a change in focus: teaching diverse learners within an inclusive elementary school classroom

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This article was downloaded by: [SUNY State Univ of New York Geneseo] On: 17 October 2014, At: 07:36 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Equity & Excellence in Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ueee20 A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within an Inclusive Elementary School Classroom Mary C. McMackin & Elaine M. Bukowiecki Published online: 09 Jul 2006. To cite this article: Mary C. McMackin & Elaine M. Bukowiecki (1997) A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within an Inclusive Elementary School Classroom, Equity & Excellence in Education, 30:1, 32-39, DOI: 10.1080/1066568970300105 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1066568970300105 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Page 1: A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within an Inclusive Elementary School Classroom

This article was downloaded by: [SUNY State Univ of New York Geneseo]On: 17 October 2014, At: 07:36Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Equity & Excellence in EducationPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ueee20

A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Withinan Inclusive Elementary School ClassroomMary C. McMackin & Elaine M. BukowieckiPublished online: 09 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Mary C. McMackin & Elaine M. Bukowiecki (1997) A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within anInclusive Elementary School Classroom, Equity & Excellence in Education, 30:1, 32-39, DOI: 10.1080/1066568970300105

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1066568970300105

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon andshould be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable forany losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within an Inclusive Elementary School Classroom

A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within anInclusive Elementary School Classroom

MARYC. McMACKIN and ELAINE M. BUKOWIECKI

Elementary school teachers today are confrontedwith the challenge of educating an increasinglydiverse population of children within their class-

rooms. A report from the National Center for EducationStatistics (1993) stated that African Americans, Latinos,Amerindians, and Asians made up more than 30 percentof the total public school enrollment in the nation. Fur-thermore, 33 of the largest school districts had an enroll-ment of over 50 percent ethnic- and language-minoritystudents. Additionally, many school districts are nowimplementing full or partial inclusion models in whichstudents with various disabilities (physical, visual, emo-tional, cognitive, speech/language, and learning) are be-ing included in general education settings. According tothe National Center for Education Statistics (1993), atleast 11 percent of school age children, or approximately4.9 million students, are classified as disabled.

The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabili-ties (1993) reported that "more than 90 percent of stu-dents with learning disabilities are [currently] taught inregular education classrooms for some part of theirschool day" (p. 330). Thus, classroom teachers are nowworking with students with special needs who wouldhave previously received instruction in a resource roomor in an alternative setting. This placement of more andmore students with diverse needs into general educa-tion classroom settings has raised questions for adminis-trators and teachers as to the optimal instructionalmethods and materials to use with these students. TheJoint Committee on Teacher Planning for Students withDisabilities (1995) recently stated that, "While teachersreport having a great deal of confidence in their plan-ning for general education students, they note that theydo not have the necessary competencies to plan for andteach students with disabilities" (p. 42).

As instructors in a multi-sectioned, graduate levellanguage arts course at Lesley College School of Educa-tion, Cambridge, Massachusetts, we became increas-ingly aware of the diverse student needs that elementaryschool classroom teachers are confronted with today.The K-12 practitioners we worked with taught children

who were homeless, children of alcoholics and sub-stance abusers,- children from foster homes, childrenwith a wide range of physical, emotional, and socialconcerns, and children who spoke little or no English.For example, in one upper elementary class of 22 stu-dents, there were seven students with Individual Educa-tion Plans (IEPs), including one who found it difficultbecause of physical limitations to interact socially andwho often perseverated. Another student, a non-reader,had yet to master basic letter/sound relationships, whileother students were reading two or three years abovegrade level. Over 30 different languages were spoken inthis school. In this particular classroom, Icelandic, Viet-namese, and Hindu languages were spoken alongsidemore frequently heard Portuguese, Spanish, HaitianCreole, and English. This teacher's greatest challengewas meeting the needs of two new students who spokeno English and for whom no bilingual program wasavailable.

The following exchange illustrates this point. Whileinterviewing the principal of the Harry L. Johnson Ele-mentary School, Salisbury and colleagues. (1994) askedabout student enrollment. The principal replied that therewere 650 students in grades K through 4. When askedhow many children with special needs were serviced inthis same school, the principal replied, "650" (p. 311). Thisprincipal further explained that some of the students werehomeless, some witnessed violence in the home, and oth-ers spent many of their waking hours with babysitterswhile parents worked the late shifts. With all this informa-tion in mind, we knew that we had to redesign and reviseour literacy course in order to better prepare our studentsfor the many challenges they will face as new teachers orare currently facing as in-service professionals.

We initiated this course revision as a result of overtwo years of informal data collection, based on our ownobservations in various elementary school classrooms;conversations with teachers and administrators workingin school systems throughout Massachusetts; commentsfrom our students, both stated in class discussions andwritten on course evaluations; and interactions with col-

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leagues who teach special education courses at LesleyCollege. From these sources, the point was clearly madethat teachers today need to be thoroughly prepared toteach the diverse learners found in current elementaryschool classrooms. Although we hesitate to over gener-alize about the preparedness of educators to effectivelyplan for and teach students with diverse needs, it ap-pears from our observations that there is a growing de-sire by many teachers and administrators to find ways tomodify curriculum, instruction, and assessment to meetthese and other challenges.

In this article, we define diversity to include studentswith special needs, second language learners, and learn-ers who come from cultures outside the dominant cul-ture of the schools. We will discuss the changes we madein our graduate level literacy course in order to prepareall teachers, novice and veteran, for the wider diversityof learners found in today's elementary school class-rooms. We will share impressions of inclusive classesfrom the perspective of general education and specialeducation teachers. Finally, we will recommend specificclassroom modifications which may hold promise forimproving instructional practices. It has been our intentto explore avenues that will increase our own awarenessof issues surrounding equity for all learners in today'sheterogeneous classrooms and to raise the awareness ofour students who will be meeting the challenges andrewards of working directly with children of diverselearning styles and needs.

OUR CHANGING FOCUS

To help prepare preservice and inservice teachers forthe demands of diverse elementary school classrooms,we made the following changes to course EEDUC 5121,Literacy: The Integration of the Language Arts. First, werefocused our course objectives to include class lectures,activities, and course projects which would increase ourstudents' awareness of the diversity found in today'sheterogeneous classrooms. Second, we expanded ourown knowledge-base through literature on second lan-guage learners, strategies for teaching students withlearning and behavior difficulties, and curriculum con-siderations for the range of needs (learning, behavioral,physical, cultural, and linguistic) found in today's gen-eral education elementary classrooms. We incorporatedthis new information into our class lectures and in-cluded these text titles in our course syllabi. Third, weinstructed our students to read several additional arti-cles and texts that provide information about includingstudents with special needs in whole language and lit-erature-based learning environments (see Appendix).Fourth, in our class lectures we directly discussed andpresented various modifications for teaching diversestudents. In turn, our students included modifications

for student diversity in the various lesson plans theywrote throughout the course; and for the final courseproject they created a literature-based learning se-quence.

Finally, we added three elementary school classroomobservations to our course assignments. Each graduatestudent visited an inclusive elementary school classroomand interviewed both the general education and the spe-cial education teachers regarding the work each was do-ing. Then, each graduate student visited anotherelementary school classroom to observe a language artslesson and to focus on a child about whom the classroomteacher had a concern. Following these observations andinterviews, each graduate student presented a case studyof the observed pupil to our literacy class. Finally, eachgraduate student was asked to visit an urban or subur-ban school to evaluate how cultural pluralism was beingfostered (or in some cases, could have been fostered).

From these school visits, the 50 graduate studentswho participated in the first semester of this revisedcourse gained valuable information concerning the di-versity of learners found in general education class-rooms. In turn, our graduate students informed us abouttheir various impressions of the 50 inclusive elementaryschool classrooms they visited in Eastern Massachusetts.Through the interviews that our graduate students con-ducted with these teams of inclusion teachers, we wereable to appreciate the myriad models that exist underthe rubric of inclusion, discern some of the needs andconcerns of general education classroom teachers whowork in inclusive classes, and better understand our roleas college faculty in preparing our students to be effec-tive teachers.

These strategies for increased understanding all callout for further research and deeper knowledge. Thisarticle only presents a narrative of a change process—forus and for our students—in which we sought to addressimmediate realities and needs for effective literacy in-struction in inclusive elementary classrooms.

FIELD-BASED IMPRESSIONS OFINCLUSION

The results of our students' field-based observationsappear to indicate that inclusion models often span awide spectrum. For example, one graduate student vis-ited a classroom where "inclusion" was defined as twoteachers co-teaching throughout the entire day. Eachteacher worked with all children, but the special educa-tion teacher monitored the lower-achieving studentsmore closely. The teachers planned together every dayfor forty-five minutes and had a four-hour planningblock each week. They jointly accepted responsibility forproviding instructional and assessment practices thatfocused on dignity and equity for all learners.

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At the other extreme was a classroom where "inclu-sion" referred to a pull out program within the regularclassroom. The special education teacher worked spe-cifically with the lower-achieving students at a table atthe back of the classroom while the classroom teacherworked with the other students. The teachers spentabout one hour each week planning lessons together.

In many cases, classroom teachers reported that, al-though there may be several students in their classeswho have IEPs, the special needs teacher is able to pro-vide support for only a few minutes each day. For exam-ple: "The SPED teacher generally spends her dayvisiting various grades and classrooms for one hour at atime." "Currently there is one aide in the classroom fortwo periods of the day and only one full time specialistfor the 250 sixth grade students." In these and similarclassrooms, the responsibility to modify the curricula forstudents is left to the general education classroomteacher for the majority of each day.

Unfortunately, there is often very little interaction be-tween the general education classroom teacher and thespedal needs teacher. One reason for this may be a lackof common planning time. Another reason for this lackof interaction may be the classroom role that eachteacher assumes. The roles of the teachers in the teammay not be clearly defined, or there may be conflictsregarding these roles. In many instances, the specialneeds teacher in the inclusive model works solely withstudents who have IEPs, and thus is relegated to a rolesimilar to an assistant teacher for the general educationclassroom teacher. For example, our students reportedthat:

• "The classroom teacher instructed the class, while theSPED teacher quietly instructed the SPED students. If theteachers had discussed the lesson, the SPED teacher couldhave modified the lesson by pre-cutting some of theshapes."

• "T. C. [the special needs teacher] works in one corner ofthe room with her group, while Mrs. C. [the classroomteacher] works with the other children."

Unfortunately, regardless of the reasons for these situ-ations (lack of personnel, budget constraints, inadequatestaff development, etc.), it seems that issues of equalaccess to educational opportunities for children con-tinue to plague our educational system.

ADAPTING A LANGUAGE ARTSCURRICULUM

Our students reported that, while many general edu-cation teachers are very interested in meeting the di-verse needs of students, they are unsure of how to makeappropriate modifications. Gaps sometimes exist be-tween the social, educational, and cultural experiences

of teachers and those of their students. We continue tomeet with teachers in both urban and suburban schoolswho are anxious about working with students from di-verse backgrounds. Many are not sure how to bridgethese gaps. It appears that without planning time, gen-eral education teachers are often left on their own todesign and implement modifications to meet the needsof all learners. As part of our course assignments, weasked students to list modifications that they observedduring their field visits to the schools.

For some starting points and models, we providedour students with modifications suggested by Choate(1993); Lombana (1992); McShane & Jones (1990); Tomp-kins & Hoskisson (1995); and Salisbury, et al. (1994). Thelist in Figure 1 represents a compilation of modificationsprovided by our students and derived from the litera-ture cited above. Although these suggestions may en-hance the specific learning needs of individual studentswithin a class, they also represent effective teachingpractices from which all students in a single classroomcould benefit.

Adapting curriculum and instruction to meet theneeds of all students is a formidable task. Yet, many ofthe activities that are commonly found in elementaryschool classrooms can easily be modified to meet awider range of abilities, learning styles, and specialneeds. Figure 1 lists some general classroom modifica-tions that can be used to shape the curriculum to bettermeet the needs of students with various learning differ-ences. We realize this is a broad list which may need tobe modified further to meet specific students' specialneeds. To illustrate this point, we will describe specificmodifications for the practice of story retelling, which isoften used in elementary classrooms to recall and under-stand specific story elements (setting, characters, prob-lem, events, and resolution). As an oral or writtenexercise to focus awareness on the structure of narrative,story retelling can be a very effective strategy to enhancecomprehension. Story retelling strategies can providestudents with a framework for recognizing key points ofnarrative texts. These strategies combine well with storymaps to provide the students with a visual guide tounderstanding and retelling stories.

Suppose, however, that you have a particular fifthgrade student whose learning differences are impedingher literal and inferential comprehension success. Thislearning difference may be a result of a difficulty withlanguage processing, limited vocabulary knowledge, orgaps in skill application. For this child, additional modi-fications to oral or written story retellings may be appro-priate. For example, Idol (cited in Bos & Vaughn, 1994)described a Model-Lead-Text Approach when teachingstory mapping to intermediate grade students withlearning disabilities. In the model phase, the instructorreads the text aloud, stops at specific points where vari-

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Figure 1General Education Classroom Modifications

Modifications: The Context for Learning

— Be alert for signs of fatigue.

— Create a non-dlstractlng learning environment (e.g., limit the amount of visual displays around the room).

— Allow preferential seating.

— Provide clear transitions.

— Post dally agenda on board.

— Offer clear explanation of what Is changing and what will stay the same.

— Use cooperative learning groups, paired reading, and small groups.

— Model effective collaboration (e.g., reader and recorder).

— Make available special stands, clip boards, line tracker devices.

— Send home duplicate set of books to eliminate carrying between home/school.

— Keep the activity the same for all students but substitute more appropriate objectives and materials forstudents with special needs.

— Provide additional time for student to process language.

Modifications: Instructional Strategies/Instructional Materials

— Establish clear goals.

— Limit the number of steps In process.

— Allow students to respond orally to questions.

— Have less accomplished student begin the process and more accomplished student take over when less

accomplished needs help (saying a,b,c,'s, etc.).

— Plan a variety of multlsensory lessons/actMtles to teach/reinforce the same concept.

— Allow the child to dictate Ideas.

— Model clear, uncomplicated directions, procedures, and processes.

— Continuously review new Information, using visual props when possible.

— Provide clear, uncluttered copies of worksheets and materials.

— Modify amount of In-class and homework assignments.

— Encourage the use of the computer with large keyboards to record Ideas and to check spelling and

grammar.

— Provide tape recordings of literature and content area texts.

— Use overhead projectors to enlarge images that may be too small on a chalkboard.

— Allow opportunities to participate In role-playing, drama, slng-alongs, games, formal and Informal discussion

groups.

— Engage students In story retelling as a technique to foster comprehension.

— Provide specific, positive. Immediate feedback on process and product.

— Directly teach purposes and uses of strategies for each task.

— Arrange for one-to-one assistance with motor tasks such as cutting, pasting, and coloring.

— Create open-ended lessons to encourage children to work at their own levels.

— Use pictures to teach new words and concepts.

— Focus on student's IndMdual strengths.

— Plan lessons that Involve Gardner's 7 Intelligences: Linguistic, Logical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal Mnesthetlc,

Musical, Spatial.

— Provide Individual replicas of charts, maps, etc.

— Use tape recorder for students to respond.

— Stand behind the student with special needs when giving directions so that you can point to the student'swork while explaining the assignment to the other students.

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Figure 1 (Continued)

Modifications: Organizational and Study Skills

— Adapt length of work and time on task.

— Limit choices.

— Prepare discussion questions and give them to students ahead of time.

— Have texts available on tape or video.

— Use paired reading and writing.

— Increase the use of graphic organizers or semantic maps.

— Hang visual aids on the walls.

— Use colored highlighters to emphasize Important Information.

— Give more time to complete assignments.

— Provide envelopes to organize information and papers (may attach to side of desk for younger students).

— Have students stop at designated checkpoints for peer or teacher feedback.

— Tape checklist of student's behavioral or organizational goals to student's desk.

— Have papers with headings and margins prepared ahead of time.

— Introduce students to reading guides, marginal glossing, word banks.

— Use contracts.

ous story grammar elements are presented, and demon-strates to the students how to write this informationonto a story map. The students in turn write this infor-mation on their own maps. During the lead phase, thestudents read the story independently and completetheir own maps, with teacher prompting where neces-sary. Finally, during the text phase, the students read astory, generate a story map and then answer teacher-di-rected questions such as: "Who were the characters?Where did the story take place? What was the maincharacter trying to accomplish?" (p. 189). This teacher-directed story mapping procedure, as described by Idol,should help guide a learning disabled student to recallspecific elements of a story and thus aid that student incomprehending the text.

A second example of how story retelling may bemodified is illustrated through the work of Bos (cited inBos & Vaughn, 1994), who developed a specific storyretelling strategy to recall specific elements of a story.Bos' procedure fits in well with Idol's guided story map-ping technique. To begin Bos' retelling strategy, theteacher motivates the students by demonstrating forthem how this strategy will help them remember whatthey have just read. Second, the instructor explains thecomponents of any story and describes how to employthe "SPOT the Story" technique (p. 190):

Setting—Who, What, Where, WhenProblem—What is the problem to be solved?Order—What happened to solve the problem?

(correct/logical order)Tail End—What happened in the end?

Third, the teacher models the procedure by orally read-ing the story, labeling each component as the story isread, and retelling the story with the "SPOT the Story"chart as a guide. Fourth, the teacher and students prac-tice this procedure as they read and retell several storiestogether. Finally, the students independently read storiesand retell them using the "SPOT the Story" technique.

Both Idol and Bos have discovered through their re-search that, with teacher modeling and guidance of astory mapping and retelling procedure, "students wereable to recall substantially more relevant informationand were able to answer more implicit and implicit com-prehension questions about the stories" (p. 191). Both ofthese strategies represent appropriate modifications to amore traditional retelling procedure where studentswould simply retell the story orally or in writing.

Salisbury et al. (1994) offers the following generalsuggestions for teachers to consider when planninglearning opportunities for their classrooms:

1. Students need not all be working on the same activity atthe same time.

2. It is appropriate and necessary to vary the type and degreeof involvement in activities.

3. Curriculum and tasks should be adjusted to meet the needsof the learner, not the reverse.

Fortunately, designing activities for students with di-verse needs does not necessarily require major revisionsto the existing curriculum. Through the general exam-ples provided in Figure 2, we illustrate how many tasksthat are prepared for the entire class can easily be modi-fied in specific ways so that all students can participate,

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Figure 2

Representative InclusionLanguage Arts Activities

READINGBuddy Reading

Two students take turns readingportions of a text to each other.

Readers' Theater

Students read lines of a script aloud.Students may write own script orread prepared script.

Expository Reading

Students read content area textsand other Informational printmaterials.

WRITINGWord Wall

A wall Is sectioned off with one blockfor each letter of the alphabet.Interesting and Important words arelisted on the word wall.

Journals

Individual notebooks for recordingown thoughts and reactions.

Writer's Workshop

Status-of-the-Class; Mini-lesson;Writing; Group Share.

LISTENINGDirected Ustenlng-Thlnklng Approach

Story Is broken into sections.For each section, students predict.listen, and reflect on the accuracy ofthe prediction.

Suggested Modifications for Classrooms

• Have text on tape and have less accomplished reader play taped sectionduring his/her buddy reading section, using a shared reading approach.

• Preview the text with the less accomplished reader ahead of buddy reading.

• Have text on tape for student to listen to before engaging In buddy reading (Inclass or at home).

• Highlight the sectlon(s) that the less accomplished reader will read. Makeselections based on student's ability.

• Highlight the sections that the less accomplished reader win read.• Give less accomplished readers vital roles that require less reading.

• Provide advanced organizers and other graph organizers.• Leave plenty of white space on handouts.• Highlight Important vocabulary, key points, major concepts.• Encourage frequent summarization and other comprehension monitoring

strategies.• Teach strategies for remembering (mnemonic devices, charts).• Encourage use of computers.• Have study buddies and peer note takers.

• For visually Impaired students or students who have difficulty tracking, haveIndividual word walls taped to desks.

• Add pictures to aid recall of definition.• Color code important words.

• Have students dictate their Ideas for another student or adult to record.• Have students use a word processor Instead of a notebook.• Have students use a computer with a voice synthesizer.

• Have students draw a picture to convey thoughts.

• Provide extended time.

• Keep structure of the workshop consistent (e.g., always write Immediately afterlunch; always begin with Status-of-the-Class).

• Give students a specific purpose for listening.• Think aloud the process you use as you predict, listen, and reflect on the

accuracy of your prediction.• Start with small selections and easily predictable texts.

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Figure 2 (Continued)

Meaningful Listening

Three classifications:Aesthetic Listening (pleasure)Efferent Listening (take awayInformation)Critical Listening (Interpretations,Judgments, evaluation).

SPEAKINGShow and Tell

Students bring Items from home topresent to peers.

"Grand Conversations"

Oral exchange of Ideas, Information.

• Use visual aids (e.g., homework written on blackboard, diagrams, etc.) tosupplement listening.

• Have student sit with a peer partner.• Establish peer support system (e.g., note taker).• Activate prior knowledge before beginning the activity (e.g., brainstorm,

semantic webs).

• Provide direct Instruction for word, sentence, paragraph levels ofunderstanding.

Allow students to talk In small comfortable group settings.Use of a computer with a speech synthesizer to express and receive speech.

i Demonstrate how several short sentences can be combined Into one longersentence.Have students Include who, what, where, when, why Information Intoconversations.Use pictures to stimulate oral language.Focus on the content of the message and Ignore speech problems.

be successful, and be respected. However, sometimes inspecific cases, these modifications must be more finelyadjusted. As a final caveat, it is important to mentionthat, because many of the characteristics of second lan-guage learners may resemble those of students with spe-cial needs (e.g., difficulties in processing language), onemust carefully discern whether or not these charac-teristics are indigenous to the newly acquired languageor are inherent in both the student's primary languageand second language. If students are having no learningdifficulties within their primary language, the problemsthey are experiencing may be indicative of weak skills inthe acquisition of a second language, and not indicativeof a learning disability as such. In either case, however,classroom teachers may be left with questions that focuson ways to improve educational opportunities for sec-ond language learners, students with special learningneeds, and second language learners who may havespecial learning needs.

With careful planning and thoughtful reflection,teachers can provide successful learning experiences forall learners, making classrooms more rewarding for allstudents (and teachers).

CONCLUSION

The preparation that many of us received in our earlychildhood or elementary teacher certificate programsmay not have adequately prepared us for our changing

roles in today's classrooms. Cultural, social, and eco-nomic gaps may exist between classroom teachers andtheir students. Changes in both demographics and in-structional practices have transformed the roles and re-sponsibilities of educators. Teacher preparationprograms and inservice staff development initiativescan no longer afford to overlook these changes. By in-creasing our awareness and modifying our curriculum,instruction, and assessment for students with varyingneeds, we can help ensure that all students will be pro-vided with equitable educational opportunities and willfind success in an environment that promotes diversity.

REFERENCES

Bos, C.S., & Vaughn, S. (1994). Strategies for teaching studentswith learning and behavior problems. Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Choate, J. S. (1993). Successful mainstreaming: Proven ways todetect and correct special needs. Boston: Allyn and Ba-con.

Joint Committee on Teacher Planning for Students with Dis-abilities. (1995). Planning for academic diversity inAmerica's classroom: Windows on reality, research,change and practice. Lawrence: University of KansasCenter for Research on Learning.

Lombana, J. H. (1992). Guidance for students with disabilities (2nded.). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, Publishers.

McShane, E. A., & Jones, E. L. (1990). Modifying the environ-ment for children with poor listening skills. AcademicTherapy, 25(4), 439-446.

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Page 9: A Change in Focus: Teaching Diverse Learners Within an Inclusive Elementary School Classroom

National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). The condition ofeducation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Edu-cation, Office of Educational Research and Improve-ment

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (1993). Pro-viding appropriate education for students with learn-ing disabilities in regular classrooms. Journal ofLearning Disabilities, 26, 330-332.

Salisbury, C. L., Mangino, M., Petrigala, M., Rainforth, B.,Syryca, S., & Palombaro, M.M. (1994). Innovativepractices: Promoting the instructional inclusion ofyoung children with disabilities in the primarygrades. Journal of Early Intervention, 18(3), 311-322.

Tompkins, G. E., & Hoskisson, K. (1995). Language arts: Contentand teaching strategies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

APPENDIX: REFERENCES USED BYSTUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS INEEDUC 5121, LITERACY: THEINTEGRATION OF THE LANGUAGE ARTS

Block, C. C , & Zinke, J. (1995). Creating a culturally enrichedcurriculum for grades K-6. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bos, C. S., & Vaughn, S. (1994). Strategies for teaching studentswith learning and behavior problems. Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Choate, J. S. (1993). Successful, mainstreaming: Proven ways todetect and correct special needs. Boston: Allyn and Ba-con.

Crawford, L. W. (1993). Language and literacy learning in mul-ticultural classrooms. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

D'Alessandro, M. (1990). Accommodating emotionally handi-capped children through a literature-based readingprogram. The Reading Teacher, 44(4), 28&-293.

Freeman, Y. S., & Freeman, D. E. (1992). Whole language forsecond language learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heine-mann.

Hardman, M L . , Drew, C.J., & Egan, M.W. (1996). Humanexceptionality: Society, school and family (5th ed.). Bos-ton: Allyn and Bacon.

Hill, L. B., & Hale, M. G. (1991). Reading recovery. Questionsclassroom teachers ask. The Reading Teacher, 44(7),480-483.

Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity. New York: Longman.Paratore, J. R., Brisk, M., Fountas, I., Homza, A., Jenkins, C ,

Lin, Y., Ouellette, J., & Pho, L. (1995). Teaching literacyto bilingual children: Effective practices for use by mono-lingual and bilingual teachers. Boston: MassachusettsReading Association Primer.

Pinnell, G. S., Fried, M. S., & Estice, R. M. (1990). Reading re-covery: Learning how to make a difference. The Read-ing Teacher, 43(4), 282-295.

Piper, T. (1993). And then there were two: Children and secondlanguage learning. Markham, Ontario: Pippin Publish-ing, Limited.

Roser, N. L., Hoffman, J. V., & Farest, C. (1990). Language,literature, and at-risk children. The Reading Teacher, 43(8), 554-559.

Scala, M A. (1993). What whole language in the mainstreammeans for children with learning disabilities. TheReading Teacher, 47(3), 222-229.

Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (1992). Curriculum considerationsin inclusive classrooms. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.Brookes Publishing Co.

Vacca, J. L., Vacca, R. T., & Gove, M. K. (1995). Reading andlearning to read (3rd Edition). New York: HarperCol-lins College Publishers.

Zucker, C. (1993). Using whole language with students whohave language and learning disabilities. The ReadingTeacher, 46(8), 660-670.

Mary C McMackin and Elaine M. Bukowiecki are bothAssistant Professors in the School of Education at Lesley Col-lege, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

"An eloquent new voice on America's racial predicament.

It is sensational." —Richard Delgado

Race and Class on CampusConversations with Ricardo's Daughter

by Jay M. Rochlin

Racism. Is it alive and well and living on college campuses acrossthe United States? Is it a factor in high dropout rates and othercrises affecting minority college students, and if so, how? Atecontroversial programs of affirmative action proving to be asolution—or are they part of the problem?

Here are some insights into the hot issues sparking debate overequal opportunity and American higher education. Through theuse of a fictional character, author Jay Rochlin presents more thanforty very real African American and Mexican American menand women who struggled during the last seven decades to earndegrees at a large, nationally recognized university in the West.Their goals, their gains, and their disappointments echo theexperiences of millions of others around the country duringmuch of the twentieth century. Perhaps most important, theirtrue stories will provide inspiration to the many young peoplewho contemplate pursuing the dream of a college education.

Published April 1997. 175 pp., $24.95. ISBN 0-8165-1670-7.

The University- of Arizona Press1230 N. Park Ave,Tucson AZ 857191-800-426-3797 • http://www.uapress.arizona.edu

April 1997 • Equity & Excellence in Education 39

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