUVdisinfection.Theyproduceabout1400litersadayduringthelowseasonand2400litersadayduringthehighseason.Ataminimum,bottled water sells at 20 liters for 10 baht, asignificantcosttolocalsofmostlymodestmeans.

According to the United Nations and the WorldHealthOrganization,humansneedatleast20-50litersofsafecleanwatereveryday.(Gleick1996)According to a survey conducted by the PacificInstitute on the World’s access to safe drinkingwater inboth ruralandurbanareas, from1970-

2000over20%oftheworld’scountriesstillhaveless than50% of the people with access to safedrinkingwater.Unfortunately,thewaterresourcesituationforasignificantnumberoflocalpeopleonKohLantaYaifallswithinthis20%.(www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs)

The local government is ineffective in meetinglocalwaterneeds.Forexample,inThungYeePhengVillage, theTAObuiltawell thatwasnot strongenough to pump water to the storage facility,so the village went to the central government(Ministry of Public Health) to have an adequatewell built. However, even this well producesmarginally − there are not enough financialresources to ensure year round operation,maintenance,andmonitoring.Accordingtolocals,theystillneedtopurchasedrinkingwater,attheveryleast,fortheirchildren.

Thehighdemandforwaterbytourismhasfueledmanagement and allocation problems, reachingsevereconditionsinthehighseasonandconstrictinglocalaccesstowater.Resortsprovidefortheirownwatersupplythroughprivatewellsandtreatmentsystems.Morerarely,theyresorttosurfacewatercollection and treatment systems. On Koh LantaYai, resortsuse largequantitiesofwater in theirdaytodayoperations.Manyhigh-endresortsontheislandhaveanabundantnumberofswimmingpoolstomaximizetheirguest’sexperienceontheisland.Irrigatednon-nativelandscapeplants,whileaddingtotheaestheticappealofresortareas,alsodivert water supplies. Native species adapted tothemonsoondryseasoncyclerequirelittleornointerimirrigation.

Field research in Koh Lanta Yai indicates that afamily of 6 with some means consumes 1000Lperweekor23Lperperson/daywhiledata fromlast year’s report indicates that the daily waterconsumptionfortouristsatmediumscaleresortsisapproximately260Lperperson/day.Thosewhoare able to provide water through private wells(hotels,resorts,somebusinesses), incurtheinitialinfrastructure cost of groundwater wells and

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.2.

3.

4.5.

Restaurant Owner in Saladan Village

The restaurant extracts water from a local well and uses that water for washing floors and dishes. The well has salt intrusion and cannot be used for cooking and drinking. They also collect rainwater for the same purposes, but this service fluctuates with the seasons. For cooking and drinking, the owner purchases fresh water from the mainland that is deliveredd by a truck. The cost is 150 baht for 1000 liters. She uses about 3000 liters a week during the low tourist season and 4000 to 5000 liters a week during high season. She added that, in general, shop owners in Saladan Village can’t easily collect rainwater because of a lack of storage space and lack of rainwater volume available in this location of the island.

Residential Home Owner in Saladan Village

A man who built his own small, two-bedroom home shares this space with his wife and three children. The family uses roughly 1000 liters of fresh water every 7 to 10 days for cooking, drinking and bathing. The water is delivered by a truck and the source is from a well in the northeast area of the island. In the rainy season, they also collect rainwater from the roof, storing it in a small cistern and use it for washing floors and areas of the house.

Owner of a Private Well near Saladan Village

Just beyond Saladan Village in the northeast is a privately owned groundwater pump. The operation taps into the aquifer and can store up to 20 000 liters (there are 10 large plastic cisterns on stilts, each with a capacity of about 2000 liters.) The owner has a truck and fills it with water to sell to locals on the island.

Owner of a Health Clinic south of Saladan Village

The owner, who is also the head doctor as this small health clinic at the southern end of of Kah Kwang Beach along the main road, primarily treats tourists. Her clinic uses, on average, 1000 liters of fresh water every 2 days. She said her bill for water use was 150 baht per day. Her fresh water was delivered by truck from the mainland.

Village Headman on the East Side of Island

The headman of a small village in the northeast area of the island said 10 years ago the Department of Public Health built a well for his village. The islanders later became responsible for managing and maintaining the well. This village has 152 households, 130 of which are covered by the current water system. During the dry season the well typically runs dry. Piped water, derived from a surface spring water source is available when the well is dry. The piped water runs to households for 3 hours in the morning and 3 hours in the evening.

Water Consumption Interviews

Figure 23. Water Consumption Interveiws

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filtrationandtreatmentsystems,butthenarefreetouselargeamountsofwaterlimitedonlybytheavailableaquifer supply.At the same time, thosewhodonothaveaccesstoprivatewellsandobtaintheir water through rainwater harvesting, localwellsandsprings,andpurchaseofbottledwater,bear a larger burden to meet their basic waterneeds, and thus sparingly consume this preciousresource.There isnomechanismonthe islandtorecognizethisinequityofwaterresources.

WaterQualityThere are multiple reasons that account for thewaterqualityissuesonKohLantaYai,someduetonaturalgeologiclandscapewhileothersareduetomismanagementofresources.

Theislandsgeologicmake-upposessomedifficultyto using groundwater for drinking purposes.Treatment technologies capable of reducingturbidityandotherproblemsfoundintheavailablewell water more affluent private householdsand resorts to provide their own drinking water.However, a dependenceongroundwater coupledwith the rapid rate of development will poseproblemsforKohLantaYai.Currentdevelopmentclears forests and creates extensive impervioussurfaces reducing the ability ofwater sources tobenaturallyreplenishedthroughslowrunoffrates,infiltration,andrecharging.(SeealsoFigure24).

Unmitigated development practices on KohLanta Yai’s exacerbate this condition. Sediment,

agricultural runoff from rubber plantations, andeffluent from shrimp farms contaminate waterresources. The island’s inadequate wastewaterandsewagepracticescontributeverysignificantlyto the declining water quality. Currently, mostwastewater and sewage are either sent to pitlatrines,septictanks,ordischargeddirectlyintothesea.Therearenoenforceableregulationsgoverningtheconstructionof latrinesandseptic tanksandtheirproximitytowatersuppliesandwaterbodies.TheWorldHealthOrganization recommends thatseptic tanksandpit latrinesmustbeaminimumof20metersfromanysurfacewaterbodyorwell,andmustbeplaceddownstreamordownhillfromnearbywaterbodies.ThisisnotusuallythecaseonKohLantaYai.

Local regulations on Koh Lanta Yai require thathotels and resorts with more than 90 roomsbuild their own wastewater treatment facility.However, many resort owners manage to avoidtheseregulationsbybuildingjustunder90roomsand discharge untreated waste to the streamsand ocean. The consequence of multiple ownersengaging in thispractice results inunsustainableamountsofpollutedwaterbeingdischarged intotheenvironment.

Currently, water quality monitoring occurs onlywhen there are outbreaks of water borne illnesssuchasdiarrheaordysentery.ComparisonofsuchwaterqualitytestingwithresultsfromtheUnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency, whichgovernstheU.S.FederalDrinkingWaterStandards,showsthegroundwaterinKohLantaYaicontainsanundesirableamountoffecalandtotalcoliform,indicating pollution of the water sources fromanimal and human fecal matter (www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index). The presenceof nutrients such as ammonia and phosphorousabove thedrinkingwater standardsalso indicatecontamination of water from both fertilizer andanimalwaste.(Table4).

Figure 24. Salt Water Intrusion.

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SaltwaterIntrusionThelargedependenceoftheislandswaterresourceson well water poses the threat of saltwaterintrusion. Saltwater intrusion occurs when over-extractionofgroundwater results in thedrawinginofsaltwaterfromtheoceansintothefreshwateraquifers.Saltwater intrusion is a natural process thatoccurs in virtually all coastal aquifers. It consistsof salty seawater flowing inland into freshwateraquifers. Seawater, which carries more solutes,hasahigherdensity thanfreshwater.Thishigherdensitycauses thepressurebeneathacolumnofsaltwatertobelargerthanthatbeneathacolumnofthesameheightoffreshwater.Ifthesecolumnswereconnectedatthebottom,thenthepressuredifference triggers a flow from the saltwatercolumntothefreshwatercolumn.

Normally, the flow of saltwater inland is limitedto coastal areas. However, this natural process

becomesanenvironmentalproblemwhenexcessivepumpingoffreshwaterfromanaquiferreducesthewaterpressureandintensifiestheeffect,drawingseawaterintonewareas.WaterqualitytestinginKohLantaYaiindicatespresenceofsalinityinthefreshwater aquifers. This salinity level will surelyincrease with further groundwater pumping,especially since groundwater recharge continuestobe limiteddueto increase in imperviousareasfrom development and forest clearance. Thisincrease in salinity can have dire consequencesfortheislandsagriculture,vegetationspecies,andwaterresources.

SolidWasteKohLantaYaihasapressingsolidwastemanagementproblemwhich,ifnotaddressedimmediately,willbedetrimentaltonotonlytothepublichealthandenvironmental quality, but the aesthetic qualityof the island,acornerstoneof tourism.Thesolidwaste problemhas thepotential to decrease thenumberoftouristsandtolowertheirspendingontheisland.Currently,thereisonesolidwastedumpsituatedinnorthernKohLantaYai.Itutterlyfailstoadequatelymeettheislandssolidwasteneeds,especiallyduringthehighseason.

The recent introduction of westernized practicesontheislandofKohLantaYaihasacceleratedtherateofsolidwasteproductionandaccumulationontheisland.Onlyrecentlyhaveislandersdealtwithnon-biodegradablesolidwaste.Traditionally,manythingsmayhavebeenmadeoutoflocalresourcesthattendedtobebiodegradable,thusthehabitofusingsomethingandthrowingtheremainderinthebusheswhereitwouldquicklyrotorbeeatenwasunderstandable.Solidwasteproductionincreasedwith the importation of modern consumptionpractices,which in some cases are verydifferentthanthelocalhabits.Thisentailstheintroductionof the “conveniencegoods” to the island. Plasticbags, paper plates, packaging, diapers etc. areimportedandaretypicallyusedonlyoncebeforedisposal and do not biodegrade. Research aboutPacific Small Island in developing states showsthatoveranineyeartime-period,theamountof

Testing Station

Parameter US EPA Standard

Station 1

TotalColiform 2400 Zero*

FecalColiform 2401 Zero*

Nutrients,mg/L

Nitrates <0.5 10

Nitrites 4 1

Ammonia 34

Phosphorus 12

TotalSuspended

Solids(TSS),mg/L 12.6

Station 2Station 2

TotalColiform 3500 Zero*

FecalColiform 2400 Zero*

Nutrients,mg/L

Nitrates <0.5 10

Nitrites <1 1

Ammonia <1

Phosphorus <1

TotalSuspended

Solids(TSS),mg/L 25.8

Source: District office Koh Lanta Noi

Table 4. Water quality monitoring

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solid waste generated per person has risen from0.42Kg/capital/day to 0.66Kg/capital/day, a 57%increase they attribute mostly to “an increase inpaperproductsandplastics”,(Thaman).

This change affects not only rates of productionbut accumulation of wastes on the island.Thus, historical practices of how trash has beendealt with on the island may vary considerablywith westernized notions of trash. Western, orwesternized tourists, may not understand someof the trash patterns on the island and will bedispleased by them while locals, without theexperienceofcontemporarysolidwaste,maynotbeasbotheredbytheexistenceoftrashseeminglystrewn throughout the island nor understand itslongtermenvironmentalimpacts.

For the tourism industry, which is so clearlydependent on visitor’s positive perceptions, thishas the potential to create serious impact ontourismratesonKohLantaYai.Existingsolidwasteproblems that contribute to tourists negativeperceptionsonKohLantaYaiare:

· Overflowing roadside garbage bins thatwaits for days-on-end to be collected,or unsightly loose trash that creates aneyesore and communicates to tourists alackofcare.

· Thecurrentpracticeofburninghouseholdwastes contributes to aesthetic problemsofburnpilesandaddstotheproblemofairpollutionontheisland.

· The accummulationof loose trash in theisland’swatercoursescontributestowaterpollutionandbeachlitter.Thetrashflowsout and then back in, collecting on thepristinebeaches,themselvesanimportantdraw to theuniquemarineecosystemofKohLantaYai.

· Improperdisposalofsolidwasteharmsthefloraandfaunaoftheisland;twooftheislandsmajortouristresources.

TypesofSolidWasteOn the island of Koh Lanta Yai there are threebasictypesofsolidwastes:compostablematerials(organic wastes); recyclables (typically containersthat can be re-used or their materials processedand re-used); and rubbish (things that must bedisposed of and may or may not degrade). Thebasic problems arise not only in the amount ofwastesproducedbutinthelackofdifferentiationinmanagingthesewastes.OnKohLantaYaithereis very little separation of these types of wastesbecause there is very little incentive to treat thewastes differently. Regardless of its composition,mostofthewasteonKohLantaYaiistreatedlikerubbishandthrownintothedump.

MorrisonandMunrohaveanalyzedthecompositionof domestic waste for Small Island developingStates in the Pacific, which we can assume maybe similar to what would be the composition ofwastesontheislandofKohLanta,(Table5).Ifthecomponents of solid waste were separated andtreatedaccordingtotheirpotential(i.e.recycling

Component Percentage by Weight (range)

Garden waste (organic) 14-44

Food waste (organic) 2-4

Plastic (recyclable, rubbish)

4-16

Paper (recyclable) 2-13

Glass (recyclable) 2-17

Metals (recyclable) 8-17

Bone (rubbish) <1

Rubber/leather (rubbish) 0-2

Bulk Density 100-350kg/m3

Generation Rate 0.19-0.52kg/cap/day

Table 5. Typical composition of domestic solid waste for Pacific SIDS, (Morrison and Munro 1997).

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andcomposting)thenvery littlewouldneedendup in thedump. There is no cohesive system forrecycling,composting,anddisposalofsolidwasteson Koh Lanta Yai so that they are disposed ofaccordingly.

In addition to these typical solid wastes, theconstruction of new developments creates aconsiderable amount of solid waste. Throughouttheisland,constructionleavesbehindgreatpilesofwaste,oftenpotentiallyrecyclableandre-useable.Nostandardsforthemanagementofconstructionsitedebriswereevidentlyinforce.

SolidWasteManagementThesolidwastecollectedbylocalgovernmentendsupinadump.(Seediscussionfollowing).Collectionismoreconsistentinhightouristseasonbutirregularduringthelowseasonwhichaddstotheunsightlyandenvironmentallyunfriendlyaccumulationsofwastethroughouttheisland.Thereisnosystemofsolidwastepre-separationontheisland.Recyclingonlyoccursasaresultofoftenvariablefor-profitventures.Theseventuresencouragetheunsanitarybusiness of “after-dumped separation,” whereindividualspick through thegarbage to separatevaluablestoselltothemiddlemanforprofit.Thus,bothrecyclableandcompostablewastesendupinthedumpwheretheytakeupspace,donotmeettheir re-usable and sustainable potential, andcontributetotheunsanitaryconditions.

The previous report disclosed that on average,people in Thailand produce .65Kg of waste perday.Incomparison,touristscanproducebetween3.23Kgand10.10Kgofwasteperday(5-15timesthe amount produced by local islanders). Thus,touristsproduceasignificantlyhigheramountofsolid waste than locals, with an estimate of 10-12 metric tons of solid waste produced daily onthe islandofKoh Lanta during thehigh tourismseason.Thiscreatesasituationontheislandwherethelocalislandershavetodealwiththenegativeexternality of the highly disproportional amountof waste produced by the tourism industry eachyear.

The extraordinary amount of waste produced bytourismisbiggestproblemofsolidwasteonKohLantaYai.Nolaws,incentives,orsystemrequirethetourismindustrytolimititsamountofsolidwaste.Inaddition,thetourismindustryisnotpayingfeesproportionaltotheamountofwastedisposed.Forexample,villagerspay20baht/monthforthetrashtheyproduce,whichweestimatetobeabout.9bahtperKiloofwaste.Incomparison,thePimaliResortpays7500baht/monthfortheamountoftrashtheyproduce.IfwemakealowestimationthatPimalihas100guests a day, for 30daysproducing themiddle-rangeestimateof6.67Kgofwasteaday,thatendsupbeingalowestimateof .6bahtperKilo.(Thisisinaresortwherethecheapestroomis13,500bahtperday.)Bygenerouscomparison,thetourismindustryispayinganestimated30%lessfor solid waste disposal than the local islanders.Considering the large burden solid waste createsfortheisland,touristdevelopmentscreatinghighamounts of waste should be paying significantlymorethanthelowproducers,especiallygiventhehighlydetrimentaleffect.

ExamplesofsustainablesolidwastemanagementobservedonKohLantaYaiarethedirectrecyclingofwaterbottlesforrefillingatthewatertreatmentplants, the use of waste as animal feed at theNarimaResort,recyclingofallpossiblematerialsatthe Narima Resort, and village-level composting.However, these practices need to be ubiquitousthroughouttheisland.

Koh Lanta Yai needs a consistent solid wastemanagementsystem,clearlydefinedresponsibilitiesand tasks, and reliable mechanisms for wasteseparationand collection.Recycling is absolutelyessential. Composting of organic waste holdssignificant potential as fertilizer for local andregional agricultural production and ornamentallandscapes.Betterguidelinesneedtobeprovidedtodealwithconstructionswastesanddebris.Theremust be greater education of locals and tourisminterests need to made aware of their role andabilitytohelpcombatthesolidwasteproblemonKohLantaYai.

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TheDumpTheexistingdumponKohLantaYaiisadisaster.The site is organized in an ad hoc way, with nosystemtopreventerosionandmovementofsolidwaste(Figure26).Inaddition,thelocationofthedumponasteepslopeexacerbatestheseproblems.Thedumpisbuiltveryneartwocreeksandatthetop of two watersheds—it undoubtedly pollutestheadjacentstreams,andthelandandpeopleofthelowerwatersheds.Theunmanageddumpandlackofcohesivewastemanagementsystemontheislandgives littlefaiththatmeasuresweretakento prevent dump leachate from infiltrating thegroundwater system. In addition, there are clearhealth risks for the individuals picking throughthe dump for recyclables. Given the lack ofseparation of rubbish from recyclables, reusable,andcompostablematerialsthedumpwillexpandrapidly under current levels of development.Increased development will undoubtedly lead toextensionofthedumpandmagnifyitsproblems.

In creating an environmentally-safer sanitarylandfill, (as opposed to a dump), certain factorsare important to consider. These factors include:siting criteria, proper design, operating controls,groundwater monitoring and corrective action.Theslopeandsoilcharacteristicsplayasignificantrole,asdoestheexistenceofnearbywaterbodiesandfloodplains.Becauselandfillsresultincreationof hazardous gases (methane) and leachate thatcould infiltrate into the aquifers and drinkingwatersources,propercaremustbetakentoprovideadequatelandfillliners.Duringlandfilloperation,accessmustbelimitedanddailysoilcoversmustbeappliedtopreventvectorssuchasrats,rodentsandbirdsfromtransportingwaste.

To make sure that Koh Lanta Yai is meeting itssanitarylandfillneeds,ananalysisoftheexistingdump must determine if it meets qualificationsandstandards.Givenlittledoubtthattheexistingdumpdoesnotmeetthesequalifications,asurveyoftheislandshoulddetermineaproperlocationforanewsanitarylandfillsiteandestimatethesolidwasteneedsoftheisland.Thentheislandshould

Figure 26. The Dump.

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investinaproperlydesignedlandfillinconjunctionwithdevelopinganewwastemanagementsystem.Onlybyinvestinginthebasicinfrastructureofthesanitarylandfillwilltheislandbeabletomaintainthe aesthetic qualities that draw tourists to theisland.

Economic, Social, Cultural and Political

Interviewsofmorethan60individualstakeholderson Koh Lanta Yai revealed the government-led tourism strategy has neither addressed thecomplexneedsofKohLantaYaicommunitiesnorstrengthenedtheminthefaceofrapidlyincreasinginternationaltourism.Localcommunitiesareopento tourismdevelopment, especially thebenefit itmaybringthem,butarefacingseriouschallengesin implementing the community-led sustainabletourism strategy that would bring them a justdistributionofbenefits.

ConceptualFramework:Communities’ResponsestoDevelopmentThe conceptual framework encapsulates findingsin the field. Communities responded differentlyto the rapid increase in tourism, as shown bytheorangelines inthediagram.Thosebetter-offeconomicallytobeginwith,suchasthehotelandresort owners, were better-equipped to ride thewave of tourism and benefit from developmentpolicies as envisioned by the central, provincial,

andlocalgovernmentasrepresentedby thegreen line. Incontrast, resortworkersandOTOPgroups, receivedasmaller portion of tourism revenues– some of which leave the islandaltogether(Figure27).

This socio-economic division coincideswith religious affiliation. Capitalowners are predominantly Thai-BuddhistwithaThai-Muslimminority,whileresortworkersandOTOPgroupmembers are Thai-Muslims. Two“outlier”communitiesweretherubberplanters and the Thai-Mai. Some

Thai-Muslimshadcapital invested inplantations,but many are owned by Thai-Buddhists who arenot local residents. Political power has favoredlandownersoverthelandless,especiallythehighlynomadic Thai-Mai community. The Thai-Maiproved least equipped to benefit from tourismdevelopment. Addressing these divergent localcapacitiescouldpreventmoreseriousinjusticesinthefuturebroughtaboutbyculturalexploitationanddependenceontourism.

AnalyticalFramework:GovernmentVisionvs.CommunityTrendsGovernment tourism plans envision tourismbenefits will increase proportionately with thedevelopment of resources for tourism. The greenline in the Figure 28 illustrates this trend. Fromthecommunities’perspective,thedevelopmentofresources has not brought about many benefits.Borrowingtheecologicaltermofcarryingcapacity,our listeningprocess sheds lightonthetopping-out of the islands’ socio-economic, cultural andpolitical carrying capacity for tourism. As shownby the orange curve, this carrying capacity istopping-outwellbelowthebenefitsenvisionedbythegovernment.

Further,thisgapcanbeunderstoodastheunequalaccess to power, profit leakages, and the lack ofcultural/social capital. The challenge is to closethisgapatthemomentwhenthegovernment is

Figure 27. Benefit from Resources.

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openinguptoamoreparticipatoryandsustainabletourismplanningprocess.Becauseofthisgap,theisland’scommunitiesarefacingseriouschallengesto implementing a community-led, sustainabletourismstrategy.

ElementsofthegapChallengesincollaborationandplanningAt every level of governance, organizations arefacing difficulties in collaborating to addressdevelopment issues on the island. This resultsin uncoordinated public services (such as wastemanagement and water provision) and in theallocation of resources on haphazard physicalratherthancommunity-buildinginfrastructure.

ResourceinsecurityNatural resources such as water and land areunequally distributed among local communitiesthat have unequal abilities to access these

resources. The influx of tourism and the vastdifferences in consumption patterns that resultexacerbatetheseinequalities.Largeresortscansetupwaterstoragetowers,fillupmultipleswimmingpools, and irrigate green lawns; while locals relyon a variety of water sources such as individualandvillagewells,andrainwaterfortheirrelativelymeager consumption. Outside investors attractedbyquickmonetarygainsofferseeminglylargesumsof money to villagers for their land, leaving thelatterinastateoflandlessnessanddisconnectionfrompoliticalpowers(Figure29).

DisconnectionfromformalpoliticalarenaDuring in-depth interviews, we systematicallyasked villagers to name the most influentialleaders in their respective villages. We foundcommunity leadership in mosques and withvillage elders were more closely linked tocommunities’needsthanwereformalgovernmentsuch as the village headmen and TAO officers.

EducationalgapsNo secondary education system on the islandexists. If the island’s young people want asecondary education they must leave home andstay on the mainland. This places an enormousfinacialburdenonlocalfamilies.Moreimportantly,itrequiresfamiliestosendyoungstersawayfromhomeandoutofparentalsupervisionatanearlyage,somethingthatformanyfamiliesisculturallychallenging, if not impossible. The lack of accesstosecondaryeducationfurtherdisables the local

Figure 28. Benefit from Tourism Resources.

Figure 29. Left, a Gleaming Row of Apartment Houses in Saladan Sits Across From This Row of Self-built Houses, pictured right.

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communityfromtakingadvantageofthebenefitsof tourism. Some of the larger resorts such asPimilai actually run schools for new employeesto learnthethebasicsofEnglishandthetouristbusiness. This of course, ties the employees to aparticular employer who reaps the majority ofbenefitsfromislandtourism.

CulturalResourcesAn analysis of Koh Lanta Yai tourism literaturereveals that descriptions of the local culturesdirected to tourists enthusiastically celebratethe island’s tri-cultural harmony. Through ourinteractionswithlocalresidentsofthesecultures,90%whichareMuslim,we found that theseareuniqueanddistinctcultures,withdifferentnorms,beliefs, and practices (Figure 30). Their socio-cultural, economic, and political interactions arecomplex and cannot be summarized by a simpleword like “harmony”. In turn, these interactionsmanifestasinequalitiesofaccesstoresourcesanddisconnectionfromthepoliticalarena.

The system of town andvillage on Koh Lanta Yaicarries with it, amongother effects, identity-building functions.They are organized as aconstellation of majority-Muslimvillagesringingtheisland, with a commercialcenter on each side of theisland. Key ecosystemsalso provide livelihoodresourcestolocalresidents.Mangroves and coral reefsprovide fresh seafood,while rubber plantationsprovide economic security.Accesstotheseresourcesiscontingent upon access tobeaches and fishing zonesout to the continentalshelf. Access to land for

rubber plantation is diminishing due to pressureonowners tosell their landtotourism investors.

Theinfluxoftourismisbringinglocalandforeigncultures closer to each other, causing occasionaltension (Figure 31). In the case of the Thai-Maicommunity,theirseafaringwayoflifehasbecomeaculturalattractionfortourismonKohLantaYai.Theirtraditionalboatfestivalhasbecomethemainitem in the annual Lanta-Lanta Festival, drawing3000tourists.This,despitethefactthemajorityoflocalresidentsarenotThai-Mai,butThai-Muslim.Foradescriptionof theFestival, seehttp://www.laantalanta.com/festival&even.php. Tourists arealso drawn to Thai-Mai villages to see the theircultureandwayoflife(Figure32).

The local cultural fabric is likely to undergorapid changes with increasing tourism. Tourismdevelopment will bring migrants from outsidethe island and diminish the importance of localresidence in socio-economic life. Tourism will

Figure 30. Cultural Resource Distribution

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continue to increase the speed of socio-culturaland economic changes, potentially creatingdivisionsalongreligious lines. Ifexistingpoliticalcapital continues tobe erodedanddisconnectedfrom power structures, less-abled communitiesinKohLantaYaifacegreatrisksofgetting“shortchanged”inunjustsituationsandwillbenefitevenlessfromthetourismindustry.

Lanta Ban Rao – Facing the Future

ThekeytoachievingasustainablefutureforKohLantaYaiistodedicateresourcesandtime,tobetterunderstandthechallengesfacingtheisland,andtobewilling to considernewalternatives to createa future that benefits the island’s residents andlandscape.Thus,atthispivotalmoment,therearesomeimmediateactionsthatneedtobetakento

Figure 32. Paved Roads Bring Tourists into the Heart of Sang Kha Ou, a Predominantly Thai-Mai Village.

Figure 31. A Society in Transition: Images of Three Women on Koh Lanta Noi.

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securethat,duringthefuturedevelopmentprocess,KohLantaYairemainsthetouristdestinationandhomethatmakesitsospecial.

ImmediateReccomendationsMoratoriumonbuildingnewbridgesBefore a bridge is considered as the last or onlyalternative, it is important to demand that theferry operator meets the conditions of theircontract, or the contract should be terminatedandrenegotiated.The island’saccessneedscouldbemetbyanadequate,modernized,andreliableferry service. This would include: a differentialferrytransitfeeforlocalsandtourists;afaster,up-to-dateferryvehicle;andahighspeedemergencyboatsystem.Beforemakingadecisionregardingthebridge(s),theconsequenceofbridgedevelopmentneeds to be studied, including the effects ofincreased environmental impacts on the island.Ifabridgeisbuilt,acomprehensivedevelopmentplan should be created which includes projectedchangesintourismnumbers,tourismdevelopmentandtourismquality.

Enforce existing laws to prevent destructionrainforestsandmangrovesExistingfederallawspreventingthedestructionoftherainforestsneedtobeenforced.TheThungYeePheng Eco Tourism Center (Mangrove EducationCenter) should be expanded to preserve uplandrainforestsaswellasmangroves.Inordertobettereducate tourists and locals about reasons andways to preserve the mangroves and rainforests,(thelocationsshowninFigure33),aneducational

brochureshouldbedevelopedanddistributed. Inaddition,aconservationfundshouldbecreatedinordertobuylandforpreservation.Fundingcouldbe secured by voluntary donations, conservationtaxes, redirected tsunami funds and foundationgrants.

Ensure tourism industry pays its fair share ofinfrastructurecostsontheisland.Introduce a new, tiered fee schedule to chargefor resourceconsumption,wasteproduction,andtransportation (Figure 34). Such a fee would bebased on the amount of resource consumed orwasteproduced.

Figure 33. Location Map of Existing National Forest and Forest Preservation Zone.

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Figure 35. Criteria for Locating Land Fill

Figure 34. Tiered Fee Schedule

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Buildasanitarylandfillontheislandanddevelopacomprehensiverecyclingprogram.A new landfill should be located in anenvironmentally-appropriate area and have adesign based upon international standards. Amanagement strategy should be created thatmeets the solid waste requirement of existingand proposed growth on the island (Figure 35).Touristand localeducation, throughmechanismssuchasbrochuresandclassesonrecycling,shouldbe integral to the new management strategy toencouragetheproductionoflesswaste.

Create a new forum; the Lanta Ban Rao toaccomplish these immediate goals, and guidefuturedevelopmentontheisland.Tobesuccessful,theLantaBanRaoshouldensureallinterestedgroupsontheislandarerepresentedwithmembership. Inaddition,theLantaBanRaoshouldhavethepowertofocusgovernmenteffortsand spendingon issues important to the island’ssustainablefuture(Figure36).

Implementation:LantaBanRaoForumToday,alackofinclusive,transparentgovernanceonKohLantaYaiisdirectlycontributingtoecological

and social resource exploitation anddegradation, which threatens KohLanta Yai’s long-term viability in theglobal tourism market. In order toreversethistrendandmovetowardthemodelofsustainabledevelopmentandresourcemanagementoutlinedinthisreport, all stakeholders in the island’sfuture must enter into a coordinatedand cooperative discussion thatfosters communication between oneanother. In particular, three mainvoicesmustcometogetherandassumeresponsibility for implementing asustainable vision of Koh Lanta Yai’sfuture: the voice of the people, thevoiceofthetourismindustry,andthevoiceoflocalgovernment.

Together, this tripartite Lanta BanRaoForumcoulddevelopandprotecttheunique identityofthe islandasacherishedandcared-forhome.Withinthecommunity,aLantaBanRaoCouncilcouldprovideacentralizedisland-widesetting for local residents to voicetheir ideas and concerns about theirhome. Within the tourism industry, aLantaYaiTourismIndustryAssociationcould provide both a similar voice tothe island’s tourism operators, andcoordinate island infrastructure andenvironmental protection measures.

Figure 36. Creating and Narrowing a Gap

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Finally, coordination between Lanta Yai’s twotambons(districts)andonetessaban(municipality)would streamline the planning and regulationrequiredforensuringtheenvironmental,social,andeconomichealthofKohLantaYaiinthefuture.The Lanta Ban Rao Council would be a self-sufficient community-led organization whichunitesandempowersthelocalpeopleonKohLantaYai.Membershipwouldincludelocalresidents,thefishing community, rubber plantation workers,and local shop owners – in short, local citizensinterested in providing a voice in shaping LantaYai’s future. Touristsmayparticipate inmeetingsand activities, but no government officials fromthetambonsortessabanwouldholdseats intheCouncil. The initial step in creating the Councilis to convene several island-wide communitymeetings,inwhichanyoneisinvitedtoparticipateand share their ideas and visions for Koh LantaYai.Regardlessoftheformat,consensusshouldbereached early-on regarding a mission statementandasetofgoalsfortheLantaBanRaoCouncil.Onceestablished,theCouncilcouldofferprogramsand activities to teach locals and visitors aboutthe unique environmental and cultural resourceson theLantaYai.Examplescouldbe:communitybeach-cleanup days, nature walks, classes aboutindigenous uses of plants, community-supportedagriculture markets, and community compostingprogramstonameafew.Fundingcouldcomefromgovernmental community development grants,tourism tax revenue, and from visitor and NGOdonations.

An association of all members of Koh LantaYai’s tourism industry would greatly facilitatethe implementation of the sustainable tourismrecommendations enumerated in this report.UndertheLantaYaiTourismIndustryAssociation(LYTIA), all commercial tourism establishments– hotels, resorts, bungalows, restaurants, shops,andtouroperators–shouldberequiredtoregisterwith the LYTIA. Membership could be mandatedby local or regional government policy, with thegoalofenforcingecologicallysoundwaste,water,

and resource management regulations. LYTIAcould be an invaluable source of much-neededcomprehensive baseline data about Koh LantaYai’stourismtrends.Theexpandedmembershipofexistingtourism industrygroupssuchastheKohLantaYaiBusinessCircle,couldincludeallresorts,bungalows, and other tourist establishmentson the island, forming the basis of the group.Eventually,theLYTIAcouldbelinkedwithalocalbranchoftheTourismAuthorityofThailand(TAT),toallocatefundingandresourcestotheLYTIAfordatacollectionandprocessing,andforeducationandincentiveprograms.

Better coordination between existing localgovernment entities is essential to theimplementation of sustainable development andresourcemanagementonKohLantaYai.Theislandneeds a formalmechanism for collaborationandcommunicationbetweenTambonSaladan,TambonKoh Lanta Yai, and the Tessaban Koh Lanta Yai.Coordinated planning among these three localgovernment entities will be critical to establishandenforceisland-widezoningplans,regulations,and policies. Local government authorities needtocoordinateplansforisland-wideissuessuchaswastedisposalandmanagement,waterqualityandsupply, recycling and composting, infrastructureprovisioning, and tourism revenues. Their plansshouldcomplementandfacilitateoneanother,notduplicateorconflictwithoneanother.

Finally,andmostcritically,formalandmandatorytwo-way channels of communication must beestablished between these three institutions: theLanta Ban Rao Council, the Lanta Yai TourismIndustryAssociation,andaunifiedlocalgovernment.As a mechanism to facilitate cooperation andcollaborative planning between these threegovernance structures on Lanta Yai, establishingthe LantaBan Rao Forumwill benefit the islandinthreeimportantways:policytransparency,andchecksandbalances;streamlinedplanningeffortsthroughcollaboration;andastrengthened islandidentity.Withallpartiesinconversation,consensus

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about the island’s future development patternscould lead to a shared vision of Koh Lanta Yaiwhich truly reflects theneedsanddesiresof theisland’sowncommunity.

GoalsofLantaBanRao

· Supportimplementationofimmediaterecommendations

·EstablishLantaBanRaoForum

·Sanitarylandfill

·Moratoriumonbridges

·Preserveexistingforests

·Tieredinfrastructurefees

·Implementprogramsforlongtermsustainabledevelopment

· Directdevelopment–zoning,constructionpractices, building standards, bestmanagement practices incentives, GreenLeaf certification, community-baseddevelopmentreviewboard

· Developacomprehensivewaterresourcesplan:surveyofexistingresources,planforlongtermwaterresourcesneedsincludingrecycling,tieredwaterconsumptionfees

· Educationsystem:newhighschool,localand tourist environmental education,environmentalfieldresearchstation

· Reform hotel and tourist tax system toprovide funds for land acquisition forenvironmental protection, restorationprojects,environmentalmonitoring,publictransportation

· Transportation: west coast island bikepath,bussystemwithdifferentialfees

· Market Koh Lanta Yai as an exemplarysustainabletourismdestination

DirectedDevelopmentandClusterTourismKohLantaYai’sabilitytoattracttouristsisheavilydependent on the health and quality of itsbeaches,watersupply,mountainousandforestedlandscapes,aswellasthevitalityofitscoralreef.It is critical to safeguard these resources fromimpacts brought by the tourism developmentprocess. Establishing controls and placing somerestrictionsondevelopment is theonly surewaytosafeguardtheisland’sresourcesforthefuture.Aplan towards thisgoal is to establisha clusterstrategythatdirectstourism-relateddevelopmenttocertaindesignatedplacesonKohLantaYai.Thiskind of development includes hotels, bungalowresorts,commercial servicesusedbytourists,andrelated infrastructure. The clusters are locatedaroundexistingtourismhubsandpromotedenserdevelopmentwithintheirboundaries.Villageareasare to be maintained and protected for use bylocalpeopletothegreatestextentpossible.Eco-restoration and protection zones are designatedin the areas between clusters and villages withpriority to coastal, riparian, and rainforest areas.Thewestcoastclustersareconnectedbyanislandbikepaththatfunctionstorelievetrafficalongthemain roadways and is itself a significant touristattraction.

DescriptionsofProposedTourismClustersThe clusters strive to address the current andforeseentourismdemandonKohLantaYai.Clusterseachhaveattributesandcharacteristicsthatservetofacilitateacertainvarietyoftourismtrafficthatiscompatiblewiththeisland’sculture.

AdvantagesofcreatingclustersThis type of infill strategy has a number ofadvantages. First, clusters create a physicalboundarytoseparatezonesofurbandevelopment

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and non-urban landscapes, resulting in animprovedviewshedovertimeastheforestedandvegetated areas are allowed to fill in or remainbetweendevelopmentareas.Second,asapracticalissue,theclusterstrategywillmakeinfrastructureandservicesdeliverymoreefficient.Forexample,ifhotelsandresortsbegintolocateclosertogetheranddesigntheirgroundstofeaturesharedaccessand circulation areas, solid waste collectionwill be less costly and time consuming. Publictransportation needs may also be more easilyaddressed. Later, as theconcentrationof tourisminto clusters becomes apparent, there will be ajustificationtoextendcentralizedservicessuchassewerandwater.Extensionofcentralizedservicesovertimelessensacquisitioncostsandtheburdenon local users. Likewise, it raises the standard ofaccommodationandlevelofamenitiestheislandcan offer tourists, making it more competitiveboth domestically and internationally. Third, thisstrategy will facilitate locally-driven economicdevelopmentastheconcentrationoftourismwithinthe boundaries of the cluster begins to create ademandforgoods,services,restaurants,souvenirs,and excursions. Fourth, the cluster strategy alsoprovidesanopportunitytoconsolidatemarketingefforts and to attract environmentally conscioustourists.Thesekindsoftouristscanhaveagreaterpotentialforlongerstaysandhigherspendingthanotherkindsof tourists. Fifth, thecluster strategywouldwork symbioticallywithawest coastbikepath.Thebikepathwouldbeaconsiderabletouristattraction, provide a means of tourists movingfrom one cluster to the other without vehiculartraffic on the main west coast road, generateadditional revenue by tourist business such asbicyclerentals,andserve localsaswell.Last,andmost importantly, thecluster strategyestablishesan island-wide priority to prevent furtherdecimation itswatersheds, coastlines, rain forest,reefandmangroveareas(Figures37and38).Overtime, with more highly controlled development,theseareasstandtoseemeasurableimprovementsin their impacts on the local environment andtourismrevenuegeneration.

FamilyandentertainmentclusterLocatedimmediatelysouthofSaladanVillage,thefamily and entertainment tourism cluster is thelargestoftheKohLantaYaiclusters.Thisclusterissituatedamongexistinghotels,resorts,commercialservicesthathavealwaysplayedacentralroleintheisland’stourismeconomy.Thisareawillbenotedforitsfamily-friendlyatmosphere,beachcommunity,and easeof access from theKrabimainland andto excursion providers. The justification for thefamily and entertainment cluster is that it takesadvantageofproximity to thepier,beaches, andexistinghotelsandresorts.

Muslim-orientedtourismclusterLocated south of the family and entertainmentcluster adjacent to an Islamic community, theMuslim-oriented tourism cluster aims to targetMuslim tourists. This cluster will abstain fromserving alcohol in its tourism establishments.ConservativedressguidelinesmakebeachesaplacewhereMuslimtouristscanvisitwithoutconcern.Theservicesoftheadjacentcommunity’smosquewillbeavailablefortouristsasneeded(oranotherone constructed solely for Muslim tourists) andthere should be halal food-serving restaurantsandvendorswidelyavailable.Overall,thistourismcluster is notable for its quiet, family-orientedatmosphere. ThegrowthofMuslim tourists fromplacessuchasIndonesiaandMalaysiahascreateddemandfordestinationsforthesekindsoftravelersthat can satisfy specific dietary, religious, andculturalneeds.

Upscaletourism/centralizedcommercialclusterLocated at the junction of the cross-island road,the centralized commercial cluster aims toprovideavarietyofupscaleservicesandshoppingopportunitiesforvisitorsstayingonthesouthernhalf of the island. A diversification of productsandservices(healthtourism,spatreatments,yogacenters, etc.) paired with its location near someof theKohLantaYai’smostexclusive resortswillencouragetouriststoexplorebeyondthereachesoftheirhotelgrounds.Thecreationofthisclusterwill

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Figure 37. Location of Tourism Clusters Relative to Ecological Preservation & Restoration Areas.

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actasanemploymentcenterforpeoplelivingonKohLantaYai.Theplacementofanewcommercialhub on the island may also help reduce vehicletraffic along the west coast to Saladan Village.Improvingthestreetscapeandestablishingasetofdesign guidelines for tourism-serving enterpriseswillhelpreinforcetheidentityofthiscluster.

BeachBackpackerClusterToday, young adult tourists visiting Koh LantaYai are spatially dispersed across the island duetothe lackofacentralized locationwithbudgetaccommodationsandservicestheygenerallyseek.The result of this dynamic is inexpensive resorts,excursion services and drinking establishmentslocate themselves in an unplanned manner. Thisunorganized placement presents a conflict forthe conservative Muslim communities nearbyandfamilytourists.Theestablishmentofabeachbackpackerclusterrespondstotheneedtoprovide

budget-minded accommodations and basicamenitiesforyoungadulttravelersinacentralizedlocation.Thisclusterwillbeaplacewhereyoungtravelers can meet and interface with people ofsimilar age and status in restaurants, bars andexcursionpoints.Coreactivitieswillbeshopping,themarket,informaldining,sightseeingandbeachactivities. Itmaybe important for this cluster toprovide adequate signage and enforcement ofpolicies that will promote the cleanliness of thestreetsandbeachareas.

PimalaiResortComplexActionsshouldbetakentopreventfurthersprawlofthePimalaiResortonthesoutherncoastofKohLantaYai.Begunas abeachside luxury resort, inrecent years Pimalai has aggressively expandedandnowhasanunmistakableandgarishpresenceontheslopesabovethebeach.Thestyleandscaleofthecomplexdrasticallyconflictswiththelocalarchitecturalvernacular.Environmentalimpactsofthistypeofresortdevelopmentincludeerosionandsediment displacement, overuse of ground watersupplies, clear cutting and habitat destruction.Publicbeachaccess ishinderedforothertouristsvisitingKohLantaYai.ThepurposeofestablishingaclusterlocationatPimalaiistoenabletheislandtoenactrestrictionsandguidelineswhichrequiretheresort(andotherslikeit)toadoptsustainableoperating and management practices. The goalis not only to limit the growth of this type ofresort, but to institute a standard for how theyuseresources,operatetheirfacility,anddisposeoftheirwastes.TheguidelineswillalsoplaceapriorityonredesigningandimprovingthevisibilityofthepublicbeachaccessnearthePimalaicomplex.

AdventureEcotourismClusterAdventure and activity-seeking tourists will bewell-served with the establishment of a clustershowcasingKohLantaYai’s ecotourismofferings.LocatedneartheentrancetotheNationalPark,theclusterwillhaveremarkableaccesstoawidevarietyofactivities:birdandanimalwatching,beachgoing,hiking, snorkeling, diving, elephant trekking andboating.Theclusterisaimedatattractingsocially-

Figure 38. Watershed Health Classification Map with Cluster Proposal

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conscioustouriststhatappreciatetheseclusionthelocation offers and the proximity to the island’smosttreasurednaturallandscapes.Existinghillsideresortsprovidesimple,rusticaccommodationsfortravelers with a variety of services for comfortand convenience. Immediate beach access is notavailableatthislocation,butqualitybeachesandboat launches near the Pimalai Resort Complexclusterareonlyafewkilometersaway.CulturalTourismClusterTheOldTowncenteronthesoutheastcoastofKohLantaYaiYaiisthelocationofthefinalproposedcluster which will be starting point for variousculturaltourismactivities.Thepicturesquesettingof the Old Lanta Town provides the backdropforwhere touristsassemble tomeetprovidersofcultural excursion activities. Here, visitors begintolearnthehistoryoftheislandfromcommunityrepresentativesandfieldguides.Theclusterwillbeatransithubforpeopleinterestedintravelingintothefieldtoseetheisland’smangroverestorationarea, seagypsyvillages, and itsoperating rubberplantations. At this location and in adjacentsettlements,thereistheoptionofofferinghomestays for tourists looking for a deeper culturalexperienceonKohLantaYai.OldLantaTowncanbenefitfromtourismthroughcoordinatedeffortsofmerchantsandtourproviderstoimproveproductsand services tourists generally seek (pharmacy,banking, souvenirs, dining) and to improve theon-the-streetexperienceforvisitors.Touristsalsobenefitfromthemeaningfulexchangestheyhaveparticipating in the variety of locally-providedtouringactivities.

PraAeBeachandtheMuslim-OrientedTourismCluster:AnExampleofClusterDevelopmentTheexampleofPraAeBeach,theMuslimorientedtourismcluster,suggestanumberoffeaturesandimprovements thatmightbe found inKohLantaYai’s cluster locations. First, the most criticalfeatureoftheclusteristhepresenceofcentralizedinfrastructure that provides efficient access tosafe, clean water and a centralized wastewaterandsewagetreatment.Thechallengeofefficiently

collecting recyclable materials on the island isaided by providing adequate waste recyclingcollectionstations–suchasbinsforbeerbottles– thatare regularly servicedandemptiedby theTAO or municipal authority, keeping the clustercleanandmaintained.Thelush,forestedcoastlineand buffers around urban streams and riparianareasprotect,andareintegralto,thevisualqualityof the development. These urban buffer zonesareregulatedbydevelopmentsetbacksforhotelsand resorts that would otherwise infiltrate thedesirablecoastalareas.Pedestriansandlocalshaveopen access to the coast with the improvementof an access corridor that extends directly fromthe center of the cluster to the beach, throughresort property if needed, to provide the publicunhinderedaccesstocoastalopenspace.Featuresoftheclusterthatmakeitmorelivableforlocalsincludeacommunitymedicalclinic,acommunitycenter,schoolsandmosquelocatednearresidentialareas,sidewalks,streettreesandnewmainstreetdevelopmentservingbothtouristsandlocals.Otherfeaturesthatmakeitattractivetotouristsincludeapedestrianpromenadetothebeach,sidewalksandcrosswalksthatimprovesafety,acoastalbikepath,anaturetrailnetwork,andapublictransportationnetwork.

Criteria for Future Development – The NarimaExampleAspreviouslydiscussed, theNarimaResortoffersa case study for ecologically-conscious resortdevelopmentonKohLantaYai.Theresortownersadhere and promote what they call their “eco-philosophy”, which serves to minimize a rangeof impacts the resort has on the surroundingenvironment.Itisamodelthatotherexistingandfutureresortdeveloperscanlooktoforideasaboutsustainablebuilding,operating,andmanagementpractices. Located on the southwestern coast,Narima’s 30-odd bungalows are well hiddenwithintheforestcanopythathasbeenallowedtoremainandgrowaroundit.Theirstrategiesincludeutilizationoftechnologiesandpracticesthatsavewaterandenergy,andminimizationof solidandsanitarywasteproduction. The forestedcoastline

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isamainfeatureofitsnaturalisticdesignconcept(Figure39).Theresort isdesignedaroundnaturalfeatures such as trees, slope, and beach rocksminimizing disruptive grading and consequenterosion. Preservation of the overhead canopyshades the bungalow structures minimizing heatgain. All waste from the resort is separated andrecycled — the owners educate their employeesin recycling practices. The bungalow units saveenergyinavarietyofways.Individualunitsdonothave televisions. Regionally derived constructionmaterialsandformshelpkeeptheroomsventilatedanddrywithoutairconditioning.Thebathroomisisolated from the bedroom, open to the outside,andcannotbeair-conditioned.Thewaterfortheresortisdrawnfromsurfacewaterupstream—nodepletion of the aquifer takes place. Sewage istreated on site (even though regulations do notrequire it) and then the treated water irrigates

the grounds, returning the clean water to thewatershed’shydrologiccycle,minimizingwatershedloss.

Next steps

The roadmap for implementation of the clusterstrategy is contingent on gaining buy-in fromseveral critical groups on the island. The processwillrequirestakeholderstobeflexibleandwillingto take on new roles and responsibilities. Thestakeholdergroupsidentifiedinpreviousportionsof this report should find an acceptable way tocollaboratetogetherabouthowtheclusterstrategymightbebestimplemented.

Tostart theprocess,wesuggest thatstakeholdergroupsonKohLantaYaicollectivelydecideontwocluster options to test as pilot programs over a

Figure 39. Illustration of Narima development

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periodofthreetofiveyears.Responsibilityforalltasksneededtocarryouttheclusterconceptshallbe assigned to stakeholder groups. The potentialfortheLantaBanRaoforumtoplayacriticalroleinthisprocessisclear.

A balance between the interests of the localgoverning authority and the needs of thecommunity to manage tourism on the islandmust be met. The community groups’ ability tocoordinate and follow a clear implementationplancandemonstratetothegoverningauthoritythat localpeoplearecapableandwilling toplaymoreactiverolesindeterminingthefutureoftheirisland. Government willingness to enforce newguidelinesandrestrictions,torequestandallocatefunds for centralized services, and to cede someauthorityandresponsibilitytolocalgroups,willallbenecessary.

The inability of the governing authority tocomprehensively address the multitude of direproblemson the island also suggests that a newdynamic is necessary between Bangkok and theProvincial and Local governing authorities toenablemorelocalcontrolofdevelopmentdecisions,funds,andprojectsontheisland.ThesituationonKohLantaYaiisunlikelytoexistwithinavacuum.Other places in Thailand where tourism plays amajorroleinshapingthelocallivelihoodstandtobenefit from learning about alternatives to top-downdevelopment that is the standardpractice.Givenitspoliticalandsocialhistory,Thailandisnottheeasiestplacetosuggestaplansuchaswehaveoutlined.However,themissionofourUniversitiesthat emphasize research, teaching, and publicservice compels us to provide this unhinderedopinion regarding the future of tourism on KohLantaYai.

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Strategic Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Krabi Province.2005.ChulalongkornUniversity,Bangkok,Thailand,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,andtheThaiPublicPolicyFoundation.

www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml. United Nations Educational, ScientificandCulturalOrganization.WorldWaterAssessmentProgramme. Meeting Basic Needs. (accessed10/2006)

Gleick,PeterH.1996.BasicWaterRequirements forHumanActivities: MeetingBasicNeeds. Water International.21:83-92.

www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html#listmcl. United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.List of Drinking Water Standards and their MCL’s.(accessed10/2006)

www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/thailand.asp. United Nations Office of the Special Envoy forTsunami Recovery, collected from various UN and Thailand government agencies, accessed onDecember4,2006

Morrison,R.J.andMunro,A.(eds.).1997.WasteManagementinSmallIslandDevelopingStatesintheSouth Pacific: Report of a Regional Workshop. Canberra, ACT, Australia 12-16 May 1997. Vol. 1: Proceedings of the Workshop.

Sudara,S.,T.Yeemin,S.Satumanatpun,S.Nateekanjanalarp,andC.Sookchanulak.1992.Qualitativeassessment of impacts from siltation on the coral reef communities around Koh Saket, RayondProvince.InL.M. Chou and C.R.Wilkinson (ed) Third ASEAN Science and Technology Week ConferenceProceedings Vol. 6, Marine Science: Living Coastal Resources.95-111.

Thaman,R.R.,etal.Wasted Islands? Waste And The Need For Integrated Waste Management In The Pacific Islands - Current Status And Prospects For Reduction And Safe Disposalhttp://www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/20031105164530_WASTED_ISLANDS_-_Draft_Thaman_et_al._for_CD_28.10.03.doc9.12.06