A Brief Tour of Roman A Brief Tour of Roman History in the First History in the First

Century A.D.Century A.D.Kristen Slattery, M.A.Kristen Slattery, M.A.

&&Sheila E. McGinn, Ph.D.Sheila E. McGinn, Ph.D.

Three Periods of Roman Three Periods of Roman HistoryHistory

Monarchy 753–509 BCMonarchy 753–509 BCRepublic 509–27 BCRepublic 509–27 BCEmpire 27 BC–AD 476Empire 27 BC–AD 476

Octavian Octavian ““AugustusAugustus”” (27 BC – (27 BC – AD14)AD14)

31 BC31 BC——defeats Mark Antony at defeats Mark Antony at ActiumActium

27 BC27 BC——consecutive consulships to consecutive consulships to 23 BC23 BC– Given title of Given title of ““AugustusAugustus””

23 BC23 BC——Tribunician powerTribunician power

Augustus at Prima PortaAugustus at Prima Porta Brought peace (Brought peace (Pax Pax

RomanaRomana) ) between between RomansRomans

Had Had auctoritasauctoritas (authority, unofficial (authority, unofficial power)power)– Has the powers of consul Has the powers of consul

and proconsul, and so is and proconsul, and so is equal to his co-equal to his co-magistrates, but he has magistrates, but he has more authoritymore authority

– His voice carries more His voice carries more weight because he did weight because he did more for the statemore for the state

Took title of Pontifex Maximus in 12 BC.

Notice the Augustan image: in 12 BC he would have been 51 years old but, no matter what his age, he is always portrayed as the eternal eighteen-year-old.

OctavianOctavian’’s Legacy s Legacy

The genius of Augustus was that he The genius of Augustus was that he made himself indispensable to the made himself indispensable to the empire. empire.

In some ways, Augustus was like In some ways, Augustus was like Christ: He described himself as the Christ: He described himself as the pinnacle of history, as the new Aeneas. pinnacle of history, as the new Aeneas. His reign was a turning point in history His reign was a turning point in history

Jesus was born during the reign of Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus.Augustus.

TiberiusTiberius Claudius Nero Claudius Nero (A.D. (A.D. 14–37)14–37)

There were There were problems with who problems with who would succeed would succeed Augustus because Augustus because he only had one he only had one daughter, Julia.daughter, Julia.

Finally Tiberius, JuliFinally Tiberius, Juliaa ’’s second husband, s second husband, won out over the won out over the other contenders.other contenders.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)Tiberius (AD 14–37)

What Tiberius does in terms of the state What Tiberius does in terms of the state is eliminate elections: now the voting for is eliminate elections: now the voting for various offices takes place in the Senate.various offices takes place in the Senate.

MajestasMajestas (treason) trials (treason) trials: formerly : formerly they had applied to those who went they had applied to those who went against the state. Now, under Tiberius, against the state. Now, under Tiberius, they applied to those who said anything they applied to those who said anything against the Emperor (Tiberius or against the Emperor (Tiberius or Augustus), or who praised CaesarAugustus), or who praised Caesar’’s s conspirators. conspirators.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)Tiberius (AD 14–37)

Another story is that of the Prefect of Another story is that of the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus. He the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus. He was only an equestrian, but lusted was only an equestrian, but lusted after power and, as Tiberiusafter power and, as Tiberius’’ second second in command, began strategically in command, began strategically planning his own ascent to power.planning his own ascent to power.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)Tiberius (AD 14–37)

In A.D. 23 Tiberius began taking himself In A.D. 23 Tiberius began taking himself out of politics; meanwhile Sejanus out of politics; meanwhile Sejanus executed many accused of executed many accused of majestasmajestas..

Sejanus also asked to marry TiberiusSejanus also asked to marry Tiberius’’ daughter, but was refused. He was made daughter, but was refused. He was made consul in 31.consul in 31.

Also in 31, evidence was brought to Also in 31, evidence was brought to Tiberius that Sejanus had convinced Tiberius that Sejanus had convinced TiberiusTiberius’’ son son’’s wife to kill Tiberiuss wife to kill Tiberius’’ son, and son, and so Sejanus was arrested and killed.so Sejanus was arrested and killed.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)Tiberius (AD 14–37)

AD. 31–37 Tiberius spent on the AD. 31–37 Tiberius spent on the island of Capri where he held his own island of Capri where he held his own reign of terror…. reign of terror…. MajestasMajestas trials trials continue, and many of Tiberiuscontinue, and many of Tiberius’’ family members are eliminated. family members are eliminated.

Tiberius ( AD 14-37)Tiberius ( AD 14-37)

During the reign of Tiberius, Jesus During the reign of Tiberius, Jesus began his public ministry and was began his public ministry and was executed by means of crucifixion executed by means of crucifixion around A.D. 30.around A.D. 30.

Also under Tiberius the early Also under Tiberius the early Christian church began, the Christian church began, the Pentecost experience happened, and Pentecost experience happened, and Stephen was martyred.Stephen was martyred.

Gaius Caesar Augustus Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Germanicus ““CaligulaCaligula”” (A.D. 37–(A.D. 37–

41)41) Caligula was very autocratic; tried Caligula was very autocratic; tried

cases by himself without a jury of cases by himself without a jury of advisors (never been done before)advisors (never been done before)

Claimed he was Jupiter on earthClaimed he was Jupiter on earth Incestuous with his 3 sisters; liked Incestuous with his 3 sisters; liked

Drusilla the best and deified her after Drusilla the best and deified her after her deathher death

Assassinated by some Praetorian Assassinated by some Praetorian officers and senatorsofficers and senators

Tiberius Tiberius ClaudiusClaudius Nero Nero Germanicus Germanicus (A.D. 41–54)(A.D. 41–54)

He felt inadequate becauseHe felt inadequate because1.1. He was not related by blood to Augustus;He was not related by blood to Augustus;2.2. He took the throne in a coup (and so had illegitimate He took the throne in a coup (and so had illegitimate

standing); andstanding); and3.3. He lacked charisma.He lacked charisma.

To legitimate himself, he invaded Britain in A.D. 43.To legitimate himself, he invaded Britain in A.D. 43. He was easily manipulated by his freedmen and wivesHe was easily manipulated by his freedmen and wives

– He married four times. One wife was Messalina, a He married four times. One wife was Messalina, a great beauty who was executed when she was great beauty who was executed when she was caught being married to someone else.caught being married to someone else.

– Another was Agrippina the Younger, his niece. He Another was Agrippina the Younger, his niece. He changed the laws on incest so he could marry her.changed the laws on incest so he could marry her.

Claudius as JupiterClaudius as Jupiter

Claudius Claudius (A.D. 41-54)(A.D. 41-54)

He granted citizenship to the Gauls in 48.He granted citizenship to the Gauls in 48. Claudius overlooked his own son for Nero, Claudius overlooked his own son for Nero,

the son of his wife/niece, Agrippina. He the son of his wife/niece, Agrippina. He betrothed Nero to his daughter Octavia. betrothed Nero to his daughter Octavia.

Under ClaudiusUnder Claudius’’ reign, Paul began his reign, Paul began his evangelization in different cities around evangelization in different cities around the empire, including Corinth, Athens, the empire, including Corinth, Athens, Rome, Galatia, etc. This continued into Rome, Galatia, etc. This continued into the reign of the next emperor, Nero.the reign of the next emperor, Nero.

NeroNero Claudius Caesar Claudius Caesar (A.D. (A.D. 54-68)54-68)

Nero was 16 or 17 at the time of his Nero was 16 or 17 at the time of his succession; he was the great-great-succession; he was the great-great-grandson of Augustus, and so people had grandson of Augustus, and so people had high hopes for him. Early in his reign, he high hopes for him. Early in his reign, he was dominated by his mother and his was dominated by his mother and his tutors, Burrus, the Praetorian Prefect, and tutors, Burrus, the Praetorian Prefect, and Seneca the Stoic philosopher.Seneca the Stoic philosopher.

There were problems with the Parthians in There were problems with the Parthians in the east, so Nero appointed Corbulo as sort the east, so Nero appointed Corbulo as sort of a helper-emperor in the east. Corbulo of a helper-emperor in the east. Corbulo gets too powerful for Nero and is forced to gets too powerful for Nero and is forced to commit suicide.commit suicide.

Nero Nero (A.D. 54–68)(A.D. 54–68)

Nero is crazy.Nero is crazy. Turning points:Turning points:

– A.D. 59: Agrippina executed (her boat A.D. 59: Agrippina executed (her boat ““accidentallyaccidentally”” collapsed; she escaped, collapsed; she escaped, but then a praetorian killed her)but then a praetorian killed her)

– A.D. 62: tutors gone (Burrus was A.D. 62: tutors gone (Burrus was poisoned, Seneca was poisoned, Seneca was ““asked to retireasked to retire””))

Great fire in A.D. 64 (Tacitus Great fire in A.D. 64 (Tacitus exaggerates a little about Neroexaggerates a little about Nero’’s role s role in it.)in it.)

Nero Nero (A.D. 54–68)(A.D. 54–68)

Nero needed a scapegoat and so the Christians Nero needed a scapegoat and so the Christians were blamed for the fire. Persecutions of the were blamed for the fire. Persecutions of the Christians in Rome only. Christians in Rome only.

Nero the artist: he thought of himself as a great Nero the artist: he thought of himself as a great artist and singer and performed in public…artist and singer and performed in public…nobody was allowed to leave during his shows. nobody was allowed to leave during his shows. This is low, only the lowest class perform in This is low, only the lowest class perform in concerts.concerts.

Conspiracy of Piso in AD 65. Seneca and Conspiracy of Piso in AD 65. Seneca and Petronius, among others, are forced to commit Petronius, among others, are forced to commit suicide.suicide.

Nero eventually was declared a public enemy and Nero eventually was declared a public enemy and committed suicide.committed suicide.

A.D. 69: The Year of the Four A.D. 69: The Year of the Four EmperorsEmperors

After NeroAfter Nero’’s death, there was a s death, there was a question of who would take over. question of who would take over.

In a nutshell, there were three minor In a nutshell, there were three minor emperors who reigned during A.D. 69: emperors who reigned during A.D. 69: Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.

Vespasian eventually won out. He Vespasian eventually won out. He had been east fighting in Judea had been east fighting in Judea against the Jews, but comes home to against the Jews, but comes home to be emperor. His son, Titus, finishes be emperor. His son, Titus, finishes the war for him. the war for him.

Titus Flavius Vespasianus Titus Flavius Vespasianus (69–79)(69–79)

In addition to the Jewish In addition to the Jewish War, he conquers more War, he conquers more territory in Germany and territory in Germany and reorganizes the eastern reorganizes the eastern provinces.provinces.

He has two adult He has two adult children, Titus and children, Titus and Domitian, and marks Domitian, and marks them for succession. In them for succession. In this he changes from an this he changes from an adoptive succession to a adoptive succession to a dynastic succession.dynastic succession.

TitusTitus Flavius Vespasianus Flavius Vespasianus (79–81)(79–81)

VespasianVespasian’’s sons son Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 Completion of the Coliseum in 80 Completion of the Coliseum in 80

(Vespasian built it, Titus dedicated it.)(Vespasian built it, Titus dedicated it.)– Coliseum was built on land that Nero had Coliseum was built on land that Nero had

confiscated from the city after the fire in A.D. confiscated from the city after the fire in A.D. 64.64.

– The amphitheater is named the The amphitheater is named the ““coliseumcoliseum”” because Nero had built a huge colossus of because Nero had built a huge colossus of Apollo there––with NeroApollo there––with Nero’’s face on it.s face on it.

Titus Titus (79–81)(79–81)

When his father became emperor, he When his father became emperor, he finished the Jewish war and was finished the Jewish war and was responsible for the destruction of the responsible for the destruction of the temple in 70temple in 70

Titus Flavius Domitianus Titus Flavius Domitianus (81–(81–96)96)

Grouchy because Titus received nice Grouchy because Titus received nice powers under their father, Vespasian, but powers under their father, Vespasian, but Domitian just got sloppy seconds.Domitian just got sloppy seconds.

Changed his name to his wifeChanged his name to his wife ’’s name (He s name (He married the daughter of Domitius married the daughter of Domitius Corbulo)Corbulo)

Alienated the Senate because he gave Alienated the Senate because he gave important positions to his friends instead important positions to his friends instead of those who had worked their way up.of those who had worked their way up.

Domitian Domitian (81–96)(81–96)

He had monarchical tendencies such as He had monarchical tendencies such as perpetual censorship, micromanagement.perpetual censorship, micromanagement.

He also built a huge new palace and used He also built a huge new palace and used regal and divine terms (regal and divine terms (dominus et deusdominus et deus))

He was murdered (like Nero) because the He was murdered (like Nero) because the imperial courtiers were alienated—he was imperial courtiers were alienated—he was stabbed in the groin.stabbed in the groin.

No successor, world was afraid of another No successor, world was afraid of another A.D. 69 civil war/fight for power.A.D. 69 civil war/fight for power.

Marcus Cocceius Marcus Cocceius NervaNerva (96–(96–98)98)

He was very old. He was chosen to be He was very old. He was chosen to be emperor because he was safe; he would not emperor because he was safe; he would not be around long, and ensured a peaceful be around long, and ensured a peaceful succession.succession.

Also, he had been there in A.D. 69 and Also, he had been there in A.D. 69 and surrounded himself with people who knew surrounded himself with people who knew how to get through civil war.how to get through civil war.

Although he never commanded a major army, Although he never commanded a major army, he was an expert in internal palace politics.he was an expert in internal palace politics.

His self-depiction was very pro-senatorial, as His self-depiction was very pro-senatorial, as opposed to Domitian.opposed to Domitian.

Nerva Nerva (96–98)(96–98)

97: Nerva is besieged in his own 97: Nerva is besieged in his own palace!!palace!!– The praetorians demand the heads of The praetorians demand the heads of

those who killed Domitianthose who killed Domitian– Now Nerva is shown to be weakNow Nerva is shown to be weak

Nerva adopts Trajan and kills two birds Nerva adopts Trajan and kills two birds with one stone: he solves the problem with one stone: he solves the problem of who will succeed him, and Trajan of who will succeed him, and Trajan leads a huge army, so he solves the leads a huge army, so he solves the problem of his own show of weakness.problem of his own show of weakness.

Marcus Ulpius Traianus Marcus Ulpius Traianus ((TrajanTrajan) ) (96–117)(96–117)

He is Spanish and there are problems with He is Spanish and there are problems with his legitimacy:his legitimacy:– No blood ties with his predecessorNo blood ties with his predecessor– HeHe’’s the successor of a weak emperors the successor of a weak emperor– His succession looked like a coup, even if it His succession looked like a coup, even if it

wasnwasn’’tt– He was not in Rome for the adoption or the He was not in Rome for the adoption or the

successionsuccession After NervaAfter Nerva’’s death, he doesns death, he doesn’’t come t come

home right away. (Hehome right away. (He’’s on the Danube s on the Danube securing the frontier.) Before he comes he securing the frontier.) Before he comes he ensures the loyalty of the Danube soldiersensures the loyalty of the Danube soldiers—this in a way legitimates his power.—this in a way legitimates his power.

Trajan Trajan (96–117)(96–117)

Early in his reign he fought 2 Dacian warsEarly in his reign he fought 2 Dacian wars Loot from these wars allows him to build Loot from these wars allows him to build

his forum and column. Column is the his forum and column. Column is the spiral depiction of the story of the Dacian spiral depiction of the story of the Dacian war.war.

Trajan was remembered as a great Trajan was remembered as a great emperor because he did great things emperor because he did great things abroad and at home (called the abroad and at home (called the Optimus Optimus PrincepsPrinceps —the best emperor) —the best emperor)

Died of old age.Died of old age.

Forum of TrajanForum of Trajan

Built as political propagandaBuilt as political propaganda

Used expensive colored marbles Used expensive colored marbles brought from all over the empire; this brought from all over the empire; this shows imperial power and wealthshows imperial power and wealth

It is the biggest and most grand of all It is the biggest and most grand of all the imperial fora built after the original the imperial fora built after the original forum.forum.

Letter from Pliny to TrajanLetter from Pliny to Trajan Pliny to the Emperor Trajan (Pliny to the Emperor Trajan (caca. A.D. 110). A.D. 110)

– It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished. be punished.

– Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome. of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

– Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ. worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

– They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deacons. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deacons. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition. excessive superstition.

– I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be foundfrom everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy . Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded. to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded.

Trajan to Pliny Trajan to Pliny – You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not

possible to possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.